Algebra & Trigonometry:

 solve for the unknown, introduction to algebra (natural numbers, irrational numbers, etc.) yep
 inequalities yep
 simultaneous equations yep
 graphing y = x and graphs that are of the form y=mx+c (slope-intercept form) yep
 indices and the basic rules of algebra yep
 radicals, surds, and conjugates no
 manipulating algebraic expressions (for example, rearrange to form an expression for x) yep
 quadratics yep
 graphing quadratics yep
 simultaneous equations, one quadratic one linear
 factorizing quadratic equations and expanding them yep
 completing the square yep
 using the quadratic formula to find the x-intercepts
 find the vertex (minimum or maximum) of a quadratic graph using the formula of the line of
symmetry
 cubics, hyperbolas (reciprocal graphs), and other types of graphs
 function notation and definition, f(x)(input -> some value -> output)
 composite functions
 inverse functions
 graphical transformations
 introduction to trigonometry (pythagorean theorem)
 use first three trigonometric ratios (sinx, cosx, tanx) to find missing sides and angles
 angles between 0 degrees to 90 degrees
 the general definition of angles
 graphs of trig functions/ratios
 inverse trig ratios and their graphs
 trigonometric equations (e.g. sinx = 0.6)
 trigonometric identities (e.g. tanx == sinx/cosx)
Coordinate geometry:

 finding the distance between two points and the midpoint

 finding the equation of a line, its tangent, and normal
 the equation of a circle

Series:

 using Pascal's triangle to expand (a+b)^n

 binomial expansion and the binomial theorem
 arithmetic and geometric progressions and their sums (the nth term)
 infinite geometric series
 arithmetic (and possibly geometric) progressions of trigonometric ratios
Algebra 2:

 the modulus function

 graphs of y = |f(x)| where f(x) is linear
 solving modulus inequalities
 division of polynomials/quadratics
 the factor theorem
 the remainder theorem
 logarithms to base 10
 logarithms to base a
 the laws of logarithms
 solving logarithmic equations
 solving exponential equations involving logarithms
 introduction to e (euler's number, e = 2.718...)
 natural logarithms

Calculus:

 definition of derivatives and differentiation

 the chain rule
 tangents and normals
 second derivatives
 increasing and decreasing functions
 stationary points
 practical maximum and minimum problems
 rates of change
 related rates of change
 definition of the integral (the antiderivative)
 finding the constant of integration
 integration of expressions in the form of (ax+b)^n
 definite integration
 area under a curve or by a curve and a line or by a curve and another curve
 improper integrals
 volume of revolution
Introduction to 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂
What is algebra? Algebra is defined as the mathematical study of the
“unknown.” Or in other words, algebra is the part of mathematics in
which letters and other general symbols are used to represent numbers
and quantities in formulae or equations (according to Google).
Now, let’s define the types of numbers that appear everywhere in
everyday life. We have different types of numbers based on their
properties. They are:
 In the set of natural or counting numbers (ℕ) there are no
negatives and no zero (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, …)
 In the set of integers (ℤ) there are no part or fractional values.
(e.g. …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
 In the set of rational numbers (ℚ) there are no irrational quantities
such as 𝜋 (e.g. -0.065, 0.5, 2.5, 3.2, …) That is, no numbers in the set
of rational numbers have a repeated decimal but are instead a fixed
value.
 In the set of real numbers (ℝ) there are no numbers that when
squared result in a negative value. The set of real numbers include
every number from the list, including other special types of
numbers known as palindromic numbers (i.e., 121, 22, 11, 2, …).
1.1 Solving for the Unknown
In primary school, you might have used shapes to represent unknown
numbers. For example, + 2 = 7. But in algebra, you use letters to
represent unknown numbers. So you could write the above as 𝑥 + 2 = 7,
where 𝑥 is a variable to be found. But you could represent the unknown
as any letter from the alphabet, like a, b, or c, not just x. You can solve an
equation by finding the values that make the equation true.
When you worked with triangles in the past, you used the formula:
𝑏ℎ
𝐴 = 2 to calculate the area of a triangle, where 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
Notice that when letters are close to each other or multiplied to each
other, we write them as 𝑏ℎ rather than 𝑏 × ℎ.
To use a formula, you need to replace all the of the letters (variables)
with numbers, if given by the question. For example: Calculate the area
of a triangle if 𝑏 = 3𝑐𝑚 and ℎ = 8𝑐𝑚.
𝑏ℎ 3×8
Using the formula for the area of a triangle, 𝐴= 2
, 𝐴 = 2 = 12𝑐𝑚2 .

