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Workshop Practice - Diploma in mechanical engineering

module 1
Mechanical properties of materials (Monash University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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WORKSHOP PRACTICE

Engineering workshop services include engineering design, fabrication and machining. This
involves the selection and use of workshop tools as well as machines. As such, an understanding
of workshop practice will ensure effective and safe use of tools and machines while also
ensuring the safety of other workshop users.

Workshop safety rules

 The equipment should be operated by suitably trained and qualified personnel.
 Always wear appropriate attire for operating a machine or equipment i.e. wear leather shoes
and not sandals.
 Ensure the equipment and work are kept clean
 Always seek instruction when using unfamiliar equipment
 Only use tools and machines for their intended purpose
 Report any damaged equipment and only use it again after it has been repaired and replaced
 In case of machine guard provisions, they must be kept in their place
 Do not destruct a fellow operator when operating a machine
 Always use the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE)
 Don’t wear loose clothes i.e restrain any long hair
 Do not use compressed air for self-cleaning
 Always report any hazard, unsafe conditions and work practices
 Keep hands and tools wiped clean and free of dirt, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer to use
than slippery tools.
 Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.
 Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.

Common injuries and possible first-aid procedure

(a)Bleeding and wounds

These can be caused by chemical or compressed burns or by heat or electrical burns
A. Chemical burns
i. Use a drench hose or emergency shower to wash away any traces of chemicals for about fifteen
minutes
ii. Remove the contained clothing from the victim
iii. Cover the burn loosely using a clean burn dressing
iv. Check the victim for shock
v. Call for medical attention
vi.
B. Heat/electrical burns
i. Use water to stop the actual burning of skin
ii. Do not break a blister if it forms
iii. Do not apply ointments or creams
iv. Call for medical attention
v.
(b) Electric shock
i. Unplug or switch off source of electricity before touching the person
ii. Call emergency medical attention
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Workshop fires
Fires are classified principally by the type of fuel that they burn.
Class A
Consist of combustibles such as wood, papers, trash or any other materials that leave ash as
residue
Can be extinguished using water
Class B
They are fuelled by flammable or combustible liquids
This include: gasoline (petrol)
Can be best extinguished using smothering materials that deplete oxygen on the burning site.
Class C
These are the energized electrical fires
They are extinguished using non-conductive extinguishing agents such as carbon dioxide.
It is recommended that the circuit must be first de-energized
Class D
Caused by combustible metals such as titanium and magnesium
Best extinguished using dry powder
Class K
Caused by cooking oils, grease or animal fat
Extinguished using purple K found in kitchen extinguisher

Fire extinguishers
i. Water fire extinguishers (red color code): these are used on class A fires only
ii. Foam extinguishers (yellow/cream color code): they are versatile extinguishers used on class
A and B fires
iii.
iv. Dry powder extinguishers(blue color code): these are multipurpose extinguishers used on
class A, B and C fires. They are the best to be used on class B (running liquid fires)
v. Carbon (IV) oxide extinguishers (black color code): best used for class C and B fires
Workshop tools

HOLDING TOOLS

i) Bench vice
The bench vice is a work holding device.

It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw
and movable jaw.

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V‐block is rectangular or square block with a V‐groove on one or both sides opposite to each
other. The angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V‐block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical work
securely, during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling
iii) C‐Clamp
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v‐block or any other surface, when gripping is
required. The working principle of this clamp is the same as that of the bench vice.

V‐block C‐clamp

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

i) Surface plate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work piece.
It is also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking table. The degree
of the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop or for using
in an inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or Granite stone. It
is specified by length, width, height and grade.

Surface plate Angle plate

ii) Try square

It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle .In practice, it is used for checking the squareness
of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of the Try
square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is
specified by the length of the blade.
iii) Scriber
A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. It is generally available in lengths, ranging from
125mm to 250mm. It has two pointed ends with the bent end used for marking lines where the
straight end cannot reach.

a) Try square b) Scriber

iv) Odd leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel liners
from a finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed like a
divider and the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the hinge
point.
v) Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the
measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting
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lines. It is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size
is specified by the length of the leg.

a) Odd leg caliper b) Divider

vi) Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly.
Theseare made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as 150’
12.5mm). Itconsists of a cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the top of it.
At the other end, itis ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened over a length
of 20 to 30mm.
Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and toprovide
a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conicalpoint
having 60° included angle.
Center punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having
90°included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

vii) Calipers
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are
usedwith the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of
Casehardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the legs of
the caliperare set against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance
between the legs ismeasured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another
desired place. These arespecified by the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper, the legs
are bent inwards and in the case
of inside caliper, the legs bent outwards.

viii) Vernier Calipers

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also beused
as a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the other
jawis made part of a vernier scale.

