University of Basrah

College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (ME317), 3rd Year (2019-2020)
Lecturer: Dr. Rafid Jabbar Mohammed

2. Extrusion Processes
Introduction:

- Extrusion is a compressive process in which the w.p. is forced to flow

through a die opening (aperture) to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
- The process can be likened to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.
- It can be done cold, warm and hot working based on w.p. characteristics and
desired properties of the final product.
- Advantages of extrusion process are: (1) a variety of shapes are possible
especially with hot extrusion, (2) grain structure and strength properties are
enhanced in cold and warm extrusion, (3) fairly close tolerances are
possible, especially in cold extrusion, (4) in some extrusion operations, little
or no wasted material is created.
- Disadvantage of extrusion process: a limitation is that the cross section of
the extruded part must be uniform throughout its length.

Types of Extrusion:

- There are various ways to classify of extrusion operations:

1- By physical configuration into: Direct Extrusion and Indirect
Extrusion.
2- By working temperature into: Cold Extrusion, Warm Extrusion and
Hot Extrusion.
3- Extrusion is performed as either a continuous process or a discrete
process

Direct Extrusion:

- It is also called “Forward Extrusion”.

- A metal billet is located into a container and a ram compresses it, forcing the
metal to flow through one or more apertures in a die. Figure (3-22) explains
the direct extrusion.
- The ram force required in direct extrusion is substantially increased because
of the significant friction that exists between the w.p. surface and the walls
of the container and die itself.
Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

- In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the presence of an

oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
- To address these problems, a dummy block is often used between the ram
and the w.p. The diameter of dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet
diameter so that a narrow ring of w.p. metal (mostly the oxide layer) is left
in the container.
- This process is also used to produce a hallow sections (e.g., tubes) where
starting billet is prepared with a hole, this allows passage of a mandrel that is
attached to the dummy block. Figure (3-23) states producing hollow sections
by direct extrusion.
- Semi-hollow sections are usually extruded in the same way as shown in
figure (3-23).

Figure (3-22) direct extrusion

Figure (3-23) (a) direct extrusion to produce hollow or semi-hollow cross-

sections, (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross-sections

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Indirect Extrusion:

- It is also called “backward extrusion and reverse extrusion”.

- The die is mounted to the ram.
- The metal is forced to flow through the clearance in a direction opposite to
motion of the ram.
- The ram force is lower than in direct extrusion because there is no friction at
the container walls, since the billet is not forced to move relative to the
container.
- It can produce hollow (tubular) cross sections.
- Figure (3-24) illustrates the indirect extrusion.
- Disadvantages of indirect extrusion are: 1- lower rigidity of the hollow ram,
2- difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exit the die (length
limitations), 3- support of ram becomes a problem as work length increases.

Figure (3-24) indirect extrusion; (a) solid cross-section, (b) hollow cross-section.

Continuous Extrusion:

- In which a very long sections in one cycle are produced, but this operation is
limited by the size of the billet that supplied into the container.
- In nearly all cases, the long section is cut into smaller lengths in a
subsequent sawing or shearing operation.

Discrete Extrusion:

- In which a single part is produced in each extrusion cycle. Impact extrusion

is an example of the discrete extrusion.

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Analysis of Extrusion:

1- Extrusion Ratio or Reduction Ratio:

From figure (3-25), the extrusion ratio is:

𝑨𝒐
𝒓𝒙 =
𝑨𝒇

This ratio is applied for both direct and indirect extrusion.

Figure (3-25) pressure and other variables in direct extrusion.

