ASM Handbook, Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures Copyright © 2004 ASM International®
G.F. Vander Voort, editor, p132–133 All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003730 www.asminternational.org
Introduction to
Transformation Structures
Arnold R. Marder, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Lehigh University
SOLID-STATE TRANSFORMATION struc- ture, is one way of characterizing the microstruc- ● Structures in which the two phases are ar-
tures are produced from one or more parent ture. Although some industrial alloys make use ranged in alternate layers, such as two dis-
phases, usually on cooling, and the product of single-phase structures—for example, austen- tinct phase lamellae found in pearlitic ferrous
structure can consist of one or more phases in itic stainless steel or cartridge brass—most al- or nonferrous eutectoid alloys, have as their
a particular morphology. The morphology is loys consist of multiphase microstructures. Fer- characteristic variables the interlamellar spac-
one way of characterizing the phase transfor- rous alloys are obvious examples, as are ing and the thickness of the lamellae.
mation. Although, in some cases, the phases precipitation-hardened nonferrous alloy systems. ● Structures in which the second phase forms
may be the same (e.g., ferrite and carbide in the However, even single-phase metastable struc- at preferential sites, such as at grain bound-
ferrous system), the morphology distinguishes tures, particularly martensitic structures, have aries, twin boundaries, or at slip planes after
the transformation microstructure (e.g., pearlite, distinct morphologies that depend on composi- cold work, are also a major type of morphol-
bainite, or tempered martensite in the ferrous tion. Other than macrostructure, which details ogy.
system). The most important mechanisms in- large-scale inhomogeneities, the morphology of
volved in developing these microstructures are The preceding list is adapted from Ref 2; see also
most solid-state reactions is discussed in terms the article “Introduction to Structures in Metals”
diffusion, nucleation, and growth. However, not of microstructure, substructure, and crystallog-
all transformations rely on diffusion (e.g., mar- in this Volume.
raphy. The major types of microstructure mor-
tensite), and not every transformation includes
nucleation and growth (e.g., spinodal decom- phologies are:
position). To further complicate the classifica-
Substructures
tion of the transformations, crystallography in- ● Structures in which both phases form entirely
fluences most transformations (e.g., pearlite, In the broadest sense, substructures comprise
distinct grains have been called aggregated
bainite, martensite, and precipitation). all imperfections within the grains of polycrys-
two-phase structures or random duplex ag- talline metals or even single-phase alloys. Con-
Christian (Ref 1) has classified solid-state gregates. They develop most clearly in alloys
transformations according to their growth pro- ventionally, substructure refers to subboundaries
in which both phases are in equal volume (low-angle boundaries), crystal imperfections
cesses. Figure 1 is a modification of Christian’s
fractions. In microduplex alloys, the two (dislocations and stacking faults), and substruc-
classification. Also included in this modified
chart are homogeneous transformations (e.g., phases are distributed uniformly, such that the ture impurity (solute distribution in the matrix).
spinodal and ordering reactions) and the addition boundaries are predominantly interphase in- In all cases, the substructure is usually on the
of the massive transformation under interface terfaces. This structure is usually fine scale nanoscale level and includes:
controlled—no long-range transport. Specific and resistant to microstructural coarsening.
● Structures in which each phase is closely in- ● Polygonized structures resulting from cold
morphological structures from solid-state trans-
terconnected can result from spinodal decom- work followed by annealing
formations are covered in subsequent articles on: ● Dislocation networks resulting from cold
position. These spinodal structures are on the
● Precipitation structures nanometer scale. They are characterized by work or shear-type (martensite) transforma-
● Spinodal decomposition tions
● their high degree of connectivity and often by
Ordered structures ● Solute atmospheres associated with disloca-
● Eutectoid structures crystallographic alignment of the phases.
● Structures consisting of dispersed phases
tions
● Massive transformation ● Nonequilibrium chemical distribution result-
● Martensitic structures (ferrous, non-ferrous, within a continuous phase matrix are the most ing from high-velocity kinetics such as
shape memory) varied of the multiphase structures. Among quenching
● Bainitic structures their characteristic variables are the relative ● Imperfections resulting from quenching or ra-
Although the peritectic transformation involves volumes of the two phases, the size of the diation that produce dislocations or vacancies
some solid-state interactions, it is essentially a particles of the dispersed phase, the interpar-
solidification process and is discussed in the pre- ticle spacing, the shape of the dispersed
vious section “Solidification Structures.” phase, and any special orientation of the dis- Crystallography
persed particles with respect to each other and
the matrix. Some of these variables are inter- The two phases that meet at an interface may
Multiphase Microstructures dependent, and all of them can be quantified. differ in lattice constants, lattice type, and ori-
Precipitation systems in which variably sized entation. These differences result in a mismatch
Morphology, that is, the size, shape, and dis- and shaped particles are embedded in a matrix or disregistry at the interphase interface. Also,
tribution of the phases present in the microstruc- are typical examples. the crystallographic relationship between the
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by Rafael Colas
Introduction to Transformation Structures / 133
Fig. 1 Classification of transformations by growth processes. Adapted from Ref 1
parent and product phases is characteristic of All of these various morphological features, REFERENCES
specific orientations. These include: along with substructure and crystallography, are
used to characterize a particular solid-state trans- 1. J.W. Christian, The Theory of Transforma-
● Atomic mismatch can result in coherent, sem-
formation. In conjunction with various mechan- tions in Metals and Alloys, Pergamon Press,
icoherent, and incoherent interfaces often
found in precipitation-hardened systems. ical properties, the characteristic structure-prop- Oxford, 1965, p 9
● Orientation relationships can characterize erty relationships can be determined and used to 2. M. Bever, Introduction, Metallography and
specific transformations, such as martensite improve the properties of the alloy or to contrib- Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook,
or pearlite. ute to the development of new alloys. 1985, p 602
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by Rafael Colas