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ix) Vernier Height Gauge

The Vernier Height gauge clamped with a scriber. It is used for Lay out work and offset scriber
isused when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is standing.
Theaccuracy and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier calipers. Its
size isspecified by the maximum height that can be measured by it. It is made of Nickel‐
Chromium Steel.

CUTTING TOOLS
i) Hack Saw
The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin
blade,firmly in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter.
Hacksaw bladeshave a number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having
lesser number of teethper cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze.
Blades having larger numberof teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel
and cast Iron.
Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all hard blades are made
ofH.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used
to cuthard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting and forcing
them into thework while sawing. Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only
the teeth are hardenedand the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by
un‐skilled or semi‐skilled
persons.

The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a ‘set of
teeth’.These make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.

Set of teeth
ii) Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are madefrom
0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened
andtempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internal
stresses in ametal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.

Flat chisel
iii) Twist Drill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High speed steel. Both straight
andtaper shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary self
– centeringdrill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore
provided in the drillingmachine spindle.

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iv) Taps and Tap wrenches

A tap is a hardened and steel tool, used for cutting internal thread in a drill hole. Hand Taps
areusually supplied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a tapper
tap,intermediate tap and plug or bottoming tap. Taps are made of high carbon steel or high speed
steel.

v) Dies and die‐holders

Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or splittype.
They are fixed in a die stock for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of Steel or
HighCarbon Steel.

vi) Bench Drilling Machine

Holes are drilled for fastening parts with rivets, bolts or for producing internal thread.
Benchdrilling machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose. Twist
drills, made oftool steel or high speed steel are used with the drilling machine for drilling
holes.Following are the stages in drilling work
1.Select the correct size of drills, put it into the chuck and lock it firmly
2.Adjust the speed of the machine to suit the work by changing the belt on the pulleys (Use high
speedfor small drills and soft materials and low speed for large diameter drills and hard
materials.
3.Layout of the location of the pole and mark it with a center punch.
4.Hold the work firmly in the vice on the machine table and clamp it directly on to the machine
table.
5.Put on the power, locate the punch mark and apply slight pressure with the Feed Handle.
6.Once Drilling is commenced at the correct location, apply enough pressure and continue
drilling.When drilling steel apply cutting oil at the drilling point.
7.Release the pressure slightly, when the drill point pierces the lower surface of the metal. This
prevents the drill catching and damaging the work or drill.
8.On completion of drilling retrace the drill out of the work and put‐off the power supply.

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FINISHING TOOLS
i) Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting
toolcalled a reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of
which isslightly smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is used
for finishingthe hole to the correct size.
Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left‐hand spiral flutes so that, it is
preventedfrom screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made
straight so that itcan be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on
the square end of thereamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is
given a slight tapper at itsworking end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is
rotated only in clock wise directionand also while removing it from the whole.

ii) Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a
metalpart. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its
surfaces.On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to
fit intoa wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel in
width andtapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double cut teeth. On
the faces, singlecut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge which is known as a safe edge.

Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth.
Thefigure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

Single and double cut files

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MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

i) File card
It is a metal brush, used for cleaning the files, to free them from filings, clogged in‐between
theteeth.

ii) Spirit level

It is used to check the leveling of machines.
iii) Ball‐ Peen Hammer
Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by
theirweight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end,
particularlyused for riveting.

iv) Cross‐Peen Hammer

It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,riveting,
bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
v) Straight‐Peen Hammer
This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is usedfor
swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.

Cross peen hammer Straight peen hammer

vi) Screw driver

A screw driver is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in different
lengths and diameters. The grinding of the tip to the correct shape is very important. A star screw
driver is specially designed to fit the head of star screws. The end of the blade is fluted instead of
flattened. The screw driver is specified by the length of the metal part from handle to the tip.
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vii) Spanners
A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.
Thereare many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size of the
spannerdenotes the size of the bolt on which it can work.

MACHINE SHOP
In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. A lathe is used to cut and
shape the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a
chuck, fitted on to the lathe spindle or in‐between the centers. The cutting tool is fixed in a tool
post, mounted on a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The cutting tool can be
fed on to the work, either lengthwise or cross‐wise. While turning, the chuck rotates in counter‐
clockwise direction, when viewed from the tail stock end.

