INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

At any time of our lives we belong to one organization or another e.g. School, College,
Workplace, Church among others. The organizations we belong to are diverse in many
aspects for example size, structure, membership and ownership. However, these
organizations all have certain things in common including;
• A goal or purpose
• Program or method for achieving the goals.
• Plans to ensure effectiveness of the goals.
• Leaders/Managers who are responsible for helping the organization achieve its goals.
Therefore, the study of management involves the study of the work and performance of
managers i.e. how organizations are managed so that they can achieve their goals

Defining Management
Over the years, several definitions of management have been advanced but because of the
complex nature of management no one definition has been universally accepted. For
instance, the economists consider management as a resource like land, labour, capital and
organization. The bureaucrats look upon it as a system of authority to achieve business goals.
The sociologists consider managers as a part of the class elite in the society. Several writers
and scholars in the field of management have given different definitions of management.
Here we just look at a few of them.
• According to Harold Koontz (1909-1984)- “Management is the art of getting things
done through others and with formally organized groups”
• According to Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)-“Management is the art of
knowing what you want to do and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest
way”
• According to George R Terry (1877 - 1955), ''Management Is a distinct process
consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling; utilizing in each both
science and art, and followed in order to accomplish pre-determined objectives."
• According to Peterson and Plowman –“Management is a multipurpose organ that
manage a business and manages Managers and manages Workers and work”
• According to Peter Ferdinand Drucker (1909 – 2005)- "Management may be defined
as the process by means of which the purpose and objectives of a particular human
group are determined, clarified and effected”
• According to one popular definition by Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933),
Management, she says, is the "art of getting things done through people." The recent
scholars have borrowed a lot from previous scholars and have defined management
in the following ways:
 • Management involves planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of human and
other resources to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently
• It is the process of getting things done, effectively and efficiently, through and with
other people
• Management is the creation and maintenance of an internal environment in an
enterprise where individuals, working in groups, can perform efficiently and
effectively towards the attainment of group goals
Three important concepts need to be clearly understood in the context and practice of
management: Efficiency, effectiveness and organization
Efficiency means doing things right; it refers to the relationship between inputs and outputs;
seeks to minimize the costs of resources.
Effectiveness means doing the right things; overall goal attainment.
Organization- This is the context of management. Management takes place within
organizations. An organization is a deliberate arrangement of people who work together to
accomplish some specific purpose (goals) which individuals independently could not
accomplish.
For management to be successful it must achieve both efficiency and effectiveness in an
organized manner. But while efficiency is important, effectiveness is critical and no amount
of efficiency can compensate for lack of effectiveness.
If managers select the wrong objectives, then even if they minimize costs the organizations
will still fail. The key to successful management is therefore ability to identify the right things
to be done and to concentrate resources on them.
Some key features of organizations are:
a) Objectives/Goals
b) People
c) Structure
d) Management
Organizations must strive to utilize scarce resources sparingly to achieve the goals that have
been set. In achieving this managers engage the services of the employees (people) within
the organization.

Overview of the Management Process / Functions of Management

The management process involves planning, organizing, leading/Directing and Controlling.
The management functions are the separate parts (activities) that make up the whole
process of management. They can be described as the activities that are inherent in most
management jobs. Many of these activities can be grouped into one of the following general
functions.
Planning
Planning entails defining goals, establishing the strategy and laying down ways to coordinate
activities. Plans enable:
i. The organization to obtain and commit the resources required to reach its objectives.
ii. Members of the organizations to carry on activities in line with the chosen objectives.
iii. Monitoring of progress towards the objectives with view of taking corrective action
Organizing
This is the second basic managerial function and it is the process of grouping activities and
resources in a logical and appropriate fashion. Basically it is creating the organizational chart
for a firm. It entails determining the structure of the organization - the jobs to be done, who
is to do them, how the jobs are to be grouped, who reports to who and where decisions are
to be made, how much authority each manager is to have and how many employees each is
to supervise.
Leading/Directing
Is the set of processes associated with guiding and directing employees towards goal
attainment. Attempt to assure that the organization is moving towards its goals. It includes
motivation, leadership and communication. Involves motivating employees, guiding the
activities of others, selecting the most effective communication channel and resolving
conflict
Controlling
This is the process of monitoring performance, comparing it with goals and correcting any
significant deviations

