HISTORY MAINS TEST

Time : 3hours Maximum Marks:200

Instructions

(i) This paper is divide into two sections, Section A and Section B.

(ii) Each Section contains eight questions.

(iii) A Candidate has to attempt twelve Questions.

(iv) Question Nos. 1 and 9 are compulsory and out of the remaining, any ten are to be attempted
choosing five from each section.

(v) Question Nos. 1 and 9 consists of five parts each. Each part will be of 6 Marks. Word limit will be
150(in relevant subjects only)

(vi) Remaining questions will be of 14 Marks each.

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 SECTION-A
1) Answer the following Questions (30 marks)
(a) Archaeological evidence does not give direct access to the possible social and political dimensions of
the decline of the Harappan civilization. What it does indicate very clearly is that the Harappan culture
underwent a gradual process of de-urbanization"?
Ans.

• The decline of the Harappan civilization is one of the most intensely debated topics in historical analysis
of the time. In this context, archaeology gives ample evidence about its decline. This includes-
• The natural disaster theory of MR Sahni and George Dales which speak about tectonic movements being
the reason for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Analysis of historian KAR Kennedy, who researched about the skeletal continuity of the Harappan skeletal
record.
• Mortimer Wheeler and his Aryan invasion theory opine that there was a sudden attack on the Harappan
cities by the Aryan tribes of Iran which decimated the civilisation. This is based on skeletal remains on the
streets of Mohenjodaro.
• However, these hypothetical analysis and opinions are not accurate and are subject to investigations,
research and multiple scrutiny as they do not point towards any political and social dimension of its
decline, mainly because the script of the time is undeciphered as of now also the archaeological findings
point towards a slow and gradual de-urbanisation process. This is evidenced by-
• Geological and Geographical evidences: Analysis of environment by historian Walter Fairservis opined
that grazing and overpopulation led to gradual destruction of the Harappan civilisation.
• Cultural intermingling: Diffusion of several Harappan cultures into subsequent cultures. In Harappa,
mature harappan civilisation was followed by cemetery-H culture. In the Sindh and Gujarat, Sothi culture
absorbed the cities of the Harappan era into the rural milieu.
• Material evidences: These include continued us- age of Harappan pottery methods (according to an
analysis by archaeologist M.R Mughal), metallurgy and trade routes by subsequent cultures.
• Climatic evidence: Monsoon link theory, in 2012 by Rononjoy Adhikary holds climate change re- sponsible
for the gradual decrease in rainfall right from 4000bc and playing a major role in the decline of the
civilisation.
• Cultural continuity evidence: The gradual demise of the Harappan civilisation has been marked by several
archaeological evidences and this becomes quite important while trying to construct a wholistic historical
milieu of the time.
• The theories do not provide us with a clear picture of what exactly led to the decline of the civilisation,
but the de-urbanization of the civilization is evidenced by many sources.
(b) There are no literary sources for the Harappan culture and no archaeological evidence for the Vedic
period. Explain the phenomenon.

Ans.
• Sources play a significant role in the reconstruction and understanding a historical period. The
phenomenon that there are no literary sources for the Harappan culture and no archaeological evidence
for the Vedic period should be explained in the type of source material being prominently used in the
study of the two periods concerned.
• For the Harappan culture, although we have the Harappan script but it remains un-deciphered, which
reduces its usability as a source material.
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 • The script written from right to left logographically, which makes it difficult to be exactly deciphered by
the experts. So, there is an increased dependence on the artifactual evidences for this period.
• While on the other hand, the rich literary evidence in the form of Vedic literature consisting of Samhitas
i.e., collection of hymns, prayers, charms and formulae for sacrifices; the 'Brahmanas' or prose containing
speculation on the meaning of hymns; and the 'Upanishads' and 'Aranyakas' which embody the
philosophic speculations of hermit and ascetics on God, world, and men. The whole corpus of Vedic
literature provides a deeper picture of the period. Hence, we see an over-reliance on the literary evidence
for this period. Although we do have some archaeological evidence of the period, such as PGW (Painted
Grey Ware) potteries, but there is essentially, a lack of reliance on such evidences.
• Thus, we see a problem of over-reliance on certain type of source material for both the periods which
shouldn't happen. Both archaeological and literary sources should be used as complementary to each
other to derive the full picture of the period concerned.

(c) Critically examine the 'blood and iron' policy of Balban.

Ans.
• Balban adopted the policy of blood and iron worked as far as extending his own rule and securing the
continuance of Delhi Sultanate is concerned but it could not perpetuate his own dynasty.
• Balban ruled effectively for 40 years during the overall 84 years long reign of Mamluks. This was because
of his policy of blood and iron. He was ruthless his enemies; he poisoned many members of corps of forty;
executed Tughril Khan and all his kinsmen etc. He massacred Meos. But he also protected the privileges
of the Turkish nobility. He reserved all the important positions for Turkish nobles.
• But Khalji revolution meant that rule of succession was still not well established and this kept interrupting
dynastic continuity. His purge of nobility meant Sultanate was not defended well against Mongol threat.
His racial intolerance was narrow minded. Thus, this policy of Blood & Iron showed mixed results.

(d) Assess the statement that 'the philosophy of Shankaracharya revolutionized religious thoughts in
India'.
Ans.
• The great mystics and saints contributed to new metaphysical and religious ideas. Among them were
Shankaracharya, who is said to have revolutionized religious thoughts in India. In the 9thcentury there
existed some sort of religious anarchy in India. Thus, apart from being a great organizer he did a lot in the
field of religious assimilation. He is given the credit for the revival of Hinduism. But, in this context, he
borrowed even something from Buddhism. Likewise, he made assimilation between the perception of
scholars and that of common people which revolutionized religion and religious practices in India.
• In order to give a philosophical basis to Hinduism, he revived the philosophy of Monism (Advaita). He
composed the commentary over Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Bhagawat Geeta. But at the same time,
he borrowed 'Mayavada' (illusion) from Mahayana Buddhism and hence, came to be knows as Crypto-
Buddhist.
• But, for the common people, he devised the idol worship. In order to maintain unity among Hindus he got
constructed four important temples in four directions of the country - Badrinath in North; Shringeri in
South; Jagannath in East and Dwarka in West.
• On the model of Buddhist monasteries be even organized Hindu ascetics and encouraged them to have
religious debates with the representatives of other sects. The imprints of Shankracharya's philosophy can
even be underlined during the modern age as his monism got reincarnation in social reforms movement
in 19th century - witnessed in attack on the social taboos and religious deformities.
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 (e) Do you agree that the schemes of Muhammad bin Tughluq were correctly conceived, badly executed
and disastrously abandoned? Discuss.