LATHE MACHINE
Figure 4.1 shows a center lathe, indicating the main parts. The name is due to the fact that work
pieces are held by the centers.

Parts of a center lathe

Bed – It is an essential part of a lathe, which must be strong and rigid. It carries all parts of the
machine and resists the cutting forces.
Head stock – It contains either a cone pulley or gearings to provide the necessary range of
speeds and feeds.
It contains the main spindle, to which the work is held and rotated.
Tail stock – It is used to support the right hand end of a long work piece
Carriage or Saddle – It is used to control the movement of the cutting tool.
Compound Rest - It supports the tool post. By swiveling the compound rest on the cross slide,
short tapers may be
turned to any desired angles.
40
4.2.6 Tool Post
The tool post, holds the tool holder or the tool, which may be adjusted to any working position.
4.2.7 Lead Screw
It is a long threaded shaft, located in front of the carriage, running from the head‐stock to the
tail stock. It is geared to the spindle and controls the movement of the tool, either for automatic
feeding
or for cutting threads.
4.2.8 Centers
There are two centers known as dead center and live center. The dead center is positioned in
the tail stock spindle and the Downloaded
live center, in the head‐stock spindle. While turning between
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centers, the
dead center does not revolve with the work while the live center revolves with the work.

CUTTING PARAMETERS
Cutting speed
It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified in meters per
minute. Ti depends upon the work piece material, feed, depth of cut, type of operation and so
many
other cutting conditions. It is calculated from the relation,
Spindle speed (RPM) = cutting speed x 1000 / (πD)
Where D is the work piece diameter in mm.
Feed
It is the distance traversed by the tool along the bed, during one revolution of the work. Its value
depends upon the depth of cut and surface finish of the work desired.
Depth of Cut
It is the movement of the tip of the cutting tool, from the surface of the work piece and
perpendicular to the lathe axis. Its value depends upon the nature of operation like rough turning
or
finish turning.
TOOL MATERIALS
General purpose hand cutting tools are usually made from carbon steel or tool steel. The single
point lathe cutting tools are made of high speed steel (HSS).the main alloying elements in 18‐4‐1
HSS tools are 18 percent tungsten, 4 percent chromium and 1 percent vanadium.5 to 10 percent
cobalt is
also added to improve the heat resisting properties of the tool.
Carbide tipped tools fixed in tool holders, are mostly used in production shops.

TOOL GEOMETRY
A single point cutting tool used on lathe may be considered as a simple wedge. Figure 4.8 shows
the common turning tools used for different operations.

LATHE OPERATIONS
Turning
Cylindrical shapes, both external and internal, are produced by turning operation. Turning is the
process in which the material is removed by a traversing cutting tool, from the surface of a
rotating work piece. The operation used for machining internal surfaces is often called the boring
operation in which a hole previously drilled is enlarged.
For turning long work, first it should be faced and center drilled at one end and then supported
by means of the tail‐stock centre.
Boring
Boring is enlarging a hole and is used when correct size drill is not available. However, it should
be noted that boring cannot make a hole.
Facing
performed to make the end surface of the work piece, flat and perpendicular to the axis of
rotation. For this, the work piece may be held in a chuck and rotated about the lathe axis. A
facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the lathe. The tool is slightly inclined towards the
end of the work piece.
Taper Turning
A taper is defined as the uniform change in the diameter of a work piece, measured along its
length. It is expressed as a ratio of the difference in diameters to the length. It is also expressed in
degrees of half the included (taper) angle.
Taper turning refers to the production of a conical surface, on the work piece on a lathe.
Short steep tapers may be cut on a lathe by swiveling the compound rest to the required angle.
Here, the cutting tool is fed by means of the compound slide feed handle. The work piece is
rotated in a chuck or face plate or between centers.
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Drilling
Holes that are axially located in cylindrical parts are produced by drilling operation, using a twist
drill. For this, the work piece is rotated in a chuck or face plate. The tail stock spindle has a
standard taper. The drill bit is fitted into the tail stock spindle directly or through drill chuck. The
tail stock is then moved over the bed and clamped on it near the work. When the job rotates, the
drill bit is fed into the work by turning the tail stock hand wheel.

Knurling
It is the process of embossing a diamond shaped regular pattern on the surface of a work piece
using a special knurling tool. This tool consists of a set of hardened steel rollers in a holder with
the teeth cut on their surface in a definite pattern. The tool is held rigidly on the tool post and the
rollers are pressed against the revolving work piece to squeeze the metal against the multiple
cutting edges. The
purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from
slipping when operated by hand.

