INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144

Published online 21 July 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.1885

REVIEW PAPER

On the ocean heat budget and ocean thermal energy

conversion
Mohammed Faizal and M. Rafiuddin Ahmed*,†
Division of Mechanical Engineering, University of the South Pacific, Laucala Campus, Suva, Fiji

SUMMARY
Ocean water covers a vast portion of the Earth’s surface and is also the world’s largest solar energy collector. It plays an
important role in maintaining the global energy balance as well as in preventing the Earth’s surface from continually heat-
ing up because of solar radiation. The ocean also plays an important role in driving the atmospheric processes. The heat
exchange processes across the ocean surface are represented in an ocean thermal energy budget, which is important because
the ocean stores and releases thermal energy. The solar energy absorbed by the ocean heats up the surface water, despite the
loss of heat energy from the surface due to back-radiation, evaporation, conduction, and convection, and the seasonal
change in the surface water temperature is less in the tropics. The cold water from the higher latitudes is carried by ocean
currents along the ocean bottom from the poles towards the equator, displacing the lower-density water above and creating
a thermal structure with a large reservoir of warm water at the ocean surface and a large reservoir of cold water at the bot-
tom, with a temperature difference of 22
C to 25
C between them. The available thermal energy, which is the almost con-
stant temperature water at the beginning and end of the thermocline, in some areas of the oceans, is suitable to drive ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plants. These plants are basically heat engines that use the temperature difference be-
tween the surface and deep ocean water to drive turbines to generate electricity. A detailed heat energy budget of the ocean
is presented in the paper taking into consideration all the major heat inputs and outputs. The basic OTEC systems are also
presented and analyzed in this paper. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEY WORDS
ocean heat budget; thermocline; ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Correspondence
*M. Rafiuddin Ahmed, Division of Mechanical Engineering, University of the South Pacific, Laucala Campus, Suva, Fiji.
†
E-mail: [email protected]

Received 6 January 2011; Revised 29 May 2011; Accepted 4 June 2011

1. INTRODUCTION to raise the temperature of a given mass of water by 1
C

is more than that of other fluids [8]. Moreover, the ocean
The Earth’s surface is approximately 70% covered with has the largest heat capacity compared with any single
water. Ocean water makes up 97.4% of the total water component of the climate system [9]. This property of
available [1]. The global ocean can be classified as a con- water allows much solar energy to be stored in the
tinuous body of water that separates into several major oceans, thus preventing the Earth’s surface from heating
oceans and seas [2]. The major ocean divisions, according up [5]. The major source of thermal energy entering the
to their size, are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian ocean is from the Sun. The ocean plays an important
Ocean, Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean [2,3]. The role in maintaining the global energy balance of the
average temperatures of the ocean waters hardly exceed Earth’s atmosphere. The ocean stores thermal energy
30
C or reduce below 2
C [4]. It is the water in the to a much greater extent than land because of its high
oceans that prevents wide variations of temperature on heat capacity [10]. The ocean can absorb heat in one
the Earth’s surface globally [5]. Moreover, in the solar sys- region and restore it in a different place, even after
tem, the Earth is the only planet with oceans [6]. The pro- decades or centuries [11]. The amount of thermal energy
cesses that control the atmosphere are closely related to the entering the ocean must be equal to the thermal energy
ocean processes. Changes in weather and climate are a re- leaving or the average temperature of the ocean will
sult of the interaction between the Sun, the atmosphere, change [12]. Significant heat exchange processes across
and the water on the Earth’s surface [7]. the ocean surface are represented in an ocean energy bud-
Water has the highest heat capacity when compared get [13]. The ocean energy budget is important because the
with any other fluid. The amount of heat energy required ocean stores and releases much more heat than the land