This method is called substitution. An algebraic expression is a group of

numbers and letters linked by operation signs (i.e., +, −, ×, … ). Each
part of the expression is called a term.
Suppose the average height (in centimetres) of students in your class is
an unknown number, ℎ. A student who is 10 cm taller than the average
would have a height of ℎ + 10. A student who is 3 cm shorter than the
average would have a height of ℎ − 3. h + 10 and h − 3 are algebraic
expressions. Because the unknown value is represented by h, we say
these are expressions in terms of h.
Algebraic Rules
In algebra, we must write terms in the shortest, simplest way possible:
 2 × ℎ is written as 2ℎ and 𝑥 × 𝑦 is written as 𝑥𝑦
 ℎ means 1ℎ, but you don’t write the 1
ℎ 𝑥
 ℎ ÷ 2 is written as 2 and 𝑥 ÷ 𝑦 is written as 𝑦
 when you have a product of a number and a variable, for example,
2 and ℎ, you write it as 2ℎ and not ℎ2. Variables are written in
alphabetical order, so 𝑥𝑦 and 2𝑎𝑏, rather than 𝑦𝑥 and 2𝑏𝑎
 ℎ × ℎ is written as ℎ2 and ℎ × ℎ × ℎ is written as ℎ3. The 2 and 3 are
examples of a power or index.
 The power only applies to the number or variable before it, so 5𝑎2
means 5 × 𝑎 × 𝑎.
 When a power is outside a bracket, it applies to everything inside
the bracket. For example, (𝑥𝑦 )4 = 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑥𝑦.
Now that you are more familiar with the rules of algebra, we’ll now be
moving on to rearranging algebraic equations to isolate a variable in
order to achieve a numerical value or a value that isn’t numerical.
Consider the equation 3𝑥 + 5 = 17. How do we find 𝑥 in this case?
 Step 1: Minus 5 on both sides to isolate 3𝑥:
3𝑥 + 5 − 5 = 17 − 5
 Step 2: Divide both sides by 3 in order to achieve the value of x:
3𝑥 12
=
3 3
Therefore, we see that 𝑥 = 4. To check your answer, substitute
𝑥 = 4 into the original equation: 3(4) + 5 = 17. Therefore, we say
that our answer is mathematically correct.
But what about rewriting expressions in their simplest form?
Given (a) 6 × 𝑦 × 𝑦 and (b) 7 × 𝑎 × 𝑏, we have:
(𝑎) 6 × 𝑦 × 𝑦 = 6𝑦 2. Likewise, (b) 7 × 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 7𝑎𝑏.
Working with Brackets
When an expression has brackets, you normally would have to remove
the brackets before you can simplify the expression (i.e., adding the
variables and numbers together). Removing the brackets is called
expanding the expression.
To remove the brackets, you must multiply each and every term
inside the brackets by the term(s) outside the brackets. Pay attention to
the signs in front of the terms when you do this:
𝑥 (𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧
and,
𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧
Here’s an example: Given that (a) 2(2𝑥 + 6) and (b) 𝑥𝑦(2 − 3𝑥), remove
the brackets to simplify the expressions.
(a)

(b)

From the worked examples shown above, we multiplied the variables

within the brackets with the variables or numbers outside the bracket.
Once doing that, we simplify the equation by combining like-terms
(adding numbers, terms, and variables with each other).
Laws of Indices
When you have written a number using indices (powers), you have
written it in index notation (e.g. 𝑥 2 or 53 ). Any number can be used as an
index including 0, negative integers, and fractions. The index (or power)
tells us how many times the base is multiplied by itself.
For the case of 25 , 2 is the base and 5 is the index. So:
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 25
And also, for variables:
𝑦 × 𝑦 × 𝑦 × 𝑦 = 𝑦4
The laws of indices are very important in algebra because of how fast
you’d be able to simplify expressions. You will use this law over and over
again as you learn more algebra, so it is important you understand them.
Look at these two multiplications:
32 × 35 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 4 × 𝑥 3
In the first multiplication, 3 is the base number and in the second, 𝑥 is the
base number. You can simplify the expressions by expanding it like this:
3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 37
𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥7
Therefore, 32 × 35 = 32+5 = 37 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 4 × 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 4+3 = 𝑥 7 .
This gives you the law of indices for multiplication:
When you multiply index expressions with the same base, you can add
the indices: 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛

The same rule applies inversely to numbers that are divided by other
numbers with the same base but different index.
Look at these two divisions:
34 ÷ 32 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 6 ÷ 𝑥 2
You can write these out in expanded form and cancel them out like this:

In other words, 34 ÷ 32 = 34−2 = 32 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 6 ÷ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 6−2 = 𝑥 4

This gives you the law of indices for division:
When you divide index expressions with the same base, you can subtract
𝑥𝑚
the indices: 𝑥 𝑚 ÷ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛
𝑥𝑛

You should remember that any number divided by itself gives 1. So,
3 𝑥4
consider: 3 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 4 = 1 as well. But why is that?