Characteristics of Management
An analysis of the various definitions of management indicates that management has certain
characteristics. The following are some of the key characteristics of management;
1. Management is a goal oriented activity
There is always a definite objective of management and managers help in achieving that
objective successfully.
2. Management is complex
Managers are engaged in many different activities. Sometimes they must do all these
activities concurrently or change them frequently.
3. Management is concerned with arranging group activity in a coordinated manner. In a
group activity, the manager alone cannot achieve the objectives. He has to take the help of
others. He has to see that different employees perform their activities in such a manner that
there is no conflict, that work is performed in an orderly manner and completed at the right
time. Besides, different activities should support each other. This is called co-ordination.
4. Managers are involved in decision making that is, choosing between alternative courses of
action at all stages of management.
5. Management is an economic-activity. It aims at securing maximum results with minimum
of effort and cost. Managers use various methods to reduce wastes and increase the
efficiency of work.
6. Management involves creativity. Managers have to get work done in different types of
situations with the help of people having different types of skills. Managers have, therefore,
to think of different ways of getting things done. In this regard, managers must always bear
in mind that creativity, ingenuity and imagination are widespread among people
7. Management is universal- Fundamental principles of management are applicable in all
areas of organized effort. These principles can be applied in all types of organizations (large
and small, for profit and not for profit, public and private, etc)
8. Management is a social process –It is done by people, through people and for people. It is
concerned with interpersonal relations. Human factor is the most important element in
management. How people interact in organizations accounts for the results to a great extent.
9. Management is multidisciplinary- Management as a discipline has evolved over time. It
borrows widely from other disciplines like economics, sociology, psychology, anthropology
etc.
10. Management is a continuous process as depicted by the management process