Chamfering
It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a work piece. Chamfer is provided for better
look, to enable nut to pass freely on threaded work piece, to remove burrs and protect the end of
the work piece from being damaged.

Threading
Threading is nothing but cutting helical groove on a work piece. Threads may be cut either on
the internal or external cylindrical surfaces. A specially shaped cutting tool, known as thread
cutting tool, is used for this purpose. Thread cutting in a lathe is performed by traversing the
cutting tool at a definite rate, in proportion to the rate at which the work revolves.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Always wear eye protection ‐ preferably industrial quality safety glasses with side‐shields. The
lathe can throw off sharp, hot metal chips at considerable speed as well as spin off spirals of
metal that can be quite hazardous. Don't take chances with your eyes.
2. Wear short sleeve shirts, loose sleeves can catch on rotating work and quickly pull your hand
or arm into harm's way.
3. Wear shoes ‐ preferably leather work shoes ‐ to protect your feet from sharp metal chips on the
shop floor and from tools and chunks of metal that may get dropped.
4. Remove wrist watches, necklaces, chains and other jewelry. Tie back long hair so it can't get
caught in the rotating work. Think about what happens to your face if your hair gets entangled.
5. Always double check to make sure your work is securely clamped in the chuck or between
centers before starting the lathe. Start the lathe at low speed and increase the speed gradually.
6. Get in the habit of removing the chuck key immediately after use. Some users recommend
never removing your hand from the chuck key when it is in the chuck. The chuck key can be a
lethal projectile if the lathe is started with the chuck key in the chuck.
7. Keep your fingers clear of the rotating work and cutting tools. This sounds obvious, but I am
often tempted to break away metal spirals as they form at the cutting tool.
8. Avoid reaching over the spinning chuck. For filing operations, hold the tang end of the file in
your left hand so that your hand and arm are not above the spinning chuck.
9. Never use a file with a bare tang ‐ the tang could be forced back into your wrist or palm

DRILLING
Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the work-piece by using a rotating cutter
called DRILL.
 The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.
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 The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill is held in tailstock
and the work is held by the chuck.
 The most common drill used is the twist drill.

Drilling Machine
 It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production shop.
 The work piece is held stationary ie. Clamped in position and the drill rotates to make a
hole.
Types
1) Based on construction:
Portable,
Sensitive,
Radial,
up-right,
Gang,
Multi-spindle
2) Based on Feed:
Hand driven
Power driven
Components of drilling machine

Spindle: The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve.
Sleeve: The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a direction
parallel to its axis.
Column: The column is cylindrical in shape and built rugged and solid. The column supports the
head and the sleeve or quill assembly.
Head: The head of the drilling machine is composed of the sleeve, a spindle, an electric motor
and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the column.
Worktable: The worktable is supported on an arm mounted to the column. The worktable can be
adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work or it can be swung completely out
of the way. It may be tilted up to 90 degree in either direction, to allow long pieces to be end or
angle drilled.
Base: The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when bolted to the floor,
provides for vibration-free operation and best machining accuracy.
Hand Feed: The hand- feed drilling machines are the simplest and most common type of drilling
machines in use today. These are light duty machine that are operated by the operator
Power feed: They are usually larger and heavier than the hand feed ones they are equipped with
the ability to feed the cutting tool in to the work automatically.

Sensitive or Bench Drilling Machine

 This type of drill machine is used for very light works. Fig.1 illustrates the sketch of
sensitive drilling machine.
 The vertical column carries a swiveling table the height of which can be adjusted
according to the work piece height.
 The table can also be swung to any desired position.
 At the top of the column there are two pulleys connected by a belt, one pulley is mounted
on the motor shaft and other on the machine spindle.
 Vertical movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle by the operator.
 Operator senses the cutting action so sensitive drilling machine.
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 Drill holes from 1.5 to 15mm

Up-Right Drilling Machine

 These are medium heavy duty machines.

 It specifically differs from sensitive drill in its weight, rigidity, application of power
feed and wider range of spindle speed. Fig.2 shows the line sketch of up-right drilling
machine.
 This machine usually has a gear driven mechanism for different spindle speed and an
automatic or power feed device.
 Table can move vertically and radially.
 Drill holes up to 50mm

Radial Drilling Machine

 It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and heavy work pieces.
 Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type.
 The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill head and motor.
Fig.3 shows the line sketch of radial drilling machine.