𝝅 𝟐
𝑨𝒐 = 𝑫
𝟒 𝒐
𝝅 𝟐
𝑨𝒇 = 𝑫
𝟒 𝒇
Where;

rx: extrusion ratio

α: die angle

Ao: cross-sectional area of starting billet

Af: cross-sectional area of extruded section

2- True Strain:
- For ideal deformation case (no friction and no redundant work), the true
strain can be write as:
𝑨𝒐
𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧
𝑨𝒇

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

3- Ram Pressure:
- Also under the assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and no
redundant work), the ram pressure for both direct and indirect extrusion can
be written as:
𝐴𝑜
𝑝 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 𝜀 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 ln
𝐴𝑓

𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑌̅𝑓 =
1+𝑛
𝐶𝑥 2.25
𝑘𝑥 = 0.98 + 0.02 ( )
𝐶𝑐

Cx: perimeter of extruded cross-section

Cc: perimeter of a circle of same area as extruded shape

𝐶
𝑘𝑥 : die shape factor (empirical relation) and it valid for values ( 𝑥 ) from 1 to 6,
𝐶𝑐
kx=1 for circular shapes and something else for other shapes.

𝑌̅𝑓 : average flow stress

4- Extrusion Strain or Actual True Strain:

- In real case, the friction is existed between die and billet and between billet
surface and container wall.
- The effect of friction is to increase the strain experienced by the w.p.
- Thus the actual ram pressure is greater than that given by the above
equations.
- The extrusion strain-actual strain (Johnson formula) is given by:

𝜺𝒙 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝜺 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙

𝜀𝑥 : extrusion strain (take into account friction and redundant cases)

a, b: empirical constants for a given die angle.

Note: values of a and b tend to increase with increasing die angle.

- Low die angle increase surface area increase friction

increase ram force.

- Large die angle more turbulence in metal flow during reduction

increase ram force.

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

5- Actual Ram Pressure in Indirect Extrusion:

̅ 𝒇 𝜺𝒙
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒌 𝒙 𝒀

𝑲𝜺𝒏
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 where 𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙
𝒏+𝟏

6- Actual Ram Pressure in Direct Extrusion:

- The effect of friction between container walls and billet causes the ram
pressure to be greater than for indirect extrusion, thus:

̅ 𝒇 𝜺𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 𝒑𝒇
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒌 𝒙 𝒀

- The following analysis explains the friction force in the container:

µpc

pc
pf
Do

∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎

𝝅𝑫𝟐𝒐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝝁𝒑𝒄 𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳
𝟒
𝑝𝑓 : additional pressure required to overcome billet-container friction

𝑝𝑐 : pressure of billet against the container wall

𝜇: friction coefficient

𝜇𝑝𝑐 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝐿: billet-container friction force

𝜋𝐷𝑜2
𝑝𝑓 : additional ram force to overcome billet-container friction
4

- In case sticking occurs at the container wall, so that:

friction stress = shear yield strength of w.p., then:

̅𝒇
𝒀
𝝁𝒑𝒄 𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳 = 𝒀𝒔 𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳 and 𝒀𝒔 =
𝟐

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

̅𝒇
𝒀 𝝅𝑫𝟐𝒐
∴ 𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳 = 𝝁𝒑𝒄 𝝅𝑫𝒐 𝑳 = 𝒑𝒇
𝟐 𝟒
̅ 𝒇 𝟐𝑳
∴ 𝒑𝒇 = 𝒀
𝑫𝒐
𝟐𝑳
̅𝒇 (𝜺𝒙 +
∴ 𝒑𝟐 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒀 )
𝑫𝒐
Where;

𝑌𝑠 : shear yield strength

L: remaining billet length to be extruded

7- Ram Force:
1- Indirect Extrusion: 𝑭𝟏 = 𝒑𝟏 𝑨𝒐
2- Direct Extrusion: 𝑭𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐 𝑨𝒐

8- Power Required for Extrusion:

1- Indirect Extrusion: 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝟏 𝒗𝒐
2- Direct Extrusion: 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝟐 𝒗𝒐

vo: ram velocity (m/s)

Example (4):

A billet 75mm long and 25mm in diameter is to be extruded in a direct extrusion

operation with rx=4 (circular die). Take the following data: K=415MPa, n=0.18,
a=0.8, b=1.5. Determine the ram pressure at the billet lengths: L=75mm, 50mm,
25mm and L=0mm.