The Nature of Management

• Universality of management
All managers perform the same functions although lower level managers emphasize
directing while upper level managers spend more of their time planning, organizing, and
controlling. The differences are in terms of degree of emphasis, not function.
The manager’s job is the same in both profit and not for profit organizations. The most
important difference is in terms of how performance is measured
• Management as a Profession
In the company form of organization, it is not possible for all the shareholders to take part in
the management of the company. The management of company is entrusted to the elected
representatives of the shareholders called the directors. These directors appoint managers
to manage the day-do-day activities. Thus, there is a separation between ownership and
management.
Managers of a company should, therefore, possess expert knowledge and skill in
management which can be acquired through education and training. Managers of other types
of organizations are also expected to possess expert knowledge. They are expected to
observe some principles in the conduct of business affairs.
They are also expected to take care of the responsibilities of the company towards the
society. They should not do anything which is unethical and illegal, e.g. avoiding payment of
taxes, earning profits through improper means, etc. Any occupation is known as a profession
if it fulfills the certain requirements:
Characteristics of a profession
i) There is a systematized body of knowledge.
ii) Specialized knowledge is acquired through education and training.
iii) Service is considered to be more important than earning profits.
iv) Those engaged in the occupation observe certain standards in the conduct of affairs.
(These standards are embodied in „Code of Conduct‟, which differ from profession to
profession).
v) There should be an association of the persons in the profession to regulate their
occupational behavior (service motive)
vi) Restricted entry
vii) Practicing licenses
Management is the occupation of managers and it fulfils some of the requirements of
profession e.g. there is a systematized body of knowledge; there are institutes for the
education and training of managers; there are associations of managers which have
developed „Codes of Conduct‟ for managers. However, management has not yet developed
fully as a profession like the professions of law, medicine, etc. This is because there is no
uniformity regarding the formal qualifications of managers. Moreover, the ‘Code of Conduct’
is not legally binding on managers.
• Management as a Science
Characteristics of a Science
(i) Basic facts or general principles capable of universal application
(ii) Systematic body of knowledge
(iii) Developed through scientific enquiry or experiments
(iv) Establish cause and effect relationships between various factors.
(v) Their Validity can be verified and they serve as reliable guide for predicting future events.
Management qualifies as a science because it exhibits the listed characteristics. However,
management is not an exact science. This is because it deals with people and it is very difficult
to accurately predict their behaviours. Management principles, though universal, are
contingent to the situation. Management is therefore a Social Science
• Management as an Art
Art implies the application of knowledge and skills to bring about the desired results
Characteristics of an Art
(i) Practical knowledge- A manager is judged not just by his technical knowledge but by his
efficiency in applying this knowledge. Once what is known has been applied, the results can
then be measured
(ii) Personal skill- Every manager has his individual approach and style in solving managerial
problems. The success of a manager depends on his personality in addition to his technical
knowledge. Personal judgment thus becomes an important aspect of a manager’s job
(iii) Result oriented approach- Every manager applies certain knowledge and skills to
achieve the desired results.
(iv) Creativity- Managers are expected to be creative in solving problems and dealing with
different situations in the organization‟s internal and external environment
(v) Improvement through continuous practice- Managers gains experience through regular
practice and become more effective with practice.
Management therefore is both an art and a science. It combines both theory and practice
• Management as a Body of Individuals
As managers perform their functions jointly in a group, they are often collectively known as
„Management‟. The success of a business depends upon the efficiency of not one but more
than one manager. They have to work as a team so that the objectives of the business as a
whole may be fully achieved. Hence, it is proper that the word
„management‟ should not be related to any single manager but to the team of managers. To
run any business successfully, the group of managers must work with a team spirit.
Also there are certain levels of management divided on the basis of the nature of duties and
responsibilities. The managers at different levels should work in co-operation to make sure
that their joint efforts lead to the best possible result.
• Management as a Discipline
Ordinarily the word „discipline‟ is understood to mean orderly behaviour in day to day life.
This word also means an independent branch of knowledge. For instance, history,
geography, economics, physics, chemistry, etc. are regarded as disciplines. Management is
also recognized as a discipline in the same sense. Like other disciplines, it also consists of
certain principles, theories and methods. The body of knowledge in management has been
developed on the basis of thinking of experts and practitioners in the field of management.
For instance, Henry Fayol and F.W. Taylor have suggested various principles of management
to make management more systematic and scientific in practice. Taylor‟s principles of
Scientific Management suggest that instead of traditional methods, managers should adopt
scientific methods for the solution of business problems. Henry Fayol has given fourteen
principles of management. Management, as a discipline, will be more scientific as knowledge
of management expands and there is systematic thinking on management.
Management Roles
Henry Mintzberg, one of the gurus of management, analyzed how managers spend their time
and came to the conclusion that there are three basic roles that managers play:-
interpersonal roles, informational roles and decisional roles.
a) Interpersonal Roles
There are three interpersonal roles in the manager's job. The first is that of Figurehead. As
head of a unit the manager puts in an appearance as the representative of the organization
by performing certain duties or ceremonies e.g. attending corporate and employee functions,
welcoming guests etc.
The second role is that of leader. As a leader the manager hires employees, trains, motivates
and encourages them to perform better.
Third the manager plays the interpersonal role of liaison, which involves dealing with people
outside the organization on a regular basis e.g. bankers, suppliers or clients.
b) Information Roles
According to Mintzberg, receiving and communicating information are perhaps the most
important aspects of a manager’s job. First he must act as a monitor i.e. he actively watches
the environment for information that might be relevant to the organization.
Secondly the manager must act as a disseminator by relaying the information that he has
gathered through monitoring to the appropriate people in the organization.
Third he/she must act as the spokesman of the organization by presenting information of
meaningful content and/or answering questions on the firms behalf. We have all seen
leaders answering questions from the press about issues relating to their organizations or
defending their organizations against criticism or allegations levelled against them.
c) Decisional Roles
These are the roles that managers take when they make decisions about certain issues.
Under the decisional roles the manager acts as the entrepreneur by looking for opportunities
that the organization can pursue to improve itself e.g. a profitable investment.
Second the manager acts as the disturbance handler by resolving conflicts between
employees and responding to situations beyond him/her control e.g. strikes, bankrupt
customers, breach of contract etc.
Third the manager must act as a resource allocator by being responsible for deciding how
and to whom the resources of the organization and the managers own time will be allocated.
Fourthly the manager plays the decisional role of a negotiator. In this role the manager
attempts to work out agreements and contracts that operate in the best interest of the
organization.

According to Mintzberg, the functional definition of management as a process of planning,

organizing, leading and controlling is somewhat oversimplified since managers do much
more than the four basic functions contained in the definition. Mintzberg's work calls
attention to the uncertain, turbulent environments in which the manager operates.

Review Questions
1. What is management?
2. Describe the management process
3. Management is a profession. Discuss
4. Is management a science or an art? Discuss this statement in relation to the theory and
practice of management
5. What are the key characteristics of management?