𝑥4
4
= 𝑥 4−4 = 1
𝑥
This gives you the law for the power of 0:
When any number or variable is raised to the power of 0, the answer is
always 1. So, 𝑥 0 = 1.
Look at these two examples:
(𝑥 3 )2 = 𝑥 3 × 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 9
(2𝑥 3 )4 = 2𝑥 3 × 2𝑥 3 × 2𝑥 3 × 2𝑥 3 = 24 × 𝑥 3+3+3+3 = 16𝑥12
If we write the examples in expanded form, we can see that (𝑥 3 )2 = 𝑥 9
and (2𝑥 4 )4 = 16𝑥12 . This gives us the law of raising a power to another:
When you raise a power to another, you multiply the indices:
(𝑥 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛
But what about when the index number is negative? What then? Look at
the two methods of working out 𝑥 3 ÷ 𝑥 5 below:

1
This shows that = 𝑥 −2 . And this gives you a rule for working with
𝑥2
negative indices:
1
𝑥 −𝑚 = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑚
When an expression contains negative indices, you apply the same laws
as for other indices to simplify it.
Here are a few examples to help you out:
Find the value of:
(a) 4−2 (b) 5−1
1 1
For (a), we use the law of negative indices: 4−2 = 42 = 16
1
Likewise, (b) 5−1 =
5

Summary of Index Laws

 𝑥 𝑚 × 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚+𝑛
 𝑥 𝑚 ÷ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛
 (𝑥 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛
 𝑥0 = 1
1
 𝑥 −𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑚 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≠ 0)
The laws of indices also apply to index numbers that are fractions. Take a
look at these following examples to know how to apply the rule:
1 1 1 1
 𝑥 2 × 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2+2 = 𝑥1 = 𝑥
1
In order to understand what 𝑥 is, ask yourself this: what number
2

multiplied by itself gives 𝑥?

 √𝑥 × √𝑥 = 𝑥
1
Therefore, 𝑥 = √𝑥
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
 𝑦 3 × 𝑦 3 × 𝑦 3 = 𝑦 3+3+3 = 𝑦
What number multiplied by itself and itself again would give 𝑦?
 3√𝑦 × 3√𝑦 × 3√𝑦 = 𝑦
1
Therefore, 𝑦 3 = 3√𝑦
This shows that any root of a number can be written using fractional
1
indices. So, 𝑥 = 𝑚√𝑥
𝑚

Sometimes you may have to work with indices that are non-unit
fractions (a fraction whose numerator isn’t 1). For example,
2
 𝑥 3
3
 𝑦4
To find the rule working with these, you have to think back to the law of
raising a power to another power. Look at these examples to see how
this works:
2 1 2 2 1 2
 𝑥 = (𝑥 3 ) = ( 3√𝑥) →
3 × 2 𝑖𝑠
3 3
3 1 3 3 1 3
 𝑦 4 = (𝑦 4 ) = ( 4√𝑦) → × 3 𝑖𝑠
4 4
𝑚 1 1 𝑚 𝑚
In general terms: 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚×𝑛 = (𝑥 𝑛 ) = ( 𝑛√𝑥)
1.2 Linear Inequalities
Suppose you are told that 𝑥 < 4. This must mean that each possible value
of 𝑥 must be less than 4. Therefore, 𝑥 can be 3, 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, …
But that isn’t all. 𝑥 can also be irrational numbers or rational numbers
that are less than 4 like 𝜋 or 3.28. A number that tends to 4, like 3.999…
also counts as less than 4.
If you draw a number line, you can use an arrow to represent the set of
numbers (from −∞ to 4):

Notice that the open circle above 4 is not filled in. This symbol is used
because it is not possible for 𝑥 to be equal to 4 but only less than 4.
Now suppose that 𝑥 ≥ −2. This tells you that 𝑥 is greater than or equal to
-2. You can show that 𝑥 can be equal to -2 by filling in the circle above -2
on the number line:

Algebraic Inequalities
Consider the inequality: 3𝑥 > 6. If 𝑥 = 2, then 6 > 6. This doesn’t quite
work, however. Any value above 2 would work, however.
In the same way you could divide both sides in an equation by 3, both
sides of the inequality can be divided by 3 to get the solution:
3𝑥 > 6
3𝑥 6
>
3 3
𝑥>2
Notice that this is a range of values for 𝑥 rather a single value. Any value
greater than 2 works and satisfies the above equation. In fact, you can
solve any linear inequality the same way you would solve a regular
algebraic equation like 3𝑥 + 1 = 2. Most importantly, you should
remember that what you do to one side of the inequality, you must do to
the other.
Let’s work out some examples:
(a) 3𝑥 − 4 < 14 (b) 4(𝑥 − 7) ≥ 16 (c) 5𝑥 − 3 ≤ 2𝑥 + 18
For (a),
 3𝑥 − 4 < 14
 3𝑥 < 18 ← Add 4 on both sides
 𝑥<6 ← Divide both sides by 3
For (b),
 4(𝑥 − 7) ≥ 16
 4𝑥 − 28 ≥ 16 ← Expand the expression
 4𝑥 ≥ 44 ← Add 28 on both sides
 𝑥 ≥ 11 ← Divide both sides by 4 to get your answer
For (c),
 5𝑥 − 3 ≤ 2𝑥 + 18
 3𝑥 − 3 ≤ 18 ← Minus 2𝑥 on both sides
 3𝑥 ≤ 21 ← Add both sides by 3
 𝑥 ≤ 7 ← Divide both sides by 3
Before moving onto the next unit, there is one further rule to remember.
Consider this inequality:
 3 − 5𝑥 > 18
 −5𝑥 > 15 ← Subtract 3 from both sides
If you divide both sides by -5, it would appear that the solution would be:
𝑥 > −3, but this is not the case.
Here is an alternative solution to getting the correct answer:
 3 − 5𝑥 > 18
 3 > 18 + 5𝑥
 −15 > 5𝑥
 −3 > 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < −3
This is a correct solution, and the answer is very similar to the wrong
one above. The only difference is that the inequality symbol is reversed.
If you try substituting values of 𝑥 < −3 like −4 into the original
inequality, we get:
 3 − 5(−4) > 18
 23 > 18
Therefore, we can conclude that:
If you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a
𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 number, then you must 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 the direction of the inequality
sign.