Solution:
2𝐿
For the direct extrusion: 𝑝2 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 (𝜀𝑥 + )
𝐷𝑜

kx=1.0 for circular die

𝐾𝜀𝑛
𝑌̅𝑓 = 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥 = ln 4 = 1.386
𝑛+1

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

415(1.386)0.18
∴ 𝑌̅𝑓 = = 373𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.18 + 1
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ln 𝑟𝑥 = 0.8 + 1.5(1.386) = 2.879
2(75)
At L=75mm, 𝑝2 = 1(373) (2.879 + ) = 3312𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
25

2(50)
At L=50mm, 𝑝2 = 1(373) (2.879 + ) = 2566𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
25

2(25)
At L=25mm, 𝑝2 = 1(373) (2.879 + ) = 1820𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
25

0
At L=0.0mm, 𝑝2 = 1(373) (2.879 + ) = 1074𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
25

At L=0.0mm (this is a hypothetical result minimum value of ram pressure)

- The following figure explains relationship between ram pressure vs ram

stroke.

Figure (3-26) relationship between ram pressure vs ram stroke

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Example (5):

A 3.0-in-long cylindrical billet whose diameter = 1.5 in is reduced by indirect

extrusion to a diameter = 0.375 in (circular die). Die angle = 90°. In the Johnson
equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.5. In the flow curve for the work metal, K =
2
75,000 lb/in and n = 0.25. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain
(homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, (e) ram force,
and (f) power if the ram speed = 20 in/min.

Solution:
𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝑜2 1.52
(a) 𝑟𝑥 = = = = 16 Answer
𝐴𝑓 𝐷𝑓2 0.3752

(b) 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥 = ln 16 = 2.773 Answer

(c) 𝜀𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝜀 = 0.8 + 1.5(2.773) = 4.959 Answer
(d) For indirect extrusion:
𝑝1 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 𝜀𝑥 kx=1.0 (circular die)
𝐾𝜀 𝑛 75000(2.773)0.25
𝑌̅𝑓 = = = 77424 𝐼𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2
𝑛+1 1 + 0.25
2
∴ 𝑝1 = 1(77424)(4.959) = 383946 𝐼𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛 Answer
𝜋
(e) 𝐹1 = 𝑝1 𝐴𝑜 = 383946 4 (1.5)2 = 678433 𝐼𝑏 Answer
(f) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹1 𝑣𝑜 = 678433(20) = 13568660 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼𝑏⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 Answer
or HP = 13568660 / 396000 = 34.26 hp

Example (6):

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter

of 20 mm (circular die). The extrusion die has a die angle = 75°. For the work
metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8
and b = 1.4. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous
deformation), (c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and force at L = 70, 60, 50,
40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.

Solution:

𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝑜2 352
(a) 𝑟𝑥 = = = = 3.0625 Answer
𝐴𝑓 𝐷𝑓2 202

(b) 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥 = ln 3.0625 = 1.119 Answer

(c) 𝜀𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝜀 = 0.8 + 1.4(1.119) = 2.367 Answer
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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

(d) For direct extrusion:

2𝐿
𝑝2 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 (𝜀𝑥 + ) , kx=1.0 (circular die)
𝐷𝑜
𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴𝑜
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = 𝐷𝑜 = (35)2 = 962.1𝑚𝑚2
4 4
𝐾𝜀 𝑛 600(1.119)0.25
𝑌̅𝑓 = = = 493.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛+1 1 + 0.25
2(70)
At L=70mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 3143.4𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 3143.4(962.1) = 3024265𝑁 Answer

2(60)
At L=60mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 2861.3𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 2861.3(962.1) = 2752856𝑁 Answer

2(50)
At L=50mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 2579.2𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 2579.2(962.1) = 2481448𝑁 Answer

2(40)
At L=40mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 2297.1𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 2297.1(962.1) = 2210039𝑁 Answer

2(30)
At L=30mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 2014.9𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 2014.9(962.1) = 1938535𝑁 Answer

2(20)
At L=20mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 1732.8𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 1732.8(962.1) = 1667126𝑁 Answer

2(10)
At L=10mm, 𝑝2 = 1(493.7) (2.367 + ) = 1450.7𝑀𝑃𝑎 Answer
35

𝐹2 = 1450.7(962.1) = 1395718𝑁 Answer

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Example (7):

An L-shaped structural section is direct extruded from an aluminum billet in which

Lo = 500 mm and Do = 100 mm. Dimensions of the cross section are given in the
figure below. Die angle = 90°. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) shape factor, and
(c) length of the extruded section if the butt remaining in the container at the end of
the ram stroke is 25 mm.