Ans.
• Muhammad bin Tughluq was a learned, tolerant and visionary general who took five important measures:
(1) Capital transfer; (2) Token currency; (3) Khorasan campaign; (4) Qarachil campaign; (5) Agriculture
reforms. We can agree that his moves were failures, but we should be careful to avoid any generalisation.
• E.g., Muhammad wanted a capital at the centre of his all-India Empire. Transfer of the capital didn't cause
widespread grief as Delhi continued to flourish; it was also executed in phases. But once Muhammad lost
control over most of the Deccan, transferring capital back was the only logical step. But, in the case of
Token currency, only the conception was correct as the Sultanate was really facing a silver scarcity and it
was already implemented successfully by Qublai Khan from Beijing. But Muhammad didn't anticipate that
in the absence of strict quality control, this step will backfire. Hence, its execution was bad. But Sultanate
very easily replaced the coins minted in the royal mint with metallic currency.
• Hence, its rollback was rather smooth and only his critiques, like Barani, call it a completely failed idea.
Then, in the case of higher taxation in Doab area, the inspiration was problematic but once he learnt his
mistake, he rolled it back successfully.
• Hence; it is not wise to generalize about all the mistakes Muhammad made. They failed for a variety of
reasons, some of which he couldn't control himself.

2) Discuss the factors that played an important role in the process of urbanisation after the Later-Vedic
period. (14 marks)
Ans.
• The Early Iron Age in India marks the period of beginning of iron technology, subsequent production and
its widespread cultural use along the subcontinent. Though initially, researchers had ascribed a date of
about 7th-6th century BC to the emergence of iron in the Indian scenario; now the dates for the same
and its harness to the cultural development of the region go back to the early part of the second
millennium BC.
• The use of iron led to change in the cultural milieu and also later ushered in the phase of urbanisation in
Ganga Valley.
• This urbanisation which is popularly known as second urbanisation was characterized by coming up of
cities and development of states in the Ganga valley and neighbouring regions and gradually in the entire
subcontinent.
• The Harappan towns finally disappeared in about 1500 B.C. After that for about 1,000 years we do not
find any towns in India. The picture of material life in north India, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, can be drawn on the basis of the Pali texts and the Sanskrit Sutra literature in combination with
archaeological evidence.
• Many towns mentioned in the Pali and Sanskrit texts such as Kausambim, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilavastu,
Varanasi, Vaisali, Raigir, Pataliputra, Champa have been excavated, and in each case signs of habitation
and mud structures belonging to the advent of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW) phase
or its middle have been found.
• Factors that Played an Important Role in the Process of Urbanisation
• Rise of different Kingdoms: Capitals of different kingdoms became urban areas. In this regard we may
mention the names of Rajagriha of Magadha, Sravasti in Koshala, Kausambi in Vatsa, Champa in Anga and
Ahichchhatra in Panchala.
• Technological Advancement: During this time the people of the Gangetic valley began the use of iron
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plough to clean the land.

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 • Forest clearance became very easy with the use of iron. Thus, iron helped in the extension of agricultural
fields.
• Surplus Production: Since the use of iron made the field clear, people began cultivating more land. They
learnt the practice of cultivating two-three crops in a year. During a short span of time, they had a surplus
production.
• Control of Surplus: As soon as the society had the surplus, they required an administrative unit to control
the surplus. Therefore, those who controlled the surplus agriculture became dominated in the field and
claimed a special status in the society.
• Other Occupation: People during this time had no need to cultivate for their own so some engaged in
other activities. But they too required some people governance system so that the exchange of things can
take place between the farmers and craftsmen.
• Conclusion: Therefore, when the new markets emerged in the Gangetic valley, people began residing in
the nearby areas. Some of them found their occupation there. And this is how the Second Urbanization
took place in the Gangetic Valley.

3) Evaluate the contribution of Sher Shah towards trade and commerce administration and agricultural
reforms. (14 Marks)
Ans.

• Sher Shah, by the dint of his military skill, daring acts, great courage and resourcefulness not only
established a mighty empire but also by his shrewd capacity for organizing, unique forethought and
intimate knowledge of administration, made necessary arrangements for smooth and efficient
administration and controlling the coveted empire.
• Provincial Administration
• Historians have differed on the issue of Sher Shah's provincial administration. While Qanungo has opined
that there was no administrative unit called 'Suba' or 'Iqta', Dr. P. Saran states that there was 'Subas'
where military officers were appointed by, She Shah. The entire kingdom was divided into provinces.
Some provinces were very large and others small. There was no uniformity with regard to their income,
size and administration. In the sensitive provinces like Lahore, Multan and Malwa, military governors
looked after the administration. On the other hand, the province of Bengal was administered by a civilian.
A province was divided into a number of Sarkars (Districts). In all there were 47 districts. There were two
chief officers in every district. The one chief Shiqdar or Shiqdar-i- Shiqdaran was a military officer. He
maintained peace and order in the district, helped in the collection of revenue and other taxes and also
supervised the work of his subordinate officers called Shiqdars. The other officer was called the chief
Munsif or Munsif -i- Muinsfan.
• He was primarily a judicial officer who looked after justice in the district. He also looked after the working
of his subordinate judicial officers in the parganas. These two officers were helped by a number of junior
officers and other subordinates in carrying out their duties.
• Each Sarkar was divided into small units called the parganas and each pargana was further subdivided
into a number of villages. Like the Sarkars, there were two chief officers called a Shiqdar (military officer)
and Munsif (civilian judge) who were assisted by other staff in the discharge-of their duties.
• A village was the smallest self-sufficient unit, administered by village panchayats. Sher Shah introduced
the system of transferring officers of the Sarkars and the Paragans every two or three years so that they
may not develop vested interest, the root cause of corruption.
• Sources of Income
Important sources of income were:
(i) Land revenue
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(ii) Taxes on the transportation of raw and finished products

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(iii) The royal mint

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 (iv) Confiscation of the unclaimed property
(v) Tributes from the rajas, nawabs, jagirdars, etc.
(vi) Gifts from the foreign travellers
(vii) Salt tax
(viii) Jaziya on the Hindus
(ix) One-fifth of the Kham (booty)
• Land and Revenue Administration
• The revenue administration of Sher Shah has been regarded as one of the best during the medieval period.
Land for the purpose of revenue was divided into three categories on the basis of production-good,
average and bad.
• Generally, land revenue was one-third of the produce, but could be paid both in cash and kind. The land
of each cultivator was measured according to a uniform standard and its quality was ascertained.
• Lease deeds (pathas) were drawn between the farmers and the government. The area, the type of the
soil, and the rates of land revenue were recorded on the lease deeds which were got signed by the
farmers. The deeds confirmed the rights of the farmers on the lands.
• Land revenue was remitted on poor crops. Financial assistance (Taqavi loans) was granted to the farmers
when needed by them.
• The Sultan had ordered that while fixing the land revenue, the peasants should be treated with generosity
but once settled they were asked to pay their revenue regularly.
• Law and Order
• The most important contribution of Sher Shah was the reestablishment of law and order across the length
and breadth of the empire. Dacoits and robbers were dealt with very sternly. It has been stated by several
historians that during the reign of Sher Shah, an old woman might place a basket of golden ornaments on
her head and go on a journey without any fear. No thief or robber would come near her for fear of
punishment.
• Local responsibility for theft: The local people or the head (Mukhiya) of the village was responsible for the
safety of the people of the area and the travellers. It was the responsibility of the village Panchayat or the
local people to produce the culprit or to pay for the stolen goods. In case the local officers of the village
failed to trace the murderer, the headman was given the penalty of death. This method helped to wipe
off thefts, robberies and murders.
• Administrative System
• Sher Shah's efficient administrative system largely depended upon his well-organized espionage system.
The king kept himself posted with the minutest happening in his kingdom. The nobles were afraid of
indulging in activities not conducive to the stability of the rule of the Sultan. Even the rates prevailing in
the mandis were made available to the king. Spies were kept at all important places and at all important
offices.
• Sher Shah used to say and act upon it, "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites." No one could escape
punishment on account of high status. The Sultan was the highest judicial authority in the state. Sher Shah
held his court every Wednesday in the evening. Next to him was the chief Qazi who was the head of the
department of justice.
• There were subordinate Qazis in every district and in all important cities. The criminal law was severe. The
offenders were punished by fines, flogging, imprisonment and even cutting of the limbs.
• Well organized 'dak' system: The saraits were also used as Dak Chaukis. Two horses were kept at every
sarai so that the news-carriers could get fresh horses at short intervals to maintain speed.
• Currency: The ratio of exchange between the Dam and Rupee was fixed at 64 to 1. The same coin- rupee
ratio served the basis of the currency during the Mughal and British periods. Earlier there was no fixed
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ratio among so many coins of various metal alloys. He abolished the old and mixed metal currency. He
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issued fine coins of gold, silver and copper of uniform standard.