1.3 Graphing
Mr Keele owns a boat hire company. If Mr Keele makes a fl at charge of
$40 and then another $15 per hour of hire, you can find a formula for the
total cost $𝑦 after a hire time of 𝑥 hours.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑦 = 40 + 15𝑥, where per hour of hire is denoted as 𝑥
Rearranging gives 𝑦 = 15𝑥 + 40
Now think about the total cost for different hire times:
 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 15(1) + 40 = $55
 𝑡𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 15(2) + 40 = $70
 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 15(3) + 40 = $85
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛...
 If you put these values against a table (with some more hours
added) you can plot a group of the total cost, 𝑦 against the number
of hire hours:

The graph shows the total cost of the boat hire (plotted against the y-
axis) and the total number of hours (plotted against the x-axis). Notice
that all the points lie on a straight line.
The formula 𝑦 = 15𝑥 + 40 tells you how the y-coordinates of the line are
all related to the x-coordinates of the line. This formula is called an
equation of the line.
The slope-intercept from, or the equation of the line, is in the form:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where 𝑦 is the y-coordinate, 𝑚 is the gradient, 𝑥 is the x-coordinate, and
𝑐 is the y-intercept (the point on the y-axis where the line crosses).
To draw a graph from its equation:
 Draw up a table of x and y-coordinates of at least three points
(although you may be given more depending on the question)
  Draw up and label the set of axes for the range of y-values you have
worked out
 Plot each point on the coordinate plane
 Draw a straight line to join the points (recommended to use a
ruler)
Now that we have things sorted out, you may be confused as to what a
gradient or y-intercept is. The gradient of a line tells you how steep the
line is. For every one unit moved to the right, the gradient will tell you
how much the line moves up (or down). The y-intercept tells you where
the line crosses the y-axis. When graphs are parallel to each other, they
have the same gradient (but can have different y-intercepts).
Look at the two lines shown on the following diagram:

Every point on the vertical line has x co-ordinate = 3. So the equation of

the line is simply x = 3. Every point on the horizontal line has
y-coordinate = −2. So the equation of this line is y = −2. All vertical lines
are of the form: 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
All horizontal lines are of the form: 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
The gradient of a horizontal line is zero (it does not move up or down
when you move to the right).
The diagram shows two different lines. If you take a point A on the line
and then move to the right then, on graph (a) you need to move up to
return to the line, and on graph (b) you need to move down. The
gradient of a line measures how steep the line is and is calculated by
dividing the change in the y-coordinate by the change in the
x-coordinate:

𝑦 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 = =
𝑥 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Consider two points, 𝐴 and 𝐵, lying on the following line:
We see that on the unknown line that is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, the
coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝐴(−3,0) and 𝐵(0,3).
Let’s solve for the gradient using the formula of the gradient:
𝑦 −𝑦
 Given, 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 and that 𝐵(0,3) ← 𝑥2 , 𝑦2
2 1
3−0 3
We have: 𝑚 = 0−(−3) = 3 = 1
 Therefore, the gradient, 𝑚, is equal to one.
Now we have: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 → 𝑦 = (1)𝑥 + 𝑐 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
So what is 𝑐? C is the point where the line crosses the y-axis. As you can
see from the diagram, the line crosses the y-axis at 𝐵(0,3). So, 𝑐 = 3.
Therefore, subsituting 𝑐 = 3 gives:
 𝑦 =𝑥+3
Notice that, from our previous example, that the gradient of each line is
equal to the coefficient of x (the number in front of x) in the equation and
that the point at which the line crosses the y-axis (known as the y-
intercept) has a y-coordinate that is equal to the constant term, 𝑐.
In summary:
 Equations of straight line graphs can be written in the form of
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (slope-intercept form or standard form).
 The constant term, 𝑐, tells you where the graph cuts the y-axis and
is known as the y-intercept
 𝑚 (the coefficient of 𝑥 or the letter in front of 𝑥) is the gradient of
the graph; a negative value means the graph slopes to the right (⋱)
and a positive value means the graph slopes to the left (⋰). The
higher the value of 𝑚, the stepper the gradient of the graph and the
more it resembles a vertical line.
 Graphs that have the same gradient are parallel to each other
(therefore, graphs that are parallel have the same gradient but can
have different y-intercepts).
 1.4 Simultaneous Equations
Consider two graphs, 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 7 plotted against each
other:

The point at which they intersect or cross each other is called the point of
intersection. You can find this point by either graphing it or using a
method called substitution. Below is a worked example:
We have the following graphs: 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 7
To solve by substitution, we must make both graphs equal to each other
to solve for 𝑥. Once x is found, we substitute the value of 𝑥 into either of
the graphs to solve for 𝑦:
 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 7
 Let 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 + 7 ← 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 2𝑥 = 5 ← 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 2 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
5
 𝑥 = 2 ← 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 2
5
 Substituting 𝑥 = 2 into either equation gives:
5 19
𝑦 = 3( ) +2 =
2 2
5 19
or 𝑦= +7=
2 2
5 19
Therefore, the point of intersection has coordinates ( , ).
2 2
 I recommend that you use the “substitution” approach rather than
the graphical or elimination approach. The other two aren’t as
effective as the one above, therefore they wouldn’t be touched on
in this unit. But I will define what I mean by “graphical” and
“elimination” approaches.
 Graphical approach: plotting two lines against each other (not on
graphing software otherwise that would be too easy) and seeing
where they intersect on the axes
 Elimination approach: solving a simultaneous equation by getting
rid of one of the variables by adding or subtracting the two
equations together
But all-in-all, both are good. I just recommend that you use substitution,
as that is the easiest and least time-consuming one among all the others.

1.5 Making a Variable the Subject

The subject of a formula is the variable that is written alone alone on one
side of the “=” sign (usually on the left). For example, for the formula of
finding the circumference of a circle, 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, 𝐶, the circumference, is
the subject of the formula. This means that it’s easy to find 𝐶 if you know
the radius of the circle, 𝑟.
In many cases, you know the value of the subject and you have to find the
value of another variable (for example, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5 but you have to make
𝑥 the subject of the formula). To do this, you need to rearrange the
formula and make the other variable the subject of the formula.
To change the subject of a formula:
 Expand to get rid of any brackets if necessary
 Use inverse operations to isolate the variable required (as we have
done in unit 1.1, 1.2, and 1.4)
Here’s an example: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, find 𝑥.
 If you are told to “solve for 𝑥” or “find 𝑥” it means the same as
making 𝑥 the subject of the formula.
  Here, we are given that 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏.
Using algebra, we get,
 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 ← 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑏 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝑐−𝑏
 𝑥= ← 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝑎

Here’s a tricky example that you may or may not know how to solve:
(a) Solve for ℎ if 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
 We are given that 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ) and that ℎ must be made the
subject of the formula.
 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 𝐴 − 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴−2𝜋𝑟2 𝐴
 ℎ= = 2𝜋𝑟 − 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟

Test your knowledge:

1- Make 𝑥 the subject of each formula.
𝑑
a 𝑚 = 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑝 b 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑟 − 𝑥 c 4𝑥 = 𝑚 d = 5𝑥
2
2- Solve for 𝑥.
a 𝑚 = 3(𝑥 + 𝑦) b 𝑐 = 4(𝑡 − 𝑥) c 𝑦 = 3(𝑥 − 5)
3- Express 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 in terms of 𝑚.
𝑃𝑅𝑇
4- Express 𝐼 = in terms of 𝑅.
100
1
5- Express 𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 in terms of 𝑚.
2
𝐴ℎ
6- Express 𝑉 = in terms of 𝐴.
3
𝜋𝑟2 ℎ
7- Express 𝑉 = in terms of ℎ.
3

Formula Containing Squares and Square Roots

The inverse of √𝑥 is (𝑥)2 but note, “√𝑥” means the positive square root.
There is only one value, so, when 𝑥 = 9, √9 = 3. But, if 𝑥 2 = 9, then
taking the square root of both sides give 𝑥 = ±√9 = ±3. You can only
use ± when square rooting both sides by undoing the square. Note that
this rule doesn’t apply for cubed numbers or variables like 𝑥 3 .
Here are two examples best suited for you:
(a) Make 𝑥 the subject of the formula in the equation, 𝑎𝑥 2 = 𝑏.
𝐴
(b) Given 𝑟 = √ , express the formula in terms of 𝐴.
𝜋

 For (a), it is given that 𝑎𝑥 2 = 𝑏

 𝑎𝑥 2 = 𝑏
𝑏
 𝑥2 = ← 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎
𝑎
𝑏
 𝑥 = ±√𝑎 ← 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝑏
Therefore, in (a), 𝑥 = ±√𝑎

𝐴
 For (b), it is given that 𝑟 = √
𝜋

𝐴
 𝑟 = √𝜋
𝐴
 𝑟 2 = 𝜋 ← 𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ← 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝜋
Therefore, in (b), 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (looks familiar?)