(All dimensions are in mm)

Solution:
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝑜 𝐷 1002
4 𝑜 4
(a) 𝑟𝑥 = = (38𝑥12)+(12𝑥62) = = 6.545 Answer
𝐴𝑓 1200

𝐶 2.25
(b) 𝑘𝑥 = 0.98 + 0.02 ( 𝑥 )
𝐶 𝑐
Cx = (50+62+12+50+38+12) = 224mm
𝜋
Af=1200= 𝐷𝑓2 𝐷𝑓 = 39.1𝑚𝑚
4
∴ 𝐶𝑐 = 𝜋𝐷𝑓 = 𝜋(39.1) = 122.836𝑚𝑚
224 2.25
∴ 𝑘𝑥 = 0.98 + 0.02 ( ) = 1.057 Answer
122.836

(c) From the constancy of volume:

Do Df

h=25
L Lex

𝜋
1002 (500−25)
4
Ao (L-h)=Af Lex Lex= Ao (L-h) / Af = = 3108.9𝑚𝑚 Answer
1200
Lex: extruded length

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Note:

- If the die angle is 75°, determine the extruded length.

75º

Do Df

h=Butt
L Length

75º
Do/2 h
Df/2

Thus;
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓 100 39.1
− −
2 2 2 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛75 = ℎ= = 8.159𝑚𝑚
ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛75

𝜋ℎ 𝐷𝑜 2 𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 2
Volume of frustum (butt) is: 𝑉𝑏 = [( ) + +( ) ]
3 2 2 2 2

8.159𝜋 100 2 100 39.1 39.1 2

∴ 𝑉𝑏 = [( ) + +( ) ] = 32977.6𝑚𝑚3
3 2 2 2 2
𝜋𝐷𝑜2 𝜋1002
Volume of original metal: 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑖 = 𝐿= (500) = 3926990.8𝑚𝑚3
4 4

3926990.8−32977.6
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑖 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑥 = = 3245𝑚𝑚
1200

9- Forces in Hot Extrusion:

- Due to the strain-rate sensitivity of metals at elevated temperatures, the force
in hot extrusion is difficult to calculate accurately.
- Thus, the average true-strain rate of the material is used to estimate force in
hot extrusion as follows:
𝜀 ln 𝑟
𝜀̅̇ = = 𝑥
𝑡 𝑡

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑡 (𝑉𝑏 )

Volume flow rate of metal (Q) = 𝑣𝑜 𝐴𝑜 =
𝑡

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑡 (𝑉𝑏 ) 𝑉𝑏

∴𝑡= =
𝑣𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝐴𝑜

α
Do/2 h
Df/2

𝜋ℎ 𝐷 𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 2
𝑉𝑏 =
3
[( 2𝑜 )2 + 2 2
+( ) ]
2

𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓
− − 𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑓
2 2 2 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = ℎ= =
ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

𝜋 (𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑓 ) 𝐷 𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 2 𝜋
𝑉𝑏 = [( 2𝑜 )2 + +( ) ]= (𝐷𝑜3 − 𝐷𝑓3 )
6 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 2 2 2 24 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

𝜋
(𝐷3 −𝐷𝑓3 ) (𝐷𝑜3 −𝐷𝑓3 )
24 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑜
∴𝑡= 𝜋 =
𝑣𝑜 4 𝐷𝑜2 6 𝑣𝑜 𝐷𝑜2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

𝟐
𝐥𝐧 𝒓 𝟔 𝒗 𝑫 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶
∴ 𝜺̅̇ = 𝒙 = 𝒐 𝟑 𝒐 𝟑 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙
𝒕 (𝑫𝒐 −𝑫𝒇 )