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1119

M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

over different seasons [14], thus preventing the Earth from Possible solutions to problems associated with high CO2
heating up. emissions are energy conservation through improved,
The thermal energy in the oceans is distributed around energy-efficient products and increased use of renew-
the globe by moving ocean currents [15]. The waters of able energy sources and technologies [27].
the ocean are continuously moving. Whereas winds are de- Ocean thermal energy conversion is a technique that
scribed in terms of where they are blowing from, ocean utilizes the temperature difference between warm surface
currents are described in terms of where they are blowing water and deep cold water of the ocean to operate a low-
towards [11]. The circulation of waters in the oceans helps pressure turbine [22,28]. An OTEC power plant acts as a
to distribute the thermal energy in the lower latitudes to heat engine that extracts energy as heat from the warm sur-
certain areas in higher latitudes, thus modifying climate face water, converts part of that energy to generate electric-
conditions [16]. The equatorial regions, or the lower lati- ity, and rejects the remaining energy as heat to the cold
tudes, receive much more heat from the Sun than the polar deep sea water in a cyclic process [22,27]. It is a thermody-
regions because of the different angles at which the sun- namic phenomenon and is in the category of green engi-
light strikes the Earth [5]. The major factors that drive neering related to energy. In thermodynamics, the
the ocean currents are solar energy and the Earth’s rotation concept of green can be associated with an energy source,
[17]. Atmospheric winds derive energy from the Sun, and an energy transfer, and energy conversion process. An en-
this energy is transferred to the upper layers of the ocean ergy source that can be used to do work with minimal ad-
by tangential stress on the ocean surface, thus setting the verse impact on the environment and the future supplies
surface water in motion in the direction of the wind. The can be viewed as green. With this definition, clean, renew-
rotation of the Earth alters the direction of the ocean cur- able, and sustainable energy like ocean thermal energy is
rents driven by atmospheric winds [17]. Solar energy that green energy, but fossil fuels are not [29]. OTEC plants
is directly absorbed by the ocean varies from region to re- can be integrated with a desalination plant, commonly
gion because of unequal heating of the Earth’s surface [4]. known as the hybrid cycle, to produce fresh water
This leads to variations in density by affecting the temper- [30,31]. An OTEC plant is more suitable for low latitudes
ature and salinity through heating, evaporation, and precip- (tropical oceans) because the water temperature remains al-
itation. The density differences between bodies of water in most uniform throughout the year with few variations due
different regions (mainly at the equator and the poles) give to seasonal effects [28]. About 63% of the surface of the
rise to a density-driven circulation of deep water currents tropics between latitudes 30
N and 30
S is occupied by
known as the thermohaline circulation [17]. Different flow ocean water [32]. Solar energy that is absorbed by the trop-
profiles and reference temperatures affect the possible ical oceans maintains a relatively stable surface tempera-
values of heat transfer by ocean currents [18]. Ocean circu- ture of 26–28
C to a depth of approximately 100m. As
lation is not driven by thermal energy due to temperature the depth increases, the temperature drops, and at depths
differences in different locations [19]. However, thermal close to 1000m, the temperature is as low as 4
C. Below
circulation is created in oceans by differential heating this depth, the temperature drops only a few degrees.
through the surface, causing density differences, which Pacific Island countries have much potential for imple-
are then acted upon by gravitational forces [20]. mentation of OTEC technologies because of the high
The temperature of the ocean waters generally ocean temperature gradient. Apart from generating elec-
decreases with increasing depth, except for polar regions tricity and producing fresh water, OTEC plants can be
[8,21]. The surface layer of the oceans is usually referred utilized for other benefits such as production of fuels
to as the mixed layer, because the near-surface waters are such as hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol, providing air-
well mixed by winds and waves and a nearly isothermal conditioning for buildings, on-shore and near-shore mari-
condition is maintained [4,22]. Below the mixed layer is culture, and extraction of minerals [33–35].
a region of rapidly changing temperature known as the
thermocline. It is this region that separates the upper mixed
layer of the ocean with deep ocean water [23]. Its charac- 2. THE OCEAN ENERGY BUDGET
teristics vary with season, latitudes, environmental condi-
tions, and ocean currents. The thermocline is the deepest The ocean energy budget is an expression of the first law of
in the tropics and shallower in the polar regions [24]. Be- thermodynamics for an incompressible fluid, where the
low the thermocline is a region of deep cold ocean water rate of change of the internal energy of the system is equal
where the temperature reaches an almost isothermal condi- to the net heat flux through the boundaries of the system.
tion [25]. The deep cold ocean water is transferred from the The internal energy is represented by the temperature
polar latitudes [17,22]. The surface water thus acts as a structure of the ocean [36]. The ocean heat budget consists
large reservoir of warm water, and the deep water (approx- of thermal energy gains and losses [37]. The total thermal
imately at 1000m) acts as a large reservoir of cold water in energy entering the ocean must equal the total thermal en-
the tropical oceans throughout the year [22]. This uniform ergy lost or the average ocean temperature will change
temperature difference can be used to operate ocean over a certain period, which will lead to significant warm-
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plants [26]. This is ing or cooling trends [38]. Apart from solar energy, the
one of the many renewable energy technologies available. other forms of thermal energy available to the ocean are