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 • Network of Roads: Sher Shah constructed a network of roads connecting important parts of his empire
within his capital. He repaired old roads.
• Sher Shah constructed the following four highways:
i. Sadak-e-Azam (Grand Trunk Road) starting from Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal passing through Agra, Delhi
and Lahore and terminating at Peshawar, covering a distance of about 3,000 km;
ii. From Agra to Jodhpur and the Chittor fort;
iii. From Agra to Burhanpur;
iv. From Lahore to Multan.
• Prosperous Trade and Commerce
• Law and order in the kingdom, protection of traders on roads, issue of new currency and the simplification
of taxes helped in the promotion of trade and commerce. Trade tax was collected only at two places -
one, where the goods entered the territory of his empire and the other where the goods were sold All
other internal trade taxes were abolished.
• Sarais: About 1700 sarais were constructed on both sides of the roads. Each sarai had separate rooms for
the Hindus and the Muslims. Each sarai had a well and a mosque. These sarais also served as Dak Chaukis
in view of the special significance of these sarais, they were called as "veritable arteries of the empire."
• Conclusion
• Though his reign was for a short period of five years (1540 to 1545), he is notable for his system of
administration which remained substantially unchanged till the advent of the British in India. Akbar's
system of government was fundamentally based on that of Sher Shah. Among all reforms introduced by
him, the Land Revenue system is remarkable.

4) Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire under Samudra Gupta. (14 marks)
Ans.
• Samudragupta is considered the Napoleon of Ancient India on account of his wars and conquests. His
wars and conquests expanded the horizons of the Gupta Empire for and wide imparting it an all-India
character.
• The main source throwing light on the military exploits of Samudragupta is the Allahabad pillar inscription
which was composed by his court poet Harisena. The long Inscription enumerates the people and
countries conquered by Samudragupta. The places and the countries conquered by Samudragupta can be
divided into five groups. Group one includes the princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab who were defeated
and whose kingdoms were incorporated into the Gupta Empire. Here the Achutas, Nagasena and Kotas.
In all nine kings of Aryavrata including Rudradeva, Mattila were defeated.
• Group two includes the rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as Samatata,
Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepala, Kartipura. It also covers some of the republics of Punjab like Malavas,
Arjunayas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, etc.
• The republics which flickered on the ruins of the Mauryan Empire were finally destroyed by
Samudragupta. Group three includes the forest kingdoms situated in the Vindhyan region and known as
Atavika rajyas; they were brought under the control of Samudragupta.
• Group four includes the twelve states of the eastern Deccan and south India. This campaign is known as
the Dakshinapatha campaign. The rulers here were conquered and liberated. Here he defeated rulers of
Avamukta, Dusthalapura, Kosala, Kottura. Samudragupta's arms reached as far as Kanchi where Pallavas
were compelled to recognize his suzerainty.
• Group five includes the names of Shakas and the Kushanas, some of them ruling in Afghanistan. It is said
that Samudragupta swept them out of power and received the submission of rulers of distant lands.
• The prestige and influence of Samudragupta spread even outside India and Meghvarman, the ruler of Sri
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Lanka asked for his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya. The main factor that guided
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 Samudragupta in his campaign was his imperial ambition to extend the influence of Gupta dynasty to as
far area as possible.
• Also responsible for the exploits of Samudragupta in Aryavrata region was the geo-political factor. The
Nagas was important power in Aryavrata region. So, in any scheme of expansion of Gupta Empire, it was
but natural that the Nagas would have to be subjugated first.
• Religious differences too played a role. The Nagas were the worshippers of Shiva, while the Guptas
patronized Lord Vishnu. Economic factors were also paramount, as this was especially true of the
Dakshinapath campaign, Samudragupta was lured by the rich wealth he could acquire as presents and
tributes from the southern states. As far the patterns of the expansion of Gupta Empire under
Samudragupta, first of all the campaigns were launched in North India.
• In the second phase, Samudragupta marched to the South where he subjugated the Dakshinapatha states.
This was followed by Samudragupta focusing again on Aryavrata. Samudragupta next turned his attention
towards forest and frontier states.
• The policies adopted in terms of conquests by Samudragupta varied. While for the states of Aryavrata, he
adopted the policy of complete subjugation and annexation of their territories, in case of south India, he
was content at establishing his suzerainty and extracting tribute from them. Towards tribal and frontier
states, the policy was no more than extending some sort of general control.
• Thus, Samudragupta's campaign expanded the Gupta Empire far and wide. In the east, it included the
whole of Bengal except its southeastern part.
• In the north, the confines of the empire ran along the Himalayas. In the west, it extended up to Punjab.
The southern boundary of empire encompassed the entire Peninsula except the western half. On account
of bravery and superior generalship, Samudragupta thus forcibly unified greater part of India under him,
and his power was felt in a much longer area.

5) Elaborate upon the agrarian reforms of Alauddin Khilji. (14 Marks)

Ans.