1.6 Quadratics
One special type of polynomial equation that you’ll work with a lot is a
quadratic equation. A quadratic is a polynomial (search the definition of
polynomial up in Google or ask me since it’s too long to fit in here) that
has an 𝑥 2 . It’s as simple as that. The degree of quadratic polynomials is
two since the highest power (exponent) of 𝑥 is two. They are in the form:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0)
𝑎 cannot equal to 0. If it is equal to 0, then it contradicts the whole point
of a quadratic polynomial. The only terms that can be equal to 0 in
quadratic polynomials are the terms 𝑏𝑥 and 𝑐.
Expanding a Quadratic Polynomial
The diagram shows a rectangle of length (𝑥 + 3)cm and width (𝑥 + 5)cm
that has been divided into smaller rectangles.
Remember that the area of a rectangle is 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤.
The area of the whole rectangle is equal to the sum
of the smaller areas, so the area of whole rectangle
is 𝐴 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5)
The sum of the smaller rectangles:
 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 15 = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15
This means that (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15.
Notice what happens when you multiply every term in the second
bracket with the first:

Notice that the four terms in the boxes are exactly the same as the
smaller areas in the rectangle calculated before.
Here are a few examples that I find helpful:
1 Expand and simplify:
(a) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9) (b) (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 9)
We are given that (a) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9) and (b) (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 9)
 For (a) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9)
 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9)
 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 18 ←
 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 18 ← 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Therefore, (a) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9) = 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 18
  For (b) (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 9)
 (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 9)
 2𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 − 𝑥 − 9 ← 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
 2𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 9 ← 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Therefore, (b) (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 9) = 2𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 9.
You can multiply in steps to expand three (or more) sets of brackets.
Your answer might contain terms with powers of 3 (cubic expressions ←
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟).
So how do we expand 3 brackets with terms inside at once? Here’s an
example that would help you understand:
(a) Expand and simplify (3𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
 (3𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
 (6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) ← 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
 (6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) ← 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
 6𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 2 ← 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 ← 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
Factorization
Look again at the expansion of (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 9) which gave 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 18:

Here the two numbers add to give the coefficient of 𝑥 and the two
numbers multiply to give the constant term (18). Consider the
expression 𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 72 and suppose that you want to write it in the
form (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏 ). You know that 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 18 and 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 72. Now
72 = 1 × 72 but these two numbers don’t add up to give 18. However,
72 = 6 × 12 and 6 + 12 = 18. So, 𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 72 = (𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 + 12).
This process is called factorization.
Difference Between Two Squares
Consider the expression, 𝑥 2 − 100. How do we factorize it? To factorize
𝑥 2 − 100, you must notice that it is in the form of 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 100.
Now, using the method we’ve learned:
10 × −10 = −100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 10 + 10 = 0
 So, 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 100 = (𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 10)
Now think of a more general case when you try to factorize 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 .
Notice that 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑥 2 − 0𝑥 − 𝑎2 , where 𝑎2 is the constant term.
Since, 𝑎 × −𝑎 = −𝑎2 and 𝑎 + −𝑎 = 0, this leads to:
 (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 , where 𝑎2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
You must remember this. This kind of expression is called a different
between two squares.
Using Factors to Solve Quadratic Equations
The following examples illustrate how you can use factors and
factorization to solve some quadratic equations. Recall that a quadratic
equation is in the form of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0).
Here’s an example of how we can use factorization and factors to help us
find the value of 𝑥 in the following two questions:
1 Solve each of the equations for 𝑥.
(a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0 (b) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 0 (c) 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16
For (a), we have:
 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0
 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ← 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 3 = 0
If two or more quantities multiplfy to give zero, then at least one of
the quantities must equal to zero.
 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
For (b), we have:
 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 0
 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ← 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒
 𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 3 = 0
 𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
Again, there are two possible values for 𝑥.
For (c), we have:
 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16
 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 4) = 0 ← 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒
 𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 4 = 0
 𝑥=4
Of course, these are both the same thing, so the only solution is 4.
Completing the Square
It can be helpful to rewrite quadratic expressions in a slightly different
form. Although this first method will be used to solve quadratic
equations, it can also be used to find the maximum or minimum in a
quadratic (will be touched on next sub-unit). An application of this
method to the general form of a quadratic would produce the quadratic
formula (next two sub-units).
Remember that when you expand (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 , you get:
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2
Most importantly you will see that the value of ‘𝑎’ is doubled and this
gives the coefficient of 𝑥 in the final expansion. This is the key to the
method.
Now consider 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 and compare it with (𝑥 + 3)2
(𝑥 + 3)2 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9The ‘3’ has been chosen since it
is half of the number of ′𝑥′𝑠 in the original expression. This latter
expression is similar, but there is a constant term 9 instead of 1.
So, to make the new expression equal to the original, we must subtract 8.
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 8
We can double check this equation by expanding (𝑥 + 3)2 and combining
like terms to compare it to our original expression:
(𝑥 + 3)2 − 8 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3) − 8 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 − 8 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1
Notice that the answer is exactly the same as our original expression,
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1.
This method of re-writing the quadratic is called completing the square.
Some quadratic equations cannot be factorized, so completing the square
is an alternative method of simplifying the expression.
Let’s consider an equation, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 11, and let’s say that I want to
write it in the form of (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏.
There are two ways you can approach this question:
 The number of ‘𝑥’s is −4. Half of this is −2.
So, (𝑥 − 2)2 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
 The constant term is too small by 7, so we minus 11 in the original
equation by 4 from the completed square form:
So, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 11 = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 11 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 7
Another way we can tackle this expression is by expanding (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏
and comparing it to the original equation:
 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 11 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏
 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 11 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏
Where, −4 = 2𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 11 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏
So, 𝑎 = −2
 Substituting 𝑎 = −2 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 11 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠:
11 = 4 + 𝑏.
 𝑏=7
 Substituting these values, 𝑎 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 7 into(𝑥 + 𝑎)2 +
𝑏 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠: (𝑥 − 2)2 + 7
 Here’s one more equation that you may find confusing or
challenging. But hopefully this example helps clear up that
confusion.
Consider the equation: 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6 = 0. Solve for 𝑥, giving your
answer to two decimal places.
 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6 = 0
 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 6 ← 𝑎𝑑𝑑 6 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
 (𝑥 + 2)2 − 4 = 6 ← 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒; ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑖𝑠 2
 (𝑥 + 2)2 = 10 ← 𝑎𝑑𝑑 4 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
 𝑥 + 2 = ±√10 ← 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
 𝑥 = −2 ± √10 ← 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
Therefore, 𝑥 = −2 + √10 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2 − √10
 𝑥 = 1.16 (2 𝑑. 𝑝. ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −5.16
Graphing Quadratics
In unit 1.3, we graphed equations that are of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. But
what about graphing 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠? What would a quadratic graph look
like? We know that a quadratic equation is of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
So let’s consider the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 for −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑦 = 𝑥2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
You can use these points and draw a graph just as we did with linear
equations back in unit 1.3. The graph of a quadratic relationship is called
a parabola.
For the case of 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 , the negative sign in front of the variable has the
effect of turning the graph so that it faces downwards, in a ∩ shape.
If the coefficient (number in front of a variable) of 𝑥 2 is positive, the
parabola is shaped like a ∪, possessing a local minimum (where the
graph is at its lowest).
If the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative, the parabola is shaped like a ∩,
possessing a local maximum (where the graph is at its highest).
In conclusion, if 𝑎 > 0, the graph possesses a local minimum.
If 𝑎 < 0, however, the graph possesses a local maximum.
The Axis of Symmetry and the Turning Point
For most graphs, a turning point is a minimum or maximum value of 𝑦.
For a parabola, as explained above, if the 𝑥 2 term is positive, the graph
would have a local minimum. If the 𝑥 2 term is negative, the graph would
have a local maximum.
The axis of symmetry is the line that divides the parabola into two
symmetrical halves. In the two graphs the page before, the y-axis is the
axis of symmetry for both graphs, since it separates the graphs into two
different halves.
The turning point is also called the vertex of the graph, the point at which
it changes direction. You might be wondering what it means for a graph
to “change direction.” For a parabola with a local maximum, say, 𝑦 = −𝑥 2
the turning point occurs at the origin (the coordinates (0,0)). The left
side of the graph has a positive gradient (⋰), but at the coordinates (0,0),
the gradient becomes 0 and the gradient becomes negative on the right
(⋱). This is what we mean by “changing direction.”
Until now, we’ve only seen graphs with the equation of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 . What
about graphs that are in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0)? In
 the following example, you’ll see how you can construct a graph that is in
the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
Example: Construct a table of values for 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
Plot the points to draw the graph.
In this question, we are told to construct a table for 𝑥 values from
−4 𝑡𝑜 2 and plot the graph of the given quadratic.
𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
2
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 7 2 −1 −2 −1 2 7
To draw the graph:
 Plot the points and join them to make a smooth curve
 Label the graph with its equation

In conclusion, to plot the graph of a quadratic relationship:

 Complete a table of values
 Rule the 𝑦 and 𝑥 axes and label them
 Plot the (𝑥, 𝑦) values from the table of values
 Join the points with a smooth curve
The Quadratic Formula
Applying the completing the square method when the coefficient of
𝑥 2 isn’t 1 is more complex but if you apply it to the general form of a
quadratic equation (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0), the following result is produced:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = −𝑐 ← 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 = − ← 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
(𝑥 + ) − 2 = − ← 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2 𝑏2
(𝑥 + ) = − + 2 ← 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 4𝑎𝑐
(𝑥 + ) = 2 − 2 ← 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
2𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
(𝑥 + ) = ← 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
2𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =± ← 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 √. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
2𝑎 √4𝑎2
𝑏 √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =± ← 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏
𝑥=− ± ← 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= ← 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
2𝑎
This is known as the quadratic formula. Notice that we completed the
square after we divided both sides by 𝑎. Also take note of the ± symbol.
This tells you that you should calculate two values: one with 𝑎 + and one
with a – in the position occupied by the ± symbol. The quadratic formula
can be used for all quadratic equations that have real solutions
(solutions that are real numbers; we will learn about complex numbers
and roots in Chapter 4) even if they aren’t factorizable.
Earlier, I mentioned that there are two solutions: one with 𝑎 + and one
with a – in the position occupied by the ± symbol. The two solutions can
be characterized by the greek letters 𝛼 and 𝛽 (this is optional, you don’t
have to label them as 𝛼 or 𝛽):
 We know that the quadratic formula is:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
 Therefore, the two solutions, 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are:
−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼=
2𝑎
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛽=
2𝑎
You don’t necessarily have to write the roots as 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽. Sometimes,
there may be only one solution to a quadratic equation. Let’s see how we
can apply the quadratic formula to the following two equations:
1 Solve for 𝑥 for the following quadratic equations:
a 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 b 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 0
We are given in a that 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
 In 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0, 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = −1
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
 Using the quadratic formula: 𝑥 = 2𝑎
−(−2)±√(−2)2 −4(3)(−1) 2±√4+12 2±√16 2±4
 𝑥= 6
= 6
= 6
= 6
2+4 2−4
The roots of the equation are: 𝛼 = 6
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 6
 1
The solutions to a are 𝛼 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = −
3