- At high extrusion ratios (Do >> Df), die angle=45º (square die), and poor
lubrication, the true strain-rate is:
𝟐 𝟐
𝟔 𝒗 𝑫 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶 𝟔 𝒗 𝑫 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟒𝟓 𝟔𝒗
𝜺̅̇ = 𝒐 𝟑 𝒐 𝟑 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙 = 𝒐 𝒐 𝟑 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙 = 𝒐 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝒙
(𝑫𝒐 −𝑫𝒇 ) 𝑫𝒐 𝑫𝒐

Where;
vo: ram velocity (metal speed in container)
𝜺̅̇: average true-strain rate

- Flow Stress:
̅ 𝒇 = 𝝈 = 𝑪𝜺̅̇𝒎
𝝈 = 𝑪𝜺̅̇𝒎 , assume that: 𝒀

- Ram Pressure:
̅ 𝒇 (𝜺𝒙 + 𝟐𝑳 )
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒀 For Direct Extrusion
𝑫𝒐

̅ 𝒇 𝜺𝒙
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒀 For Indirect Extrusion

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

- Ram Force:
Indirect Extrusion: 𝑭𝟏 = 𝒑𝟏 𝑨𝒐
Direct Extrusion: 𝑭𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐 𝑨𝒐

- Power Required for Extrusion:

Indirect Extrusion: 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝟏 𝒗𝒐
Direct Extrusion: 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝟐 𝒗𝒐

vo: ram velocity (m/s)

Example (8):

A copper billet 5in in diameter and 10in long is direct extruded to 2in final
diameter (circular die) at 1500ºF with a ram speed of 10in/s. Using a square die
and poor lubrication, estimate (a) pressure, (b) force and (c) power. Take: a=0.8,
b=1.4, C=19000 (Ib.s/in2) , m=0.06.

Solution:
2𝐿
(a) 𝑝2 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 (𝜀𝑥 + )
𝐷𝑜
Kx=1.0 circular die. L=10in, Do=5in
𝑌̅𝑓 = 𝐶𝜀̅̇𝑚
6𝑣 6(10) 5 2
𝜀̅̇ = 𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑥 = ln 2 = 22 𝑠 −1
𝐷𝑜 5 2

∴ 𝑌̅𝑓 = 𝐶𝜀̅̇𝑚 = 19000(220.06 ) = 22872 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛2

52
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ln 𝑟𝑥 = 0.8 + 1.4 ln = 3.366
22
2𝐿 2(10)
𝑝2 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 (𝜀𝑥 + ) = 22872 (3.366 + ) = 168475.2 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 Answer
𝐷𝑜 5
𝜋
(b) 𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴𝑜 = 168475.2 52 = 3308002.8 𝐼𝑏 Answer
4
(c) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹2 𝑣𝑜 = 3308002.8 (10) = 33080028 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑖𝑛/𝑠 Answer
Or HP = 33080028 / 6600 = 5012 hp

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Example (9):

A direct extrusion operation is performed on a cylindrical billet with an initial

diameter of 2.0in and an initial length of 4.0in. The die angle = 60° and orifice
diameter is 0.5in (circular die). In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8
and b = 1.5. The operation is carried out hot and the hot metal yields at 13,000
lb/in2 (which is flow stress 𝑌̅𝑓 ) and does not strain harden when hot (n=0.0).
(a) What is the extrusion ratio? (b) Determine the ram position at the point when
the metal has been compressed into the cone of the die and starts to extrude
through the die opening. (c) What is the ram pressure corresponding to this
position? (d) Also determine the length of the final part if the ram stops its forward
movement at the start of the die cone.

Solution:
𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝑜2 22
(a) 𝑟𝑥 = = = = 16 Answer
𝐴𝑓 𝐷𝑓2 0.52

(b) To determine the ram position when extrusion starts, the volume of the
frustum must be calculated firstly:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑏 = (𝐷𝑜3 − 𝐷𝑓3 ) =
24 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
(23 − 0.53 ) = 0.595 𝑖𝑛3
24 𝑡𝑎𝑛60

The volume of billet compressed forward to fill the frustum V1 is given by:
𝜋
𝑉1 = 𝐷𝑜2 (𝐿 − 𝐿1 ) this volume is equal to Vb, then:
4
𝜋 2
𝐷 (𝐿 − 𝐿1 ) = 𝑉𝑏 = 0.595
4 𝑜