1120 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

: :
from conduction through the ocean bottom from the Qb, sensible heat loss by convection and conduction is Qh,
Earth’s interior, heating and cooling from chemical and bi- rate of heat loss (latent heat) by evaporation from the ocean
ological processes, heat generated from friction developed : :
surface is Qe , and Qv is the thermal energy transported by
due to moving ocean currents, and heat gain from decay of ocean currents moving out of the given area [4,36,39]. The
radioactive matter in the ocean [37]. But these processes heat and thermal energy interactions mentioned in the pres-
are mostly neglected in the ocean heat budget because of ent paper are all the rates of such interactions.
their small magnitude compared with solar energy input The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat
[36]. It can be assumed that all the heat exchange processes interaction is that heat transfer to a system is positive and
occur at the surface of the ocean [11,39], where the ocean heat transfer from a system is negative [44]. The heat trans-
is the thermodynamic system and the surface is the bound- fer terms in Figure 1 can be represented by an equation
ary between the ocean and the atmosphere. according to the conservation of energy principle
As solar energy enters the atmosphere, some energy is [4,36,43]:
scattered, some is absorbed or reflected by clouds, and
some is reflected or absorbed by the ocean, land, and ice : : : : : :
on the Earth’s surface [8]. Variations in cloud cover over QT ¼ QS  Qb  Qh  Qe  Qv (1)
different regions causes the largest variation in the amount
: : :
of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface [8,40]. Heat is The Qh, Qb, and Qv terms in equation 1 could be either
exchanged across the ocean surface by four significant pro- positive or negative depending on whether thermal energy
cesses [12,14]: (i) short-wave radiation from the Sun; (ii) is gained or lost by the given area [39,40]. The term in
heat loss due to long-wave back radiation; (iii) latent heat equation 1 that transfers thermal energy from one region
:
loss as the water at the surface is evaporated; and (iv) sen- of the ocean to another is Qv , stating the effects of ocean
sible heat transfer due to conduction or heat exchange be- :
currents [40]. However, for the ocean as a whole, Qv is
tween ocean and atmosphere as a result of temperature taken as zero because it only accounts for the redistribution
difference between the sea surface and the atmosphere of thermal energy within the ocean [4,40]. There is a net
Apart from the energy interactions at the ocean surface, gain of thermal energy throughout the year in the lower
thermal energy is also distributed within the ocean by currents :
latitudes (positive QT ), but a net gain in summer (positive
and mixing. Ocean currents transport thermal energy from low : :
to high latitudes by advection. The loss of thermal energy QT ) and a net loss (negative QT ) in winter in the higher
from low-latitude regions to high-latitude regions ensures that latitudes [43,45].
the low-latitude regions do not continually heat up and the The rate of heat gain (or loss) by a given area of the ocean
high-latitude regions do not continually cool down [41]. is normally averaged over a year. Therefore, the amount of
heat available for heating a given area of the ocean over
Thermal energy lost by the tropical regions to cooler :
regions also drives the atmospheric circulation [42]. any period, t, (taking Qv ¼ 0) is [12]
The principal forms of heat transfer in a given area of
the ocean are represented in Figure 1.The rate of heat gain
: Zt Zt
:  : : : : 
or lost, QT, by a given vertical column of ocean water with QT dt ¼ Qs  Qb  Qh  Qe dt (2)
a unit horizontal cross-sectional area [43] can be expressed 0 0
as the difference between the total heat coming from the
Sun and the total thermal energy loss from the given area. The distribution of the heat in the surface layer can also
The rate of heat absorbed by the ocean from incoming so- be calculated [12,46]. A heat budget can also be applied to
:
lar radiation is Qs, the rate of heat loss by back radiation is the surface layer (or mixed layer) of the oceans [47,48].

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of heat transfer processes from a given area of the ocean [43].