 The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of elevating screw
provided on the side of the column, which is driven by a motor.
 The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide ways provided the
radial arm can also be swiveled around the column.
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 The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, which carries the
drill bit. A drill head may be moved on the arm manually or by power.
 Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism.
Drill Materials
The two most common types are
1. HSS drill
- Low cost
2. Carbide- tipped drills
–
- high production and in st
–
Types of drills s

– d

Drill fixed to the spindle

Fig. 5 Drill fixed to a spindle

Tool Nomenclature

Tool holding devices

The different methods used for holding drill in a drill spindle are
 By directly fitting in the spindle hole.
 By using drill sleeve
 By using drill socket
 By using drill chuck

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Drilling operations
Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are
 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Counter boring
 Countersinking
 Tapping

Drilling:
It is an operation by which holes are produced in solid metal by means of revolving tool called
‘Drill’. Fig. 9 shows the various operations on drilling machine.
Reaming:
Reaming is accurate way of sizing and finishing the pre-existing hole.
Multi tooth cutting tool. Accuracy of 0.005mm can be achieved
Boring:
Boring is a process of enlarging an existing hole by a single point cutting tool. Boring operation
is often preferred because we can correct hole size, or alignment and can produce smooth finish.
Boring tool is held in the boring bar which has the shank. Accuracy of 0.005mm can be
achieved.

Counter Bore:- This operation uses a pilot to guide the cutting action to accommodate the heads
of bolts. Fig. 10 illustrates the counter boring, countersunk and spot facing processes.
Countersink:- Special angled cone shaped enlargement at the end of the hole to accommodate
the screws. Cone angles of 60°, 82°, 90°, 100°, 110°, 120°

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Tapping:- Tapping is the process by which internal threads are formed. It is performed either by
hand or by machine. Minor diameter of the thread is drilled and then tapping is done. Fig. 11
show the tapping processes.

Definitions
1. Cutting Speed (v):- It’s the peripheral speed of the drill.The cutting speed depends upon the
properties of the material being drilled, drill material, drill diameter, rate of speed, coolant used
etc…
v = *D*N where
D = dia of the drill in m
N = Speed of rotation in rpm
2. Feed Rate (f):- It’s the movement of drill along the axis (rpm)
3. Depth of Cut (d):- The distance from the machined surface to the drill axis.
d=D/2
As the depth of hole increases, the chip ejection becomes more difficult and the fresh cutting
fluid is not able to cutting zone. Hence for machining the lengthy hole special type of drill called
‘gun drill’ is used.
4. Material Removal Rate:-
It’s the volume of material removed by the drill per unit time
MRR = ( D2 / 4) * f * N mm3 / min
5. Machining Time (T):- It depends upon the length (l) of the hole to be drilled , to the Speed (N)
and feed (f) of the drill
t = L / f N min
Precautions for Drilling machine
 Lubrication is important to remove heat and friction.
 Machines should be cleaned after useby John Opiyo ([email protected])
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 Chips should be removed using brush.

 T-slots, grooves, spindles sleeves, belts, and pulley should be cleaned.
 Machines should be lightly oiled to prevent from rusting
Safety Precautions
 Do not support the work piece by hand – use work holding device.
 Use brush to clean the chip
 No adjustments while the machine is operating
 Ensure for the cutting tools running straight before starting the operation.
 Never place tools on the drilling table
 Avoid loose clothing and protect the eyes.
 Ease the feed if drill breaks inside the work piece.

METAL JOINING
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without
application of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition
and characteristics of the metals joined.
The various welding processes are:
1. Electric arc welding,
2. Gas welding
3. Thermal welding
4.Electrical Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding
However, only electric arc welding process is discussed in the subject point of view.
3.2 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
an electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two
electrodes
through ionized gas.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC);
b. Welding electrode;
c. Work piece;
d. Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature
may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining
them. When a long joint is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the
weld pool melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the
joint.
Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding machines. These
machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the
necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surface so that, the
metals to be joined are actually fixed together.
Sizes of welding machines are rated according to their approximate amperage capacity at 60%
duty cycle, such as 150,200,250,300,400,500 and 600 amperes. This amperage is the rated
current output at the working terminal.
Welding cables
Two welding cables are required, one from machine to the electrode holder and the other,
from the machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred because of the case
of using
and coiling the cables. Cables are specified by their current carrying capacity, say 300 A, 400 A,
etc.
Electrodes
Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire called
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core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are
coated uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While fluxing an electrode; about 20mm
of length is left at one end for holding it with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full
current from electrode holder to the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator
of electricity.
In general, electrodes are classified into five main groups; mild steel, carbon steel, special alloy
steel, cast iron and non‐ferrous. The greatest range of arc welding is done with electrodes in the
mild steel group.
Various constituents like titanium oxide, potassium oxide, cellulose, iron or manganese, Ferro‐
silicates, carbonates, gums, clays, asbestos, etc., are used as coatings on electrodes. While
welding, flux vaporizes and provides a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric attack.
The size of electrode is measured and designated by the diameter of the core wire in SWG and
length, apart from the brand and code names; indicating the purpose for which there are most
suitable.
Electrodes classified based on thickness flux coating
1. Dust coated or light coated
2. Semi or medium coated
3. Heavily coated or shielded
Electrode classified on the basis of materials
2. Non‐metallic or carbon
Metallic arc electrodes are further sub‐divided into
1. Ferrous metal arc electrode (mild steel, low/medium/high carbon steel, cast iron, stainless
steel)
2. Non‐ferrous metal arc electrodes (copper, brass, bronze, aluminium).
In case of non‐metallic arc electrodes, mainly carbon and graphite are used to make the
electrodes.

