Chapter 4 controlled by the nervous

parietal layer - lines a specific portion of system

Skin and Body Membranes: the wall of the ventral body cavity ● acts as a mini-excretory
Body membranes visceral layer - covers the outside of the system; urea/uric acid, salts,
- cover surfaces organs in that cavity and water are lost when we
- line body cavities sweat
- form protective sheets around serous fluid - a scanty amount of thin, ● synthesizes vitamin D
organs clear fluid
Structure of the Skin
Two major groups (classified according to Epithelial Membranes Two Kinds of Tissues: (Composes the
their tissue makeup) –specific serous membranes Skin)
● epithelial membranes - aka ● peritoneum - the serosa lining ● outer epidermis
covering and lining the abdominal cavity and - made up of stratified
membranes ; simple organs covering its organs squamous epithelium
contains: ● pleurae - are the membranes - avascular
- epithelial tissue layer surrounding the lungs - capable of being hard and
- connective tissue layer ● pericardium/pericardia - tough
composed of: membranes surrounding the - keratinocytes (most common
- cutaneous membranes heart cell) - produces a fibrous
- mucous membranes protein called keratin
- serous membranes Classifications of Connective Tissue - composed of five layers
Membranes: (strata)
● synovial membranes -
● connective tissue membrane composed of loose areolar ● underlying dermis - made up
- synovial membranes connective tissue ( contain no of mostly dense irregular
epithelial cells at all) tissue
Classifications of Epithelial Membranes: ● secrete a lubricating fluid to
● cutaneous membrane / skin or cushion organs moving keratinization - process where fibrous
integumentary system against each other during protein that makes the epidermis a tough
➔ outer covering that we all rely muscle activity protective layer
on for protection
➔ exposed to air and is a dry they line: —both are firmly connected ; dermis is
membrane ➔ bursae - small sacs of fairly resistant
➔ construction connective tissue —burn or friction may cause them to
★ epidermis - composed of ➔ tendon sheaths - tubelike separate (forms blister - interstitial fluid
keratinized stratified accumulated in the cavity between the
squamous epithelium Skin and Integumentary System layers)
★ dermis - mostly dense consists of:
(fibrous) CT ● skin (your cutaneous ● subcutaneous/hypodermis
membrane) tissue - deep to the dermis ;
● mucous membrane (mucosa ● skin appendages not considered part of the skin
➔ moist membranes ❖ sweat glands - anchors the skin to underlying
➔ lines all body cavities that ❖ oil glands organs
open to the exterior (e.g. ❖ hair - composed mostly of adipose
hollow organs — respiratory, ❖ nails tissue
digestive, urinary, reproductive - serves as a shock absorber
tracts) integumentary - the skin and its and insulates deeper tissues
➔ adopted for absorption or appendages (sweat and oil glands, hair,
secretion and nails) Five Layers of Epidermis (or Strata)
➔ construction —deepest to most superficial
★ epithelium type depends on integumentary system / integument - —each with multiple layers of cells, except
site covering , protective stratum lucidum
★ LCT (lamina propria)
1. Stratum Basale/Stratum
lamina propria - composed of epithelium Functions of the Integumentary System: Germinativum
resting on a loose (areolar) connective –essential to maintain body’s boundary - deepest layer of epidermis
tissue membrane ● it insulates and cushions - lies next to dermis
deeper body organs such as: - wavy borderline with the
mucosa - refers only to the location of the - mechanical damage (bumps dermis that anchors the two
epithelial membranes, not their cellular and cuts) together
makeup - chemical damage (acids and - cells undergoing mitosis
bases) - daughter cells pushed
● serous membrane (serosae) - thermal damage (heat and upwards to become the more
➔ composed of a layer of simple cold) superficial layers
squamous and areolar CT - ultraviolet (UV) radiation (in - most adequately nourished of
(construction) sunlight) out of all epidermal cells
➔ line open body cavities closed - microbes (bacteria)
to the exterior of the body - desiccation (drying out) 2. Stratum Spinosum - they
➔ lines compartments in the become flatter and and
ventral body cavity ● has rich capillary network and increasingly keratinized
➔ occurs in pairs, separated by sweat glands that aids in loss
serous fluid with a visceral and or retention of body heat as
parietal layer
 3. Stratum Granulosum - they Dermis: Three Pigments That Contribute To Skin
become flatter and Dermis Color:
increasingly keratinized ⁃ like epidermis, ● melanin
varies in thickness, responsible by the - the amount and kind (yellow,
4. Stratum Lucidum (clear) - as collagen fibers reddish brown, black) of
cells leave the stratum ⁃ abundantly melanin in the epidermis
granulosum they die, forming supplied with blood vessels that play a
the clear stratum lucidum role in maintaining body temp. melanosomes - membrane-bound
