Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar
1st Semester, S.Y. 2022-2023
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

BIO 211: GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

A WRITTEN REPORT IN
KINGDOM FUNGI ( WITH EMPHASIZE
MUSHROOM, MOLDS AND YEAST)

Course & Year: Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science 2-A

Submitted to:

Mr.Tom Jericho Abobo

Subject Professor
Class ID: 1710820
Date: January 8,2023

Submitted by:
Aljun C. Morillo
Kyle A. Merigeldo
Michelle R. Mahinay
Joreca E. Mijares
Malobago
Alexis J. Loyogoy
Mark Wendel Lipata
Darl Vin Julaton

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
 Table of Contents

Title Page............................................................................................................I

Table of Contents.............................................................................................II

Abstract.............................................................................................................. III

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1.) Introduction.....................................................................................................1
Objectives of the study
Scope of the study

2.) Body ..................................................................................................................2-

14
Discussion
Finding or results of the study

3.) Conclusions..................................................................................................... 15-

16

4.) References....................................................................................................... 17

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
 Abstract

Kingdom fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively refereed to as Eumycota, or true

fungi. In general fungi are non-green organisms lacking chlorophyll. They cannot manufacture their own food

from simple inorganic materials, such as water, carbon dioxide, and nitrates, using energy from the sun, as is

the case with the green plants. They derive their food from complex organic materials found in dead or living

tissues of plants and animals. Those obtaining their nutrients from dead organic material, e.g., agricultural

crop residues, wood of dead trees, animal dung, etc., are referred to as saprophytic fungi. Those deriving their

food substances from living plants and animals and causing harm to the hosts are called parasitic fungi. Edible

mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and penicellium notatum (the producer of the antibiotic penicellen) are all

member of the kingdom fungi, which belongs to the domain eukarya. There are three major classification of

fungi based on the phylum amastigomycota of kingdom fungi, and this three classes are class Zygomycota,

Basiomycota, and Ascomycota. The class zygomycota is mainly terrestrial, live in soil and compost and on

foods such as bread (e.g. black bread ), and class basiomycota have many different shapes, considerable

variation exists even within species (e.g. button mushrooms). whereas the class ascomycota found in all

terrestrial ecosystems world-wide, even in Antarctica, often involved in symbiotic relationships (e. g. baker’s

yeser). The three most common fungi such as mushroom, molds, and yeast is they have a distinct types and

classification and have some important roles in nature, such as they serve as decomposers that the one who

breakdown plants and animal debris and transporming it to nutrients, that where give availability for plants

nutrients necessities, and also fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably the

making of bread, wine bear and certain cheeses, as well as they uses by human as medicine. Aside from their

important role in nature, it is also very important to identify their various types and classification, especially

since some non-edible fungi are sometimes misidentified as edible fungi, and not knowing that those types of

toxic fungi are dangerous to their health, which is why it is important to know some guidelines and rules when

it comes to the classification and identification of fungi.

Introduction
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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

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All life on Earth has distinct characteristics and origins, which define and are reflected in how life works and

exists on Earth, but due to different adaptations in the earth's atmosphere, there are some superior and inferior

living organism species that remain competitive through their own ways of survival on Earth. That's why all

things with life have a uniqueness value that sustains and supports other fellow living things, but depending

on how species interact and meet their own adapting necessities to live in their specific areas where they

belong, that's why God's creation is like a flower in a garden, with different color, origin, and peculiarity from

each other, and that's what we think about what life is. Non-vascular and vascular plants are among the most

valuable living organisms on the planet. The way they differ in kingdoms and species is how other living

organisms relate to and are similar to them. Humans sometimes unconsciously fail to recognize the risk when

consuming various resources derived from the environment, such as a variety of fungi, because they do not

know how to properly classify and identify them. As a result, incidents involving toxic or poisonous fungi

have occurred. As a result, knowing how to classify and identify fungi can help us understand which types are

edible and which are not.

Consequently, the analysis and identification of fungi are the main foci of this report. The emphasis is placed

on the edible unicellular (such as yeast) and multicellular fungi (molds, mushrooms). The three major

divisions of fungi are phylum mastigomycota, phylum amstigomycota (which has three classes such as

zygomycetes, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes), and phylum deuteromycota. These divisions are based on

the type of spore-bearing structure that each type of fungus produces. This report aims to understand how to

recognize various types of edible and non-edible fungi in nature. The three-fold division of the kingdom fungi

is used to identify and classify where the mushrooms, mold, and yeasts belong in the three different major

classifications of fungi.