• While reforming the agrarian system, Alauddin Khilji also tried to ensure that there was an efficient and
honest working machinery of revenue administration. There were a large number of accountants
(mutsarrif), collectors (amils) and agents (gumashtas) that were appointed in the extended Khalisa lands.
• Alauddin Khilji also ensured that the account of all these officials was audited strictly by the Naib Wazir
and the Sharaf Qazis. If any account books of the village patwaris were not matched, they received severe
punishment. Alauddin was also against bribery and corruption. If any person found taking bribe or
indulged in corruption - also received punishment.
• Thus, Alauddin's market reform policies have limited the privileges of the local chief, accounting, local
revenue officials, etc. He also set up a certain standard for the later successors such as Sher Shah and
Akbar who tried to emulate the same but to what extent he could reduce the powers of the privilege
sections such as those of Khuts and Muqaddama is not very certain.
• Perhaps a vital and lasting effect of Alauddin's agrarian reforms was that it helped the growth of the
market economy in the villages and brought them closer to the towns.
• Ensuring Sufficient Food Grains
• The first effort was to ensure sufficient stock of food grains with the government so that the prices would
not be increased by the traders. For this, Alauddin set up royal storehouses in Delhi. The Karwanis or
Banjaras handled the transportation of food grains in their bullock carts and they had to form themselves
into an organized body. Besides, to ensure that there was a regular supply of food grains to the Banjaras,
there were a number of regulations. The local officials were strict with the cultivators who sell their food
grains for the payment of land revenue.
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 • Also, no one had the permit to sell grains at a higher price than the official one. If anyone violated the
order, they received punishment. Thus, they brought all food grain to the markets (mandis). They also
sold the food grains only at the official price. As per Barani, Alauddin had a system of rationing during
times of scarcity.
• Therefore, there was no shortage of food grains even during famines. Besides, Alauddin collected and
sold the food grains at prices prevalent before the famine.
• Conclusion
• Thus, it is obvious that the reforms of Alauddin Khilji have many impacts on the Delhi Sultanate. The
measures of market reforms are not to harm any particular community. However, due to the low prices
of food grains and high revenue demand, it adversely affected the cultivators. Barani also says that after
the death of Alauddin, people stopped to practice his market reforms. Besides, many of the persons who
were imprisoned for offenses committed were released and the laws were withdrawn. Barani also tells
us that the market reforms of Alauddin were not applicable to Delhi alone. Many towns and villages also
followed his market reform. We are however not too certain of how effective the price control was in the
towns outside Delhi. The regulations of market reforms by Alauddin brought in a lot of control of
corruption. Alauddin tried to control the prices of everything and such widespread centralized control
was bound to be violated and create a lot of resentment. Thus, by its very nature, Alauddin Khilji's market
reforms were temporary and perhaps largely meant to tide over an emergency or a particular situation.

6) Write what you know of the rise and spread of Buddhism before the first century A.D. (14 Marks)
Ans.
• Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangatic plains in the sixth century BC. We hear of as many
as 62 religious sects. Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were the most important and they emerged as
the most potent religious reform movement. Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was born in 563 BC in a
Shakya Kshatriya family in Kapilavastu, which is situated in the foothills of Nepal.
• Like Mahvira, Gautama also belongs to a noble family. Born in a republic, he also inherited some
egalitarian sentiments. Since his early childhood Gautama showed a meditative bent of mind. He was
moved by the misery which people suffered in the world and looked for the solution.
• At the age of 29, he left home. He kept on wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge
at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a papal tree. From this onwards he began to be called the Buddha or
the enlightened. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Banaras.
• He undertook long journeys and took his message far and wide. He kept on wandering, preaching and
meditating continuously for 40 years, resting only in the rainy season every year. During this long period
he encountered many staunch supporters of rival sects including the Brahmans, but defeated them in
debates. His missionary activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and low,
and man and women. He passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar.
• Buddhism does not recognize the existence of god and soul. This can be taken as a kind of revolution in
the history of Indian religions. Since early Buddhism was not enmeshed in the lap-trap of philosophical
discussion, it appealed to the common people. It particularly owns the support of the lower orders as it
attacked the Varna system. People were taken in to Buddhist order without any consideration of caste.
Women also admitted to the Sangha and thus brought on par with men. In comparison with Brahmanism,
Buddhism was liberal and democratic. Buddhism made a special appeal to the people of the non-Vedic
areas where it found a virgin soil for conversion. The people of Magadha responded readily to the
Buddhism because they were looked down upon by the orthodox Brahmans.
• The personality of Buddha and the method adopted by him to preach his religion helped the spread of
Buddhism. He tried to fight evils by goodness and hatred by love. The use of Pali, the language of people,
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also contributed to the spread of Buddhism. Gautam Buddha also organized the Sangha or religious order,
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whose doors were kept open to everybody, irrespective of caste and sex. As a result of organized

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 preaching under the auspices of the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid strides even in the lifetime of the
Buddha. The monarchies of Magadha, Koshala and Kausambi and several republican states and their
people adopted this religion.
• Two hundred years after the death of the Buddha, the famous Maurya King Ashoka embraced Buddhism.
This was an epoch-making event. Through his agents Ashoka spread Buddhism in to Central Asia, West
Asia and Sri Lanka and thus transformed it into a world religion. Even today, Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet and
parts of China and Japan prefers Buddhism. Although Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it
continues to hold ground in the countries of South Asia, South-East Asia and East Asia.
• Indian religious underwent changes in post-Mauryan times partly due to a big leap in trade and artisan
activity and partly due to the large influx of people from Central Asia Buddhism was especially affected.
The monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and
artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins have been found in the monastic areas of
Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh. Further, the Buddhists welcomed foreigners who were non-
vegetarians.
• All this meant laxity in the day-to-day living of the nuns and monks who led a sparse life. They now
accepted gold and silver, took to non-vegetarian food and wore elaborate robes. Discipline became so
slack that some even deserted the religious order or the Sangha and resumed the householder's life.
• This new form of Buddhism came to be called the Mahayana or the Great Wheel. In the old Buddhism
certain things associated with the Buddha were worshiped as his symbol. These were replaced with his
images with the opening of the Christian era, Image worship in Buddhism seems to have led to the practice
in Brahmanism on a large scale. With the rise of Mahayana, the old puritan school of Buddhism came to
be known as the Hinayana or the Lesser Wheel. Fortunately for the Mahayana, Kanishka became its great
patron. He convened a council in Kashmir.
• The members of the council composed 300,000 words, which thoroughly explained the three pitakas or
collection of the Buddhist literature.
• Kanishka got these commentaries engraved on sheets of red copper, enclosed them in a stone receptacle
and raised a stupa over it.
• He set up many other stupas to perpetuate the memory of Buddha. A few other rulers also adopted
Buddhism. The famous Greek ruler Menander became a Buddhist.

7) “In medieval Indian history Akbar was unique for his religio-political ideas and policies." Analyze this
statement. (14 Marks)
Ans.
• A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar (1556-1605) gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire
to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari River. His power and influence,
however, extended over the entire country because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic
dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralized system of administration
throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and
diplomacy. In order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted
policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic state
identity, Akbar strived to unite far-flung lands of his realm through loyalty, expressed through a
Persianized culture, to himself as an emperor who had near-divine status. Unique socio-religious and
political policies of Akbar may be summarized as followed:
• The philosophy of "Sulh-i-kul": It means peace with all. It stands for social harmony and an end to the
social conflict. This philosophy is reflected in his policies like ban on forceful conversion to Islam, abolition
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of jiziya and pilgrimage tax, prohibition on enslavement of war prisoners, granting freedom of conscience
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etc.

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 • Policy of "Din-i-Ilahi" also called Tauhid-i- ilahi: It was inspired from the "Tauhid-i-wajudi" of great Arab
philosopher Ibn-i-Arabi. It represents the philosophy of unity of being i.e., the unity of Haq(creator) and
khalq (created ones) which means all beings are the same and the manifestations of the divine substance.
It was an order of which anyone could become a member irrespective of his religion. eg- Birbal (a Hindu)
was a member of this order.
• Construction of Ibadat khana for debate: The purpose was debate, discussion and discourse over the
religious issues. He invited representatives of all the religions like Hinduism, Islam, Christainity, Jainism
etc. It strengthened his conviction that truth is not confined to one religion and behind the multiplicity of
names is one God.
• Mahzar: It was royal order or decree to proclaim the supreme position of the king in conflicting
interpretation of Islam. It subordinated the positions of the theologians and proclaimed the king as not
only political head but also spiritual head.
• Moreover, introduction of Jharokha-e-darshan, prostration before king etc. and creation of provincial
system that is suba system as well as mansabdari and jagirdari system were the salient features of Akbar's
polity. He created composite nobility based on talents.
• His Rajput Policy included appointment of Rajputs as mansabdar, Subedar (provincial governors) and
military commanders and matrimonial alliances and the freedom to the Rajput wives to practice their
religion showed his pragmatic approach towards state system.
• It was due to his socio-religious and political outlook that he has been rightly regarded as visionary with
nationalistic ideas.