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1121
DOI: 10.1002/er
M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

2.1. Rate of: heat

 added by short-wave solar 19 parts are absorbed in the atmosphere and the clouds,
radiation Q s and about four parts are reflected to space from the sea sur-
face. The remaining units enter the ocean, from which a
The solar radiation that reaches the ocean surface is in the small part is scattered upwards, and the remainder repre-
form of direct solar radiation and indirect diffused sky ra- :
sents the Qs term of the heat budget (equation 1) [56]. Af-
diation [49]. The sky radiation results from scattering due ter scattering in the water, a small part of the solar radiation
to the presence of molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere radiates back in the form of diffused underlight. The great-
[50], which causes the solar energy to reach the Earth’s est part is absorbed by the water [49]. Of the total 48 parts
surface as diffused sunlight. The incoming radiation is absorbed by the ocean, about 29 parts reach the ocean as
termed as short wave because about 99% of the solar radi- direct solar radiation whereas 19 parts from indirect scat-
ation [39] is in the visible and near-visible parts of the elec- tered radiation from the atmosphere [56].
tromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths of approximately The absorbed energy heats up the surface water of the
0.4 to 4mm [51]. The incoming radiation is affected by oceans, and the surface layer undergoes a temperature cy-
the altitude of the Sun, cloud cover, latitude, time of the cle similar to that of the atmosphere. The seasonal temper-
day, the season, and the geographical location [52].Solar ature change is generally smaller in the tropics than in
radiation intensity is greatest at the equator, moderate at higher latitudes (disregarding upwelling, seasonal current
middle latitudes, and lowest at the higher latitudes (poles) shifts, coastal effects, and advection) [8]. The incoming so-
[45]. As shown in Figure 2, different regions on the Earth’s lar radiation is absorbed gradually as it goes below the
surface that are equal in size receive different levels of so- :
ocean surface [57]. The rate at which Qs enters the surface
lar radiation. The solar radiation intensity is largest be-
of the ocean and is available to raise the water temperature
tween 23.5
N and 23.5
S because the sunlight strikes at a
depends on the Sun’s elevation, the amount of sunlight
right angle between these latitudes (Figure 2a) [53]. Higher
reflected, and the amount that becomes transmitted into
latitudes receive less solar energy compared with the equa-
the water [56].
tor because of the decreasing angle at which the sunlight
The intensity of incoming solar radiation on the ocean
strikes the Earth’s surface [5]. Also, the sunlight has to
surface can be measured from ships or coastal stations. A
travel a larger distance through the atmosphere at higher
pyranometer or a solarimeter is a sensor that is used to
latitudes (Figure 2d); thus, the atmosphere absorbs most
measure the incoming solar radiation [58,59]. Also, esti-
of the solar radiation intensity before it reaches the Earth
mates can be made from tables giving radiation from a
[53].
cloudless sky, as a function of the latitudes and the time
At any given time, the Earth receives solar energy equal
of the year, with correction factors for cloud covers [43].
to the solar constant minus the amount of shortwave radia-
A simple approximation to calculate short-wave radiation
tion reflected back into space, times the cross-sectional
penetrating the sea after taking into account the atmo-
area of the Earth that is perpendicular to the beam of paral-
spheric factors and back radiation from the ocean surface
lel solar radiation [54]. Solar constant can be defined as the
is presented in ref. [56,60]. The short-wave radiation input
rate at which the Earth receives radiant energy from the
averaged over 24h in the absence of clouds and allowing
Sun on an area perpendicular to the Sun’s rays, measured
for atmospheric loss is given as [56]
at a point beyond the Earth’s atmosphere when the Earth
is at its mean distance from the Sun [55]. The solar con- :
stant is approximately equal to 1.94cal/min/cm2 of area Qso ¼ 0:4An Ad (3)
perpendicular to the Sun’s rays [55].
Figure 3 shows a division of 100 units of short-wave where An is the noon altitude of the Sun in degrees and td is
radiation from the Sun entering the atmosphere and how the length of the day in hours from sunrise to sunset. To
it becomes absorbed and scattered in various ways, repre- calculate the back radiation from the ocean surface, the
senting a long-term world-area average. Of the total in- cloud cover, C (measured in oktas), is taken into account.
coming radiation units, about 29 parts are lost to space The sky conditions are estimated by how many eighths
by scattering from the atmosphere and the clouds. About (or tenths) of the sky are covered by clouds, that is, C=0

Figure 2. The Earth’s surfaces that are equal in size at different latitudes receive different levels of solar radiation because of different
angles at which sunlight strikes the Earth [53].