Body (Discussion, Method, Results)

Fungi are a distinct kingdom of Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic, mostly multicellular organisms lacking

chlorophyll; they are not plants, and the majority of them are saprobes (living on dead organisms), which

makes them consumers and primary decomposers in ecosystems. There are thousands of different types of

fungi in our environment, and we are constantly exposed to them through the air we breathe, the food we eat,
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and the water we drink. Yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms are examples of fungi. Fungi

have many uses in humans, such as food, medicine, and alcohol beverages, but some of them act as pathogens

of man, animals, and crops, such as ringworm, athletes foot, yeast infections, and some forms of respiratory

illness, and plant diseases such as Dutch elm disease, peach scab, and gray mold on strawberries. Most fungi

live in moist environments and reproduce both sexually and asexually. Fungi are classified into three groups

based on the type and shape of the spore-bearing structure, the common fungi found in nature such as

mushroom, mold, and yeast, and their distinguishing characteristics.

Table 1. Classification of fungi based on the type of spore bearing structure they produce = sporangium.

1.) Phylum Mastigomycota - Ex) Water Molds

• Motile spores _ flagella with cellulose cell walls

• Mainly saprophytes

• Sexual and asexual reproduction

2.) Phylum Amastigomycota

• Non – motile spores _chitin cell walls

Three (3) Classes of Amastigomycota

Class Zygomycetes (Lower Class Ascomycetes (Sac Fungi) Class Basidiomycetes (Club

fungi) Example: Yeast Fungi)

Example: Bread mold Example: Mushroom

• Form zygospores (sexual • SAC fungi (sac shaped sporangia) • CLUB fungi

reproduction)
• Sexual and asexual spores • No asexual spores (sexual

• Some saprophytes spores only = basidiospores)

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• Sexual and asexual spores Sexual spores called ascospores. • LONG dikaryotic stage

• NO dikaryotic stage • SHORT dikaryotic stage • Many are pathogens ex) smuts

& rusts
• Many pathogens of plants ex)

Dutch Elm’s disease

3.) Phylum Deuteromycota (Imperfect fungi) - Ex) Athlete’s foot, ringworm, thrush, yeast infections

• Imperfect fungi – resemble sac & club fungi

• NO sexual spores (asexual spores only)

• Pathogens of animals ⇒ ringworm, Athlete’s foot

To better understand the classification of fungi, three common examples of fungi have been provided, each

with a distinction between classification and identification.

Mushroom

- Fungi that belong to the mushroom category are characterized by their umbrella-shaped fruiting bodies. True

mushrooms are characterized by gill-like structures on the bottom surface that release spores. True

mushrooms usually belong to the biological order Agaricales, but the term mushroom is commonly used to

describe any sporophore, which is the spore-bearing fruiting bodies of some fungus species. Many species of

mushrooms are edible and delicious, but others can be very toxic.

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Even expert mushroom gatherers can have trouble in distinguishing between edible and poisonous species

closely resembling themselves. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms are

presented in Table 2 and Figure 1 for sample pictures of actual specimens 1.

Table 2. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms

1
Taylor, S. (2021) Mold Study Guide: www.inspiritvr.com/general-bio/protists-and-fungi.
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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
Scientific name of mushroom Agaricus bisporus Page 5

Division Eumycota

Class Hemenomycetes (open gills)

Gasteromycetes (closed basidiocarp

untilmaturity/ puffballs

Class Homobasidiomycetes (for both)

Order Agaricales( arrange gills)

Polyporales (network gills)

Sclerodermatales Aphyllophorales

Lycoperdales

Auriculariales

Tremellales

Family Agaricaceae

Chanterellaceae

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
 Lepiotaceae
Page 6

Genus Agaricus

Amanita

Ganoderma

Polyporus

Chanterella

Species Campestris

Cibarius

Cepaestipes

Table 3: Poisonous mushrooms and their effects on humans.

Toxin Level of Toxicity Effect when consumed

Alpha- Deadly Liver damage 1–3 days after ingestion. Principal toxin in genus

amanitin Amanita

Phallotoxin Non-lethal Gastrointestinal upset. Found in poisonous Amanitas

Orellanine Deadly Kidney failure within 3 weeks after ingestion. Principal toxin in genus

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
 Cortinarius.
Page 7

Muscarine Potentially Deadly Respiratory failure. Found in genus Omphalotus.

Gyromitrin Deadly Neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal upset, and destruction of blood cells.

Principal toxin in genus Gyromitra.

Coprine Non-lethal Illness when consumed with alcohol. Principal toxin in genus Coprinus

Ibotenic acid Potentially Deadly Neurotoxicity. Principal toxin in Amanita muscaria, A. pantherina, and

A. gemmata

Muscinol Non-lethal CNS depression and hallucinations. Principal toxin in Amanita

muscaria, A. pantherina, and A. gemmata .

Psilocybin Non- Poisonous CNS arousal and hallucinations. Principal effects in psilocybin

and psilocin mushrooms, many belonging to the genus Psilocyb.