8) Do you think that the agrarian crisis of the 17th century led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire?
Discuss. (14 Marks)
Ans.

• There is not one single common cause applicable to the whole of India but there are many factors which
caused disequilibrium to the fragile political edifice of the Mughal polity and led to the revival of the
regional identities as reflected in the emergence of regional powers. Some of the major causes include
jagirdari system, religious policy of Aurangjeb, centre-state relation and economic crisis.
• The agrarian crisis of the Mughal Empire, which ultimately proved to be one of the most important causes
for the decline of the Mughal Empire, was brought about by a number of factors, particularly by the evils
of the jagirdari system.
• The jagirs were divorced from any rights to land and were essentially assignment of revenue. The
tendency in the imperial revenue department was to pitch the revenue demand at the highest possible
rate so as to secure resources for the military operations of the empire.
• With the passage of time the revenue demand kept on increasing. There was also conflict between the
interests of the imperial administration and those of the individual jagirdar. A jagirdar whose assignment
was liable to be transferred any moment and "who never held the same jagir for more than three or four
years could never follow a far-sighted policy of agricultural development".
• In the seventeenth century the belief had become deep-rooted that the system of jagir transfers led
inexorably to reckless exploitation of the peasantry. Moreover, the jagirdars imposed and realized
numerous other taxes from the peasantry. Frequently, "the peasants were compelled to sell their women,
children and cattle in order to meet the revenue demand". With the passage of time the oppression
increased, the cultivation declined and the number of absconding peasants grew. During the early years
of Aurangzeb, Bernier records that "a considerable portion of the good land remains untilled for want of
labourers, many of whom perish in consequence of the bad treatment from the governors, or are left with
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no choice but to abandon the country". Beyond a point there was no to the peasant but that between
starvation or and armed resistance.
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 • The flight of the peasants from their land a common phenomenon. Some peasants abandoned -
agriculture altogether. The classic act of defiance on the - part of the peasants was the refusal to pay land
revenue. The ties of caste played an important role in rousing was peasants to act collectively in defence
of their interests Religion also united the peasantry to fight for their common ideals. The inspiration for
the two powerful rebellions of the Satanamis and the Sikhs against the Mughals came from a common
religious faith.
• The discontent of the zamindars against the Mughals provided a leadership to these agrarian uprisings.
The peasants and zamindars thus frequently joined hands in their struggle against the Mughals.
• The Jat and the Bundela rebellions, the Satanami uprising, the rise of the Sikh and the Maratha powers,
were all caused by agrarian tensions. The whole empire was so full of contradictions that conflicts were
inevitable.
• There were conflicts of interests between the various groups of landed class. Whenever the local
intermediary or chieftain rose in rebellion, he was able to muster behind him a very large section of
primary zamindars as well as the tenant-farmers against the imperial government. All these factors
ultimately led to the collapse of the whole system.

SECTION-B
9) Answer the Following in 150 words: 30 marks
(a) After the Battle of Plassey, how did India transit from the medieval to the modern age?
Ans.

• The conflict at Plassey was crucial to the East India Company's triumph over its French rivals and, in the
longer term, to the establishment of British rule in India. The British government made Clive the Baron of
Plassey. Events that developed after Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey would change the British East
India Company from a trading company to a governing power and draw Britain to conquer the whole of
India. Thus, the Battle of Plassey was a historic turning point, and its principal participant Robert Clive, an
empire builder.
• The establishment of control over Bengal made it possible for the English to conquer Northern India. It
enabled them to defeat Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Oudh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Clive tried to
expand the British influence in the South at the cost of the financial resources of Bengal. The Battle of
Plassey saved the British in Bengal from commercial rivalry of other European powers. The French were
forcibly ousted from Bengal for all time to come and no other European powers ever ventured to
challenge the English. Thus, East India Company became the uncrowned king and gradually subjugated
the other states which bring about a radical change in the politico- administrative set up India which was
completely new and westernized in nature and spirit. That is why it is said that India transited from
medieval to modern age.

(b) The Regulating Act (1773), the Pitt's India Act (1784) and eventually the Charter Act of 1833 left the
East India Company as a mere shadow of its earlier political and economic power in India."
Ans.
• By the Regulating Act of 1773, the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and
economic reforms; this clearly established Parliament's sovereignty and ultimate control over the
Company. The Act recognized the Company's political functions and clearly established that the
acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right.
Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament and from the Company's shareholders, the
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Act passed. It introduced substantial governmental control and allowed British India to be formally under
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the control of the Crown.

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 • The East India Company Act 1784 (Pitt's India Act) had two key aspects: Relationship to the British
government: the bill differentiated the East India Company's political functions from its commercial
activities. In political matters the East India Company was subordinated to the British government directly.
To accomplish this, the Act created a Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India, usually referred to
as the Board of Control. The members of the Board were the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary
of State, and four Privy Councilors, nominated by the King. The act specified that the Secretary of State
"shall preside at, and be President of the said Board.
• Government of India Act 1833 removed the Company's remaining trade monopolies and divested it of all
its commercial functions and carried further the ongoing process of administrative centralization through
investing the Governor-General in Council with, full power and authority to superintend and, control the
Presidency Governments in all civil and military matters. Thus, East India Company remained a mere
shadow of its political and economic power in India.

(c) "Upon the whole, then, I conclude that the Treaty of Bassein was wise, just and a polite measure".
Ans.
• The treaty of Bassein was concluded in 1802 between the British Company and the Peshwa Baji Rao II. It
was a treaty of perpetual and general alliance with the English. Upon the whole then it was concluded to
be a wise, just and a polite measure.
• As per the treaty, Peshwa agreed to receive from the company a regular army to be stationed in his
territories. Peshwa had to surrender territories yielding 26 lakhs of rupees apart from surrendering Surat.
The Peshwa had to accept the company's arbitration in all differences between him and the other powers.
• The Peshwa also agreed neither to commence nor to pursue in fortune away negotiations with any power
without getting previous notice and constitution with the East India Company. The Peshwa agreed to give
up all claims for chauth on the Nizam's dominions and also agreed not to resort to arms against the
Gaikwars. He also agreed to the Company's arbitration in all differences between him and the Nizams &
the Gaikwars.
• The importance of the Treaty of Bassein in the building up of British supremacy in India has been variously
estimated. It is contended that the Treaty of Bassein established the paramount British influence at
Poona. The head of the Maratha confederacy accepted the position of dependent relationship with the
company. By providing for company's mediation in all cases of disputes between the Peshwa & the Nizam,
the British achieved another objective that the state of Hyderabad definitely passed under the company's
protection. By camping the company's subsidiary troops at Poona the Company got a very advantageous
position in case of war with the Marathas or any other rivals.
• Thus, the Treaty of Bassein threw a new power into the weight of its own scale. A lawful right was
established to interfere in Peshwa's authority, the intrigues of foreigners were excluded from his capital,
the British military resources were considerably increased without the expense to the company and the
army of the Peshwa was bound at the call of the company.
• In this sense, the Treaty of Bassein for the British was a wise, just & a polite measure and it gave the
company by its direct & indirect operations the Empire of India.