homeostasis (ex. when heated, skin granules ; where melanocytes accumulate
- formed from dead cells of the becomes reddened and warm) in their cytoplasm
deeper strata ⁃ rich nerve supply
- occurs only in thick, hairless ⁃ connective tissue ● carotene - orange-yellow
skin of the palms of hands and makes up the dermis pigment (plentiful in carrots) ;
soles of feet the amount of carotene
Ex. of dermis: deposited in the stratum
5. Stratum Corneum thick dermis - palms and soles corneum and subcutaneous
- the outermost layer ; 20-30 thin dermis - eyelids tissue
cell layers thick ;
three-quarters for epidermal Two Layers/Major Regions of Dermis: ● hemoglobin
thickness 1. Papillary Area (upper dermal - pigment in RBC in the dermal
- cornified / horny cells - region ; uneven and has blood vessels/dermal
shing-like dead cells, peglike projections from capillaries
completely filled with keratin superficial surface called - oxygen content determines the
(protective protein preventing dermal papillae extent of red coloring
water loss from skin) - indents the epidermis above - more apparent in light skinned
- many projections contain people
Terms: capillary loops, and others
● Melanin house pain and touch homeostatic imbalance 4.3
- pigment produced by receptors cyanosis - hemoglobin is poorly
spider-shaped cells called - on palm and sole surfaces, oxygenated , both blood and skin of
melanocytes (found mostly in papillae increase friction and light-skinned people appear blue ;
the stratum basale of the gripping ability common during heart failure and severe
epidermis) - fingerprints - unique, breathing disorders ; not apparent in
- pigment ranges in color from identifying films of sweat dark-skinned people
yellow to brown to black
- melanin accumulates in 2. Reticular Area - deepest skin Emotions Influencing Skin Color:
membrane-bound granules layer ● Redness (erythema) - due to
called melanosomes - blood vessels embarrassment, inflammation,
- sweat and oil glands hypertension, fever, or allergy
● Freckles and moles - seen - deep pressure receptors
where melanin is concentrated (lamellar corpuscles) ● Pallor (blanching) - due to
in one spot emotional stress
— both composed of areolar and dense
● Epidermal dendritic cells irregular connective tissue ● Jaundice (yellow cast) -
- scattered in the epidermis indicates a liver disorder
- important “sentries” that alert Other Dermal Features
and activate immune system - cutaneous sensory receptors ● Bruises (black and blue
cells to a threat (bacterial or (part of nervous system) marks) - hematomas
viral invasion) includes:
★ touch Appendages of the Skin
● Merkel cells ★ pressure ● Cutaneous glands are all
- epidermal-dermal junction ★ temperature exocrine glands
- associated with (Merkel discs - ★ pain receptors - Sebaceous glands
sensory nerve endings and - Sweat glands
serve as touch receptors) - phagocytes
- collagen and elastic fibers ● Hair
● Dermis (gives skin the elasticity) - produced by hair follicle
- connective tissue (CT) - blood vessels
- root is enclosed in the follicle
- underlies the dermis
- shaft projects from the surface
- is your hide ; strong, stretchy homeostatic imbalance 4.2
of the scalp or skin
envelope that helps to bind the decubitus ulcers - any restriction of the
- consists of hard keratinized
body together normal blood supply to the skin results in
epithelial cells
death ; occurs in bedridden patients who
are not turned regularly or dragged around - melanocytes produce pigment
homeostatic imbalance 4.1 the bed repeatedly for hair color
human herpesvirus - excessive exposure - hair grows in the matrix of the
to UV light, damaging the skin, leading to hair bulb in stratum basale
a leathery appearance ; causes cold sores
● Hair follicles
● Nails
 ● Sebaceous (oil) glands - nail folds are skin folds that - the are surrounding the
- located all over the skin except overlap the edges of the nail; genitals (the perineum)
for palms and soles the cuticle is the proximal represents 1 percent of body
- produces sebum (oil) edge surface area
❖ makes skin soft and moist - root of nail is embedded in -----------------------------------------------
❖ prevents hair from becoming skin Types of Burns:
brittle - growth of the nail occurs from ● First-Degree Burn (Superficial
❖ kills bacteria nail matrix Burn)
- most have ducts that empty - only epidermis is damaged
into hair follicles; others open Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin - skin is red and swollen
directly onto skin surface ● Infections and allergies
- glands are activated at puberty ★ Athlete’s foot ● Second-Degree Burn
- caused by fungal infection (Partial-Thickness Burn)
● Sweat (sudoriferous) glands (Tinea pedis) - epidermis and superficial part
- produce sweat - itchy, red peeling skin between of dermis are damaged
- widely distributed in skin the toes - skin is red, painful, and
blistered
two types: ★ Boils (furuncles) and - regrowth of the epithelium can
1. eccrine glands carbuncles occur