1122 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 3. The average heat budget of the ocean in terms of 100 units of incoming radiation, associated disturbances in the atmo-
sphere, and reflections from the surface [56].

means completely clear and C=8 means completely over- in those regions. The reflection of solar radiation at the ocean
:
cast [61]. The term Qs is actually the difference between surface increases with decreasing altitudes of the Sun, thus
the rate at which solar radiation is received at the ocean explaining the cold regions towards the poles [49]. The per-
surface and the reflected radiation from the ocean surface centage of the energy reflected is called the albedo, and
[39]. The amount of short-wave radiation received by the the albedo is higher over lighter areas such as snow and
: lower over darker areas such as the oceans [62].
surface of the ocean after cloud obstructions, Q′s , is ap-
proximated as [56,60] All bodies with a temperature above absolute zero
: :   radiate heat. The amount is proportional to the fourth
Q′s ¼ Qso 1  0:0012C3 (4) power of the absolute temperature, T, given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law. The ocean surface radiates heat as a black
The amount of short-wave radiation reflected from the body having the same temperature of the surface water,
:
ocean surface, Qr , is approximated as which is approximately 290K [14]. Much of the back radi-
: : : ation from the ocean surface is affected by the presence of
Qr ¼ 0:15 Q′s  ð0:01 Q′s Þ2 (5) clouds and water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs
and re-radiates the heat back to the ocean surface [14].
: : : :
Finally, Qs, which is the difference between Q′s and Qr, The effective back radiation from the ocean surface, Qb ,
is approximated as therefore, is the difference between the outward radiation
: : : from the ocean surface and the downward radiation (re-
Qs ¼ Q′s  Qr (6) radiation) from the atmosphere [39]. The back radiation from
the ocean surface is termed as long-wave radiation because the
These equations are approximations. To obtain compa- electromagnetic wavelength has a value of 10mm, which falls
rable results, recorded tabulated values over a long period in the long-wave heat radiation range (3 to 80mm) [49,56].
should be used. :
The Qb term depends on the ocean surface temperature,
humidity of the atmosphere, and the cloud cover [43]. In
2.2. Rate of: heat
 loss due to long-wave back :
radiation Q b the presence of clouds, Qb is reduced because the down-
ward radiation from the atmosphere is increased.
The reflection of the incoming radiation at the ocean surface The long-wave back radiation from the ocean surface,
:
depends on the altitude of the Sun and the state of the ocean Qb, can be measured using a radiometer, which is a device
surface described by the ocean waves [49]. Figure 4 shows that measures the radiant flux of electromagnetic radiation
the reflection of solar radiation from the ocean surface at dif- [63]. Also, estimates can be made from formulas by taking
ferent altitudes for smooth and actual ocean surfaces. At Sun into account the sea surface temperature, humidity of atmo-
altitudes of over 40
, less than 5% of the solar radiation is sphere, and the cloud cover [43]. The Stefan–Boltzmann
reflected back from the surface, thus showing that there is al- law in its original form cannot be applied to calculate the
most complete solar radiation absorption at the ocean surface theoretical back radiation from the ocean surface. If used

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1123
DOI: 10.1002/er
M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

Figure 4. Reflection of solar radiation at different sun altitudes [49].