60º

Do Df

L1
h=Butt
L Length

𝜋
22 (4 − 𝐿1 ) = 0.595 L1 = 3.811 in Answer
4

2𝐿
(c) 𝑝2 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑌̅𝑓 (𝜀𝑥 + ) kx = 1.0 (circular die)
𝐷𝑜
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ln 𝑟𝑥 = 0.8 + 1.5 ln 16 = 4.959

L=L1 , 𝑌̅𝑓 = 13000 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛2

𝜀 = ln 16 = 2.773

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

2(3.811)
∴ 𝑝2 = 13000 (4.959 +
2
) = 114010 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 Answer

(d) 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑖 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑒𝑥

𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑖 −𝑉𝑏 𝐷 𝐿−𝑉𝑏 2 (4)−0.595
4 𝑜 4
𝐿𝑒𝑥 = = 𝜋 2 = 𝜋 = 60.97 𝑖𝑛 Answer
𝐴𝑓 𝐷 0.52
4 𝑓 4

Home Work:

Show that the true strain rate in extruding a round billet of radius ro as a
function of distance x from the entry of a conical die can be given as:
2𝑣𝑜 𝑟𝑜2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝜀̇ = − (𝑟 3
where; vo: ram velocity
𝑜 −𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)

Other Extrusion Processes:

Impact Extrusion:

- It is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than conventional

extrusion.
- It is used to make individual components.
- It can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion or
combination of these as shown in figure (3-27).
- It is usually done cold and backward extrusion impact is the most common.
- Products made by this method: toothpaste tubes and battery cases. Also very
thin walls products are possible.
- It is important commercial process because of high speed characteristics of
impacting which permit large reductions and high production rates.

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Figure (3-27) impact extrusion: (a) forward, (b) backward, and (c) combination of
forward and backward

Hydrostatic Extrusion:

- Friction problem can be addressed by surrounding the billet with fluid inside
the container as shown in figure (3-28).
- This way, there is no friction inside the container and the friction at the die
opening is reduced.
- Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct extrusion.
- It can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures,
therefore, special fluids and procedures must be used in this case.
- The fluid may be castor oil with 10% alcohol, SAE 30 lubricant, ethyl
alcohol, propane, etc.
- The hydrostatic pressures applied range from 1000 to 3000 MPa.
- There is no need for any lubrication because the fluid can do that.
- Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of direct extrusion.
- Because the w.p. is compressed uniformly from all sides, this is leading to a
more compact, dense products.
- Hydrostatic pressure on the w.p. increases the material’s ductility.

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

- Accordingly, this process can be used on metals that would be too brittle for
conventional extrusion because of high compressive stresses applied.
- Ductile metals can also be hydrostatically extruded, and high reduction
ratios are possible.
- The absence of container friction permits extrusion of very long product.
- The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into the die
entry angle. This is one of the disadvantages of this process.
- This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from squirting out the die hole when
the container is initially pressurized.
- This process can be used for extrusion of fuel rods for nuclear reactors,
cladding of metals, and wires from brittles materials.

Figure (3-28) hydrostatic extrusion

Defects in Extruded Products:

Figure (3-29) explains some extrusion defects.

(a) Centerburst:
- Other names sometimes used for this defect include arrowhead fracture,
center cracking, and chevron cracking.
- This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses
along the centerline of the w.p. during extrusion.
- The significant material movement in outer regions stretches the material
along the center of the w.p.. If stresses are great enough, bursting occurs.
- Conditions that promote centerburst are high die angles, low extrusion
ratios, and impurities in the w.p. that serve as starting points for crack
defects.
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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

(b) Piping:
- It is a defect associated with direct extrusion.
- It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.
- The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the
billet helps to avoid piping. Other names given to this defect include tailpipe
and fishtailing.
(c) Surface Cracking:
- This defect results from high w.p. temperatures that cause cracks to develop
at the surface.
- They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high strain
rates and associated heat generation.
- Additional factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and
surface chilling.

Figure (3-29) extrusion defects; (a) centerburst, (b) piping, and (c) surface cracking

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