Arabitol Non-lethal Gastrointestinal irritation in some people.

Bolesatine Non-lethal Gstrointestinal irritation, vomiting, nausea .

Ergotamine Deadly Affects the vascular system leading to loss of limbs and death. An

alkaloid found in genus Claviceps.

Table 4: Differences between Poisonous and edible mushrooms

Poisonous mushroom Edible mushroom

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
When you cut the mushroom it turns either green or When you cut the mushroom it does not stain green

purple. or purple

When you taste a piece of the mushroom, it burns or When you taste a piece of the mushroom, it does not

stings the tongue. burn or sting the tongue.

Poisonous mushrooms have bad odour. Edible mushrooms have pleasant odour.

It tastes bitter. It has sweet taste

There is no presence of worms There is presence of worms.

There is presence of scales on the cap There is no scale on the cap.

Molds

- is the term used to describe fungus species that form large, fuzzy masses of mycelium and fruiting structures.

The presence of conspicuous, filament-like hyphae that form a mycelium is why molds are termed

multicellular filamentous fungi. Molds are characterized by the presence of conidia, which are asexual spores

born directly from the hyphae.

Many mold species that are associated with food spoilage and agricultural diseases belong to the Aspergillus,

Penicillium, or Rhizopus genera. The green-grey fuzz seen on old loaves of bread is an example of mold

caused by the species Rhizopus stolonifer2.

Types of Mold

There are three main classifications of mold, depending on its how hazardous they are to our health:

1. Allergenic: Causes an allergic reaction such as eye irritation, skin irritation, or asthma.

2. Pathogenic: Can cause disease, and it's often hard to pinpoint this type.

2
Taylor, S. (2021) Mold Study Guide: www.inspiritvr.com/general-bio/protists-and-fungi.
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3. Toxigenic: Produces substances that are toxic and can lead to dangerous or deadly health conditions.

Table 6: The common examples of mold, and where they are usually found are explained below.
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Example of Mold Description

Acremonium • This is a mold that's commonly found in buildings that have been affected by water

seepage.
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• It is slow-spreading, making it easier to detect and remove compared to other molds.

Alternaria • Is found both indoors and outdoors.

• It is usually observed in damp places such as dead plant material, grass with dew, and

overwatered soil.

• This mold variety spreads during dry and windy conditions.

Aspergillus • These molds range from yellow-green to blue-green hues.

• Aspergillus has a cotton or wool texture.

• This mold produces allergic reactions, and its effects can lead to serious conditions

such as Aspergillosis - a type of lung disease.

Aureobasidium • Aureobasidium have colors ranging from black to softer cream or pink hues.

• They are commonly found in bathrooms and kitchens, growing in the tile grout or

caulking.

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
Chaetomium • Colonies of Chaetomium are found in damp and humid locations of buildings or

areas that don't get sunlight and have poor ventilation.

• Chaetomium mold can have both allergenic and pathogenic effects.

Cladosporium • This type of mold is found in basements or attics.

• Cladosporium has a velvet texture and is olive-gray.

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• It causes an allergic reaction, especially in infants. It is also known to cause

infections in the fingernails, toenails, and eyes.

Fusarium • Fusarium can be found in various colors, from tans and whites to brighter pinks and

purples.

• Fermented fusarium, also called Quorn, is used as a meat substitute by many

vegetarians and vegans.

Mucor • Mucor is a yellow or white mold with a cottony texture

• It's usually found in the air in schools, offices, and homes.

Penicillium • Penicillium can be identified by its musty odor.

• It's often found in blue-green, white, yellow, or pink hues and has a powdery texture.

• It can be found indoors with moisture and often contaminates leather and cloth items.

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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
 • By studying penicillium, scientists found a component of the fungi named Penicillin -

an antibiotic commonly used to treat infectious diseases.

Yeast

- is the term used to describe unicellular (single-celled) fungi. They are very small, measuring only about

0.075 mm in diameter, but are larger than most bacterial cells, and thrive in sugar-rich environments like

overripe fruits or the nectar inside flowers. Yeasts most commonly belong to the phylum Ascomycota, but

some also belong to the Basidiomycota phylum.

Yeast is the term generally applied to a unicellular fungus, and there are hundreds of species now identified.

One of the most notable and well-known species of yeast in health and wellness is known as Saccharomyces

cerevisiae, which is also known by its more common names, brewer's yeast or baker's yeast. Typically,

brewer's yeast is used as a protein supplement, energy booster, immune enhancer, or other vehicle where other

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compounds can be inserted to create a commercialized health product. Candida albicans is another example of

a yeast species that is associated with yeast infections in humans 3.