- open via duct to sweat pores - caused by inflammation of hair
on the skin’s surface follicles ● Third-Degree Burn
- produce acidic sweat (e.g. - carbuncles are clusters of (Full-Thickness Burn)
water, salts, vitamin C, traces boils caused by bacteria - destroys epidermis and
of metabolic waste) dermis; burned area is
- function in body temp. ★ Cold sores (fever blisters) painless
regulation - caused by human herpesvirus - requires skin grafts, as
1 regeneration is not possible
2. apocrine glands - blisters itch and sting - burned area is blanched
- ducts empty into hair follicles (gray-white) or black
in the armpit and genitals ★ Contact dermatitis
- begin to function at puberty - caused by exposure to ● Fourth-Degree Burn
- release sweat that also chemicals that provoke allergic (Full-Thickness Burn)
contains fatty acids and responses - extends into deeper tissue
proteins (milky/yellowish color) - itching, redness, and swelling (bone, muscle, tendons)
- play a minimal role in body of the skin - appears dry and leathery
temp. regulation - requires surgery and grafting
★ Impetigo - may require amputation
● Hair anatomy - caused by bacterial infection
- Central Medulla - pink, fluid-filled raised lesions Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any
- Cortex (surrounds medulla) around mouth/nose one is met):
- Cuticle on outside of cortex - over 30 percent of the body
(most heavily keratinized ★ Psoriasis has second-degree burns
region of the hair) - triggered by trauma, infection, - over 10 percent of the body
hormonal changes, or stress has third or fourth-degree
Associated Hair Structures - red, epidermal lesions covered burns
● Hair Follicle with dry, silvery scales that - third or fourth-degree burns of
- composed of an epithelial root itch, burn, crack, or sometimes the face, hands, or feet, or
sheath and fibrous sheath bleed genitals
- dermal region provides a - burns affect the airways
blood supply to the hair bulb ● Burns - circumferential (around the
(deepest part of the follicle) - tissue damage and cell death body or limb) burns have
- arrector pili muscle connects caused by heat, electricity, UV occurred
to the hair follicle to pull hairs radiation, or chemicals
upright when we are cold or - associated dangers ● Skin cancer
frightened ★ protein denaturation and cell - most common form of cancer
death in humans
● Nails ★ dehydration and electrolyte - most important risk factor is
- heavily keratinized, scalelike imbalance overexposure to ultraviolet
modifications of the epidermis ★ circulatory shock (UV) radiation in sunlight and
- stratum basale extends - result in loss of body fluids and tanning beds
beneath the nail bed, which is infection from the invasion of
responsible for growth bacteria Cancer can be classified in two ways:
- lack of pigment makes nails ----------------------------------------------- 1. Benign - means the neoplasm
colorless - extent of a burn is est. using (tumor) has not spread
the rule of nines 2. Malignant - means the
● Parts of a nail ★ body is divided into 11 areas neoplasm has invaded other
- free edge for quick estimation body areas
- body is the visible attached ★ each area represents about 9
portion percent of total body surface
area
Most common types of skin cancer: ● With aging - skin loses
● Basal cell carcinoma elasticity and thins
- least malignant and most ● Skin cancer - is a major to skin
common type of skin cancer exposed to excessive sunlight
- arises from cells in stratum ● Balding/graying - occurs with
basale that are altered so that aging; both are genetically
they can no longer make determined; other factors that
keratin may contribute drugs and
- lesions appear as shiny, emotional stress
dome-shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer

● Squamous cell carcinoma

- believed to be induced by UV
exposure
- arises from cells of stratum
spinosum
- lesions appear as scaly,
reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
- early removal allows a good
chance of cure
- metastasizes to lymph nodes if
not removed

● Malignant melanoma
- most deadly of skin cancers,
but accounts for only 5 percent
of skin cancers
- arises from melanocytes
- metastasizes rapidly to lymph
and blood vessels
- detection uses ABCDE rule for
recognizing melanoma

A - symmetry
● two sides of pigmented mole
do not match

B - order irregularity
● borders of mole are not
smooth

C - olor
● different colors in pigmented
area

D - iameter
● spot is larger than 6 mm in
diameter

E - volution
● one or more of the ABCD
characteristics is evolving

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body

Membranes
● Lanugo - a downy hair, covers
by the fifth or sixth month of
fetal development but
disappears by birth
● Vernix caseosa - an oily
covering is apparent at birth
● Milia - small white spots, are
common at birth and
disappear by the third week
● Acne - may appear during
adolescence
● In youth - skin is thick,
resilient, and well hydrated