Again it isn’t necessary to write the roots of the equation as 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽. You
can write the solutions of 𝑥 in a as:
1
The solutions to a are 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −
3

Now in b, we are given that 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 0.

 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 0
 In 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 0, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 7, 𝑐 = 12 ← 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
 Using the quadratic formula: 𝑥 =
2𝑎
−7±√72 −4(1)(12) −7±√1
 𝑥= = ← 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛
2(1) 2
−7+1 −7−1
The roots of the equation are 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2 2

Therefore, the solutions for b are 𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −4.

Sketching Quadratic Functions
You can use the characteristics of a parabola to sketch a graph. When the
equation is in standard form 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, follow these steps to
sketch a quadratic graph:
 Identify the shape of the graph. Recall that if the sign or
coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive, the graph possesses a minimum
(i.e., ∪). If the sign or coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative, the graph
possesses a maximum (i.e., ∩).
 Find the y-intercept. You do this by making 𝑥 = 0 in the
equation. For example, the y-intercept of the following
equation 𝑦 = 7 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 is 7. Why is this? If you substitute 0
into 𝑥, you get: 𝑦 = 7 + 3(0) − (0)2 = 7. Therefore, the y-
intercept is 7.
 Find the 𝑥 −intercepts. You do this by making 𝑦 = 0 in the
equation. Then use any method to find 𝑥 like factorization or
completing the square or the quadratic formula.
  Mark the 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 intercepts in the graph once you have found
them and started sketching.
Here’s how to find the 𝑥-intercepts if you’re confused by the explanation
above:
1 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3.
We are given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3. The shape of the curve is ∪ since the
coefficient (the number in front of a variable) of 𝑥 2 is positive.
To find the 𝑦 −intercept, we make 𝑥 = 0. So, when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = −3.
Now, for the 𝑥 −intercepts. You can find the 𝑥 −intercepts by making
𝑦 = 0:
 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
 When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ← 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
 𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 1 = 0
 𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
 Therefore, (−3, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1, 0) are the 𝑥 −intercepts.
Now that we know what the y and 𝑥 −intercepts are and the shape of the
curve, we can now begin sketching:

Always remember to label the y and 𝑥 −intercepts when sketching the

graph. Reminder: if there is only one 𝑥 −intercept, the graph just
touches the 𝑥 −axis at which that point lies.
Turning Points
To find the coordinates of the turning point of a parabola, you need to
find the axis of symmetry. Recall that a turning point is the point at
which a curve lies at its highest or at its lowest, with the gradient at that
point 0.
When the equation is in standard form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0),
the axis of symmetry can be found using the formula:
𝑏
𝑥=−
2𝑎
This gives the 𝑥 −coordinate of the turning point. You can then find the
𝑦 −coordinate of the turning point by substituting the value of 𝑥 (from
𝑏
which you obtained from 𝑥 = − 2𝑎) into the original equation. This
𝑦 −value could either be the maximum or minimum point of the graph
depending on the coefficient of 𝑥 2 , whether it’s positive or negative.
Here's an example that could help you out:
1 Sketch the graph 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6.
Here, we are given 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6.
To find the 𝑦 −intercept, we must make 𝑥 = 0. So, when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 6.
Since the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative, the graph is in the shape of ∩. Now,
we need to find the 𝑥 −intercept(s) and the coordinates of the axis of
symmetry before we start sketching:
 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6
 −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6 = 0
 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
Now that we know what the 𝑥 −intercepts are, we must find the
coordinates of the axis of symmetry:
 𝑏
Recall that the formula for the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = − 2𝑎

 and, in the orgininal equation, 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6, 𝑎 = −2 and

𝑏 = −4
 substituting these values into the formula of the axis of symmetry
−4
gives: 𝑥 = − ( ) = −1
2 −2
 substituting 𝑥 = −1 into the original equation:
𝑦 = −2(−1)2 − 4(−1) + 6 = 8
Therefore, the coordinates of the turning are (−1, 8). Since the
coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative, the turning point is a maximum:

Completing the Square to Find the Turning Point