Table 7: Classification and Identification of Yeast

Kingdom: Fungi
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Scientific Name of Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi)

Subphylum Saccharomycotina

Class Saccharomycetes are single celled fungi called yeast

and don't possess a fruiting body. They feed on sugar.

(Malloch 2009).

Family Saccharomycetaceae are related based on their DNA

sequence

Order Saccharomycetales feed on primarily plant sugars

Genus Saccharomyces posses both a metabolism pathway

and a fermentative pathway in respiration. They are

usually very easy to culture and manipulate.

(Mycology Guidebook 1974)

3
Moyad, Mark. (2008) Brewer's/baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and preventive medicine: Part II,
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18335702/
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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
Species Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used in labs

and in food products such as breads and beers.

(Mycology Guidebook 1974).

Yeast is a type of single-celled fungus that is used in the production of bread, beer and wine. Yeast is a

microorganism that consists of single-cell fungi with the same species of edible mushroom. Yeast is an

essential component of the human body for more than a decade. Yeast has a positive effect on the health of

your gut. There are two main types of yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces yeast. Wine yeast

is a strain of S. cerevisiae that is used to ferment grape juice into wine. Bread yeast is a strain of S. cerevisiae

that is used to leaven bread. A yeast is a plant that is commonly found in plants. Beer is the same for all of

them, as it is for beer. It is not necessary to dismiss something simply because it has never been heard of

before. There are approximately 50 different types of wine and champagne yeasts available as well as 100

different types of beer yeasts available. When it comes to making bread, it may surprise you to learn that it is

made using a variety of yeasts. “

In the world of bread yeast, dry active yeast and instant yeast are the two most common types. When

comparing wine yeast and bred yeast, you’ll notice differences in stains and properties.

What Is The Difference Between Instant and Active Dry Yeast?

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Instant and active dry yeast are essentially the same ingredient, just in slightly different forms and

applications. You should keep sealed packets of both yeast types at room temperature and store partially used

packets in an airtight container in the refrigerator. The main differences between the two are:

Active yeast needs rehydration. Instant yeast can be mixed directly into dry ingredients, whereas active dry

yeast must first be dissolved and rehydrated in warm water.

Instant yeast needs less time to rise. Since instant yeast has a finer texture than active dry yeast, it’s possible to

skip the initial rise time and shape loaves immediately after kneading. Loaves made with active dry yeast

require longer rising times for the yeast to work its way through the dough.

Conclusion

Fungi are crucial microbes in our ecosystems, there is no question about that. Because fungus can

produce their own nourishment from organic substances in the environment, they differ strangely

from plants and mammals in this regard. Mushrooms, which have long been highly appreciated as

food, tonics, and, in some circumstances, medicines, are the most helpful fungi to people. The rising

demand for bigger production volumes demonstrates

how popular mushrooms have become in recent years.

Their popularity stems from three highly desirable

qualities as foods: (I) they have a remarkable taste and

flavor; (II) they are nutritious, both for what they do

contain (high protein contents with significant amounts

of lysine and methionine, which are low in plants),

fibers, minerals, and vitamins; and (III) they can be

processed, dried, pickled, and canned easily to allow for

mass production.

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In communities where people gather mushrooms, ethnomycological information is passed down

orally from generation to generation, which is not a dependable security measure. Every year, a

number of intoxications are reported in nations where mushrooms are widely consumed, primarily as

a result of misidentification of mostly wild species. These species contain dangerous poisons that,

depending on the dosage consumed, can result in a variety of symptoms that can be lethal. It is

challenging to prevent accidental mushroom consumption, especially in nations where consuming

wild species is common. The success of treatment depends on early detection of symptoms and signs

of intoxication. Proper identification is crucial to prevent accidents.

As a result, the researcher/reporter suggests in this report to those people who are unaware of the

classification of any division of the kingdom fungi that they should have an awareness and be

civilized enough to determine what some edible and non-edible/poisonous fungi are in the

environment, particularly those types of mushrooms that people now mistake for edible. That is why

it is critical to have a solid understanding of all types of fungi, particularly how we consume them

and how we recognize them.

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 References

Taylor, S. (2021) Mold Study Guide: www.inspiritvr.com/general-bio/protists-and-fungi.

Solanki, N. Hartsock A, (2021) Fungi types and Examples and description : https://study.com.

Ukwuru MU, Muritala A, Eze LU (2018) Edible and Non-Edible Wild Mushrooms: Nutrition, Toxicity and
Strategies for Recognition. J Clin Nutr MetKingdom

Bear, R. Rintoul, D. (2019,Nov. 11) Kingdom fungi: Principles of Biology, OpenStax, Steve Altaner, and Eva
Home, Page 407-407.

Ware, M. (2016, Jan 12). Mushrooms: Health Benefits, Facts, Research

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