(d) "The Mutiny of 1857 was much more than a Mutiny of Sepoys and much less than a National
Rebellion."
Ans.
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• All the British historians, in particular. Sir greased John Lawrance and Seelay are of the view that it was a
sepoy mutiny as the sepoys refused to use the cartridges of the Enfield rifles and opposed the move. An
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anxious and conscious attempt on the part of the British to minimize the grievances of Indians and to

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 restrict it only to a section of army's revolt is well known. The interpretation is unsatisfactory.
Unquestionably, the Revolt began as a military rising, but it was not everywhere confined to the army. In
fact, the rebels came from almost every section of the population. Revolt took different aspects at
different places. In some regions it was a mutiny of sepoys joined later by disgruntled elements eager to
take advantage of anarchy. In other area the mutiny of sepoys was followed by a general revolt in which
apart from the soldiers, civilians, particularly the dispossessed rulers of Indian states, landlords, tenants
and others took part.
• Ashok Mehta in his book "The Great Rebellion" expressed the view that the revolt was national in
character. Unfortunately, in India the majority of the people remained disinterested and even apathetic.
The Rebellion of 1857 cannot be invested with a national character. Many state rulers e.g., the Scindias,
Holkars, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Bhopal, Rajas of Patiala, Nabha, Jind Jodhpur etc., big Zamindars
and traders actively supported the British. The Sikh, Rajput and Gorkha Battalions remained loyal to the
British to suppress the Revolt. The rising was not widespread. The Revolt was limited to U.P., Delhi and
West Bengal. It did not assume a national character.

(e) "Dupleix made a cardinal blunder in looking for the key of India in Madras: Clive sought and found it
in Bengal."
Ans.

• In 1742, Joseph Dupleix was appointed governor general of all French settlements in India and dedicated
himself to exerting French power. He envisioned a French empire and to this end began to interfere in
local Indian politics, playing local rulers against each other for his French benefit. But he could not plan
the way the English did and went ahead having a vanguard like Robert Clive. Clive's victory in the Battle
of Plassey in 1757, which brought the state of Bengal under British control, is often cited as the landmark
turning point of the British colonial heyday in India. Bereft of both authority and capital, Dupleix returned
to the country for which he had so vigorously labored and died penniless in 1763.
• Clive's victory in 1757 was followed by the military occupation of Bengal, which had an immense and far-
reaching effect upon the position of the English in India. Their resources were so considerably increased
that the defeat of the French in the Peninsula became thenceforward certain; for while Dupleix was cut
off by sea and vainly attempting to support himself along a strip of seacoast, the English had their feet
firmly planted in the Gangetic delta and the rich alluvial districts of the lower Ganges. The transfer of the
headquarters of the Company's government to Calcutta marks a notable step forward, since it was from
Bengal, not from Madras or Bombay, that the English power could first struck inland into the heart of the
country and discovered the right road to supremacy in India: To advance into Bengal was to penetrate
India by its soft and unprotected side. From Cape Comorin northward along the east coast there is not a
single harbour for large ships; nor are the river estuaries accessible to them.
• Such are the natural fortifications of India landward. But an invader landing on the seaboard takes all
these defences in reverse. He enters, as has been said, by open ill-guarded water-gates; he can penetrate
into the centre of the fortress, can march up inside to the foot of the walls, can occupy the posts, and turn
the fortifications against others. This is just what Clive accomplished between 1757 and 1849, during the
century occupied by their wars with the native powers in India. At the beginning of that period, the
conquest of Bengal transferred the true centre of government from Southern India to that province; and
thus, we emerge rapidly into a far wider arena of war and politics.
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 10) " Explain the factors responsible for the recurrence of the famines in the nineteenth century. What
remedial measures were adopted by the British Indian Government? (14 Marks)
Ans.

• Colonisation brought fundamental change in the agrarian structure of India. New land tenure system,
commercialization of agriculture, decline of handicraft, one-way free trade; all of these factors
contributed to the pauperization of rural masses. Hence, a severe famine hit whenever there was a
decline in food output. Occasionally, commissions were appointed to recommend measures which were
implemented rather half-heartedly by the Government.
• Ruination of handicraft and absence of modern industries to absorb this displaced labour led to
overburdening of agriculture. One-way free trade imposed on India since the Charter Act of 1813,
compounded this problem. Agriculture was reeling under the excessive land revenue demand of under 5
new land revenue systems. The troika of money lender, administration and landlord rack rented the
peasantry. Commercialisation of agriculture without any improvement in productivity meant that grain
output simply decline. All these factors led to a significant drop in the real income of peasants. Hence,
whenever an agricultural drought occurred, it led to a severe famine.
• Starting from the Bengal Famine of 1769-70, no famine relief measures were taken. Company's trade
often worsened the situation. Under the Crown rule, famine relief measures began with the expansion of
railways. The first famine commission under George Campbell was appointed after the Orissa famine of
1866. It said that government should expand railways and canals to hedge against famines and district
administration should try to save as many lives as possible. Yet, the famine of 1876-78 took nearly 5
million lives.

11) What was the significance of Orientalist- Anglicist controversy in nineteenth century India? Analyse.

(14 Marks)

Ans.

• British rule was followed by an effort to spread education and British ideologies into the Indian society of
the time. It was in this context that education and the medium by which it should be spread became the
topic of the Anglicist-Orientalist controversy in the 1830s and 1840s. Prior to the 1830s, the Orientalists
dominated the spread of education and in their style, education was spread in the native tongue using
native institutions like Madrasas where subjects of practical values were thought.
• However, with the arrival of a Benthamite Lord William Bentinck in 1828 and the appointment of Thomas
Macaulay in to the Viceroy's council, the Anglicists got a voice in the government. This along with the
ideas of missionaries like David Hare who supported the opening of English schools helped in the Anglicists
winning the debate on education and hence making English the medium of education in India.
• The significance of this controversy was that: It gives proof of the long term aims of the British in India as
they wanted to set up institutions which can serve their needs in the long run. Shows the difference of
opinion on ruling India right from the very beginning of the British rule.
• Exposes the changing nature of the British rule in India, with the earlier oriental respect being replaced
by the self-assured attitude of the later Benthamite-Millsian company servants. Shows the need for Indian
cooperation for the success of British rule in the country. Paved the way for the spread of English as a
common language which would drive forward the integration of India in the coming decades.
• Eliminates the need for local magnates and nobles as their influences as education providers were
dimmed by the English speaking and teaching British ruler.
• All of these point towards the more a situation in which English was primed as an object of integration as
15

a result of the Anglicists winning this controversy. However, though opposed by many Indians first, it was
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later adopted by a large section of them and they used it effectively as a tool of social reform and political
agitation.