WELDING TOOLS
Electrode holder
The electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode. It
should be light, strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in operation.
Ground clamp: It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or
welding table to complete the electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low
resistance connection.
Wire brush: A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding.
Chipping hammer: A chipping hammer is used for removing slag formation on welds.
Welding table and cabin: It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts
to be welded properly.
Face shield: Used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and from spatter
Hand gloves: These are used to protect the hands from electric shocks and hot spatters

TECHNIQUES OF WELDING
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign
material. The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges, however, thick work
piece should be beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the
weld.
Factors considered before welding
a) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.
b) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
c) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.
NOTE: While making butt welds in thin metal, it is a better practice to tack‐weld the pieces
intervals to hold them properly while welding.
3.4.2 Striking an arc
a) Select an electrode of suitable kind and
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proper value.
b) Fasten the ground clamp to either the work or welding table.
c) Start or strike the arc by either of the following methods
Strike and withdraw (scratch method)
In this method the arc is started by moving the end of the electrode onto the work with a slow
sweeping motion, similar to striking a match.
Touch and with draw (Tapping method)
In this method, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching
or bouncing it lightly on the work. This method is preferred as it facilitates restarting the
momentarily broken arc quickly. If the electrode sticks to the work, quickly bend it back and
forth, pulling at the same time. Make sure to keep the shield in front of the face, when the
electrode is
freed from sticking.
d) As soon as the arc is struck, move the electrode along, slowly from left to right, keeping at 15º
to 25º from vertical and in the direction of welding.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same plane (fig. 3.10, view A). This
joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type may be either square or
grooved.
2. Corner and tee joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other (fig.
3.10, views B and C). In cross section, the corner joint forms an L‐shape, and the tee joint has the
shape
of the letter T. Various joint designs of both types have uses in many types of metal structures.
3. Lap joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over another. This is one of the strongest
types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, you
should overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the thinnest member you are
joining. Lap joints are commonly used with torch brazing and spot welding applications.
4. Edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most
cases, one of the members is flanged. While this type of joint has some applications in plate
work, it is more frequently used in sheet metal work. An edge joint should only be used for
joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to heavy loads.

3.7 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ARC WELDING

Advantages
1. Welding process is simple.
2. Equipment is portable and the cost is fairly low.
3. All the engineering metals can be welded because of the availability of a wide variety of
electrodes.

Disadvantages
1. Mechanized welding is not possible because of limited length of the electrode.
2. Number of electrodes may have to be used while welding long joints.
3. A defect (slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is
restarted
with a fresh electrode.

SAFE PRACTICE
1.Always weld in a well ventilated place. Fumes given off from welding are unpleasant and in
some cases may be injurious, particularly from galvanized or zinc coated parts.
2.Do not weld around combustible or inflammable materials, where sparks may cause a fire.
3.Never weld containers, which have been used for storing gasoline, oil or similar materials,
without first having them thoroughly cleaned.

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4.Check the welding machine to make sure that it is properly grounded and that all leads
properly
insulated.
5.Never look at the arc with the naked eye. The arc can burn your eyes severely. Always use a
face shield while welding.
6.Prevent welding cables from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil, or grease. Avoid
dragging the cables around sharp corners.
7.Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
8.Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
9.Always turn off the machine when leaving the work.
Apply eye drops after welding is over for the day, to relieve the strain on the eyes.
10. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode, any
other parts
of the electrode holder and the work.

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