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 12) In the initial stages, when Indian nationalism was immature, just sprouting, it found expression in many
liberal religio-reform movements." (14 Marks)

Ans.
• Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a
movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people),
especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its
homeland. Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-
determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity and that the nation is the only rightful
source of political power (popular sovereignty). It further aims to build and maintain a single national
identity, based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics
(or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national
unity or solidarity. Nationalism seeks to preserve and foster a nation's traditional cultures and cultural
revivals have been associated with nationalist movements. It also encourages pride in national
achievements and is closely linked to patriotism. Nationalism can be combined with diverse political goals
and ideologies such as conservatism (national conservatism) or socialism (left-wing nationalism).
• Stages of Indian Nationalism
• The Indian national movement was undoubtedly one of the biggest mass movements of modern societies
has ever seen. It was also popular and multi-class movement. It was basically the result of a fundamental
contradiction between the interest of the Indian people and that of British colonialism. The Indian people
were able to see that India was regressing economically and undergoing a process of underdevelopment.
This anti-colonial ideology and critique of colonialism was disseminated during the mass phase of the
movement. The Indian National Congress which emerged in 1885 championed the cause of Indian people.
• It derived its entire strength, especially after 1918 from the militancy and self-sacrificing sprit of the
masses. Satyagraha as a form of struggle based on the active participation of the people and on the
sympathy and support of the non-participating millions. was
• The 'non-cooperation' movement, the 'civil disobedience' movement and the 'Quit India' movement were
the reflection of the popularity of the Congress. The Muslim League which formed in 1906 gradually
widened its base. The move towards Pakistan became inevitable when Jinnah and the Muslim League
came with the theory that Hindu and Muslim were two nations which must have separate homeland and
put forward the demand for Pakistan. So, on 15th August 1947, a hard-earned, prized freedom were own
after long, glorious years of struggle but a bloody, tragic partition rent asunder the fabric of the emerging
free nation.
• Contribution of Liberal Religio-Reform Movement in Indian Nationalism
• Religious perspective was universalistic. Raja Ram Mohan Roy considered different religion as national
embodiments of universal theism. The Brahmo Samaj was initially conceived by him as a universalist
church. He was a defender of the basic and universal principles of all religions - the monotheism of the
Vedas and the Unitarianism of Christianity - and at the same time attacked polytheism of Hinduism and
the trinitarianism of Christianity. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan echoed the same idea: all prophets had the same
din (faith) and every country and nation had different prophets. This perspective found clearer
articulation in Kehsub Chandra Sen's ideas saying that our position is not that truths are to be found in all
religions, but all established religions of the world are true. He also gave expression to the social
implication of this universalist perspective saying that whosoever worships the True God daily must learn
to recognize all his fellow countrymen as brethren. Caste would vanish in such a state of a society.
• Conclusion
• The socio religious reform movement, as a whole, was against backward element of traditional culture in
16

terms of both religious and social evils. The focus was on regeneration of traditional institutions including
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medicine, education, and philosophy and so on. There were differences in methods of those reform

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 movements but all of them were concerned with the regeneration of society through social and
educational reforms. In terms of their limitations, it can be said that these movements were not able to
reach vast masses of peasantry and urban poor and there was inadequate focus on composite culture and
heritage of masses including music, art, architecture and literature, and science and technological
achievement. Each of these reform movements was confined, by and large, to a region or other and also
was confined to a particular caste and religion. In a nutshell, it can be argued that in the evolution of
modern India, the reform movements have made very significant contribution. They stood for the
democratization of the society, removal of superstitions and decadent customs, spread of enlightenment
and development of a rational and modern outlook. This led to the national awakening in India.

13) To what extent did the process of commercialization of agriculture affect rural scene in India? (14 Marks)
Ans.
• Commercialisation of agriculture is a phenomenon where agriculture is governed by commercial
consideration i.e., certain specialised crops began to be grown not for consumption in village but for sale
in national and even in international market.
• Commercialisation of Agriculture (COA) adversely affected the rural peasantry. The negative aspect of
C.O.A. are as follows:

(i) C.O.A. did not lead to the growth of strong and prosperous agricultural system. The condition of peasant
remained precarious as before.

(ii) C.O.A. did not give boost to agricultural production which could benefit peasants. This did not impart
organised form of agricultural system in any way. C.O.A. points toward gradual decline of agricultural
system.

(iii) Owing to C.O.A. products got linked with Indian and world markets. This brought peasant class under
influence of market forces. The peasant class got adversely effected owing to imbalances in market
condition.

(iv) C.O.A. adversely affected self-sufficiency of village economy and acted as major factor in bringing the
declining state in rural economy.

(v) Agriculture at that time was subsistence in nature and C.O.A. land emphasis on production of cash crops
when led to decline in local production. This adversely affected the condition of peasants. Now under
influence of C.O.A. agriculture got associated with fulfillment of market in place of individual needs.

(vi) Commercialisation effected traditional relations between agriculture and industry. In Indian traditional
relations acted as factors for each other's development which were hampered.

(vii) C.O.A. indicated a commercial revolution. But this was devoid of any support from any technological
revolution. Owing to true the healthy benefits which agriculture and associated fields would have enjoyed
were lacking.

(viii) An adverse effect of commercialisation on Peasants was that their dependence on money lenders and
mediators increased. Peasants received only a small fraction of profit.

(ix) C.O.A did not encouraged growth of land market because major profit of commercialisation went to
company traders and mediators.

• Innspite of having many negative effect commercialization in one sense was progressive event.
Commercialisation encouraged social exchange and it made possible the transformation of Indian
economy into capitalistic form.
17

• Commercialisation linked India with world economy. It led to the growth of high level social and economic
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system. The important contribution of commercialisation reflected in integration of economy. It also

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 created a base for growth of national economy commercialisation of agriculture led to growth of national
agriculture and agricultural problem acquired national form.

14) Assess the role of Subhash Chandra Bose in India's struggle for Independence. (14 Marks)
Ans.
• Though leaders like Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru have garnered much of the credit for the successful
culmination of Indian freedom struggle, the contribution of Subhash Chandra Bose is no less.
• After passing Indian Civil Services exam, Netaji was elected as Congress President in 1938 and 1939. He
formed a new party 'All India Forward Block' and mobilised the Indian youth for the national cause. He
also organised Azad Hind Fauj to overthrow British Empire from India. He travelled to many countries,
including Germany, Russia and Japan in order to garner international support for Azad Hind Fauj. Thus, he
carried the struggle for independence outside the frontiers of India, especially with the help of Germany
and Japan.
• The INA revealed Bose's greatness as a military leader and an organizer too. One of the INA Brigades
advanced with the Japanese army up to the frontiers of India. The Indian national flag was hoisted in
Moirang (Manipur) in March 1944. Another branch captured the Islands of Andaman and Nicobar and a
provisional Indian govt. was formed there, which got some international recognition as well. This
development had far reaching influences on the Indian political scene.
• This not only terrified the British govt., which was already at a weak position in the World War-II against
the fascist powers; but the stories of remarkable courage and scarifies brought the nation under a wave
of revolutionary upsurge.
• Further, the Red Fort Trials and the Royal Indian Naval Mutiny on 18th Feb at Bombay made the Indian
independence inevitable. The Trials united all the segments of the Indian society against British, in the
wake of the sympathy for the INA convicts.
• Even more significant was the probable link between the 1.N.A experiences and the wave of disaffection
in the British Indian army during the winter of 1945-46, which culminated in the great Bombay naval strike
of Feb 1946 and was quite possibly the single most decisive reason behind the British decision to make a
quick withdrawal, they no longer could trust on the British military which served as the basis of colonial
rule in India.
• The Communists in India called Netaji as a "Fascist", as he took the support of fascist powers such as
Germany and Japan in the course of struggle for immediate gains. However, ambiguous Bose's method
may be, but one can't question his long-term objective of Indian Independence, even if it involved the
helps of fascist powers and resort to violence. Thus, he provided a much-needed unprecedented push to
the national struggle for Independence.

15) What significant role did women play in the Indian National Movement? (14 Marks)
Ans.

• One of the forerunners of India's struggle for freedom was Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, who became a
legendary figure in the history of Indian nationalism. Before, Mahatma Gandhi became the indisputable
leader of the national movement; there were two prominent women who encouraged women to
participate in the movement.
• One of them was Annie Besant, the leader of the Theosophical Movement in India. She advocated
emancipation of Indian women. In fact, many Indian women joined her Home Rule Movement. According
to her, the Home Rule Movement was rendered tenfold more effective by the involvement of a large
number of women, who brought to it the uncalculatingly heroism, the endurance, and the self-sacrifice
18

of the feminine nature.

• Sarojini Naidu was one of the forerunners of women's participation in the National Movement. In August
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1914, she met Mahatma Gandhi, and from then onwards devoted her energy to the freedom movement.

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 Sarojini Naidu worked as an active politician and freedom fighter. In 1917, she led the delegation to meet
Mr. Montagu for women's suffrage.
• In 1918, she had a resolution passed at the special congress session in Bombay, supporting women's
franchise. In 1919, she went to England as a member of the Home Rule League deputation to give
evidence before the Joint Parliamentary Committee. There, she put forward the case for women's
suffrage. In 1919, she became a campaigner for women's satyagraha, traveling all over India to propagate
the cause. She appealed, in particular, to women to agitate against the Rowlett Act.
• During the 1920s and 1930s, she supported the Akalis and protested against the ban imposed on them.
In 1924, she went to South Africa, presided at a session of the East African Congress, and criticized the
Anti- Historic Bill.
• She went to prison a number of times and worked on various committees set up for the cause of freedom.
• In 1930 when Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement, Sarojini led from the front
along with many other Congress leaders. However, the British responded by arresting most of them. At
this time Sarojini took over and continued the campaign. Jawaharlal Nehru in his book "The Discovery of
India" writes, "It was not only the display of courage and daring, but what was even more surprising was
the organizational power she showed."
• As Sarojini Naidu's political exposure grew-in 1925 she became the first Indian woman to become
President of the Indian National Congress-a new portrayal of Indian womanhood enters her poetry. She
also portrayed India as the slumbering Mother who must be awakened by her daughter. In 1908, she laid
the foundation of her great contribution to the women's movement at a conference on Widow Marriage
in Madras.
• After the Jalianwalla Bagh incident in which hundreds of men, women, and children were ruthlessly
gunned down, political consciousness among women increased. This resulted in more and more women
joining the national movement.
• Many women stood up to the colonial patriarchy, such as Pandita Ramabai, Anandi Gopal and Savithribai
Phule. Gandhiji was also instrumental in bringing women into the fold of the national movement. Gandhiji
believed that marriages should take place only when there is a desire for progeny.
• One of the greatest contributions of Gandhiji to the emancipation of women is his insistence on their
participation in politics. Gandhiji felt that women should have as much a share in winning swaraj for India
as men. In fact, large number of women participated in India's struggle for independence. Women could
take part in the movement, and were in fact encouraged to do so, since the methods for struggle were
mainly non- cooperation and non-violence.
• They were active in participating in the Swadeshi movement, or the boycott of foreign goods, non-
payment of taxes, picketing of liquor shops, and so on. There was mass participation of women in the
non-cooperation movement of 1921 and the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930.
• Kasturba Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi's wife worked with him for many years. She was a leader of Women's
Satyagraha for which she was imprisoned. She helped her husband in the cause of Indigo workers in
Champaran, Bihar and the No Tax Campaign in Kaira, Gujarat. She was arrested twice for picketing liquor
and foreign cloth shops, and in 1939 for participating in the Rajkot Satyagraha.
• Kamala Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru’s wife gave full support to her husband in his desire to work actively for
the freedom struggle.
• In the Nehru home town of Allahabad, she organized processions, addressed meetings and led picketing
of liquor and foreign cloth shops. She played a prominent part in organizing the No Tax Campaign in United
Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).
• Usha Mehta is remembered for broad casting the Congress Radio, and called her the Secret Congress
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Radio, an underground radio station, which was functioned for few months during the Quit India
Movement of 1942.
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 • Aruna became an active member of Congress Party and participated in public processions during the Salt
Satyagraha. She was arrested on the charge that she was a vagrant and hence not released in 1931 under
the Gandhi-Irwin Pact which stipulated release of all political prisoners.
• As a result of being associated with, and participating in the freedom struggle, Indian women realized the
importance of living life as conscious human beings.
• A number of women activists also gained prominence were Kamaladevi Ghattopadhyaya, Kalpana Dutt,
and Madame Bikaji Cama.

16) The Royal Indian Navy Revolt was seen as an event which marked the end of the British rule almost as
finally as Independence Day.” Explain. (14 Marks)
Ans.
• Between March 1942 and the beginning of 1946 there were nineteen uprisings in the Royal Indian Navy
alone. The most important was the RIN revolt of 1946 which rang the death-knell of the mighty British
Empire and paved the way for freedom.
• The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on 18 February in protest against
general conditions.
• The immediate issue of the mutiny was conditions and food, but there were more fundamental matters
such as racist behaviour by Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures being
taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist sympathies.
• The mutiny came to receive widespread militant support, even for the short period that it lasted, not only
in Bombay, but also in Karachi and Calcutta on 23 February, in Ahmedabad, Madras and Trichinopoly on
the 25th, at Kanpur on the 26th, and at Madurai and several places in Assam on the 26th. The agitations,
mass strikes, demonstrations and consequently support for the mutineers, therefore continued several
days even after the mutiny had been called off.
• Along with this, the assessment may be made that it described in crystal clear terms to the government
that the British Indian Armed forces could no longer be universally relied upon for support in crisis, and
even more it was more likely itself to be the source of the sparks that would ignite trouble in a country
fast slipping out of the scenario of political settlement. It is therefore arguable that the mutiny, had it
continued and confronted the threat of the RIN commander Admiral Godfrey to destroy the fleet, would
have put the British Raj on the path of a maelstrom of popular movement which would have seen British
exit from south-east Asia under very different circumstances than eventually happened.
• Certainly, the force at Godfrey's disposal was sufficient for him to carry out his threat of destroying the
RIN. However, to control the result of those actions, compounded by the outpourings of the INA trials
was beyond the capabilities of the British Indian forces on whom any British General or politician
(including Indian leaders) could reliably trust.
• Reflecting on the factors that guided the British decision to relinquish the Raj in India, Clement Attlee, the
then British prime minister, cited several reasons, the most important of which were: which were the INA
activities of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, which weakened the Indian Army- the foundation of the British
Empire in India- and the RIN Mutiny that made the British realize that the Indian armed forces could no
longer be trusted to prop up the Raj.
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