in its original form, it would appear that the ocean surface The ocean surface is usually a degree or two warmer
loses more energy than it receives [12]. The factors that af- than the air directly above it [12]. Evaporation takes place
fect back radiation such as clouds and water vapor in the when the air close to the ocean surface becomes unsatu-
atmosphere have to be taken into account [8]. Equation 7 rated with water vapor. The air becomes unsaturated with
is an empirical formula that calculates the effective back water vapor by the heating from the ocean surface (ocean
radiation in calories per square centimeter per minute [49] surface is warmer than the air directly above it) [49]. The
higher the temperature of this air, the more water vapor it
:     can absorb [67]. As long as the sea temperature is more
Qb ¼ sT 4 1  0:210 þ 0:174  100:055eo ð1  0:765C Þ (7)
than about 0.3K greater than the air temperature, there will
be heat lost from the ocean to the atmosphere because of
where s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute evaporation [56]. The heat transfer from the ocean surface
temperature (which can be equal to the water temperature), to the lowest atmospheric layers that are very close to the
eo is the water vapor pressure over the ocean surface in ocean surface causes the air to become unstable and to be
millibars, and C is the mean cloudiness in tenths of sky convected upwards [68]. The cooler drier air replaces the
coverage. A similar approximation is provided in Ref. [39]. upward moving warmer air and becomes saturated with
:
An evaluation of the incoming solar radiation, Qs , and water vapor as evaporation continues at the ocean surface.
: These small convection processes remove the air saturated
back radiation, Qb , at the ocean surface shows that there
is more solar energy coming from the Sun at all latitudes with water vapor and allow it to be replaced with unsatu-
on an annual average when compared with back radiation rated air which accepts more moisture through evaporation
[49]. This radiation balance is much more over the ocean [12]. Condensation occurs when the air at a certain temper-
surface compared with land [12]. ature blows over water that is cooler. When thermal energy
is lost from the air close to the ocean surface, the air
:  becomes stable and less turbulent. Therefore, the thermal
2.3. Rate of heat loss by evaporation Q e
energy gained by the ocean from condensation is very
Evaporation is the largest contributing factor to the overall small compared with the loss of latent heat by evaporation
thermal energy losses from the ocean surface [8]. On a [49]. The wind speed over the ocean surface also enhances
yearly average, about 120cm of water is evaporated from evaporation because it gives rise to turbulent transfer pro-
the ocean surface [56]. When evaporation occurs, there is cesses. The winds generate waves on the surface of the
an increase in salinity at the ocean surface, and precipita- ocean and turbulence in the air close to the ocean surface
tion, conversely, decreases salinity. This affects the density [69]. Strong winds lead to breaking waves from which
of the surface water [64], which can be accounted for in an spray is formed, thus enhancing evaporation [70,71].
ocean salinity budget. The rate of heat loss by the ocean Waves break when the wave height exceeds the wave-
surface from evaporation is gained by the atmosphere in length by a ratio of 1:7 [53].
the form of latent heat. This heat is released from the atmo- The rate of evaporation from the ocean surface varies at
sphere by the condensation of water vapor [65]. Ninety different latitudes and seasons [72]. As shown in Figure 5,
percent of the radiative heating of the global ocean is the atmosphere at higher latitudes is less capable of absorb-
balanced by evaporation from the ocean surface [66]. ing water vapor because of the low air temperatures close

1124 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 5. Precipitation N, evaporation V, V–N, and salinity S distribution at different latitudes [49].

to the ocean surface; thus, the evaporation is less compared the wind speed and substituting equations 9 and 10 into
with that in lower latitudes. At the equator (0
), the air is equation 8, the empirical formula obtained is [56]
already saturated with water vapor; therefore, evaporation
is lesser in comparison with that at 20
[49]. Also, the wind :
Qe ¼ 1:4ðes  ea ÞWð2494  2:2Ts Þ103 (11)
velocities are small close to the equator because of the
Cariolis force being zero [73].
The rate of latent heat loss by evaporation from the sea where es is the saturated water vapor pressure at the sur-
surface is estimated on the basis of the vapor pressure at face, ea is the actual vapor pressure at a height of 10m
the ocean surface, the actual vapor pressure in the air at a above the surface (both in kilopascal), and W is the wind
height of 10m above ocean surface, and the wind speed speed in meter per second at a height of 10m above the
at 10-m height [12,49] . The rate of latent heat loss from sea level. A similar empirical estimation is provided by
: Jacob in Ref. [12].
the ocean surface, Qe , due to evaporation is given as [56]
: 
: 2.4. Rate of sensible heat loss Q h
Qe ¼ Fe Lt (8)
The rate of heat loss by conduction and convection from
where Fe is the rate of evaporation of water in kilogram per the ocean surface depends on the temperature gradient be-
second per square meter of sea surface, and Lt is the latent tween the ocean surface and the air. On the average, the
heat of evaporation in kilojoules for a given mass. The surface temperature of the ocean is higher than the lowest
value of Lt for pure water depends on the water tempera- atmospheric layers [12]. Convection occurs because of
ture and is given as [56] the air close to the ocean surface being heated. The lowest
part of the atmosphere close to the ocean surface becomes
Lt ¼ ð2494  2:2T Þ (9) heated and unstable. A vertical convection occurs in the at-
mosphere, and air masses heated by the ocean surface be-
The rate of evaporation of water, Fe, is approximated by come replaced by cooler air masses from the upper
taking into account the eddy diffusivity of water vapor, Ae, atmosphere. The air at the ocean surface expands and rises
which depends on the turbulence character of water, and in the atmosphere, thus carrying heat away from the sur-
the gradient of water vapor concentration in the air above face [12,49].
the ocean surface, de/dz [56]. The surface heat fluxes of the ocean–atmosphere cou-
pling have regional and seasonal variations [74]. The heat
transfer from the water to the air is more significant than
de the reverse because at equal temperatures the heat capacity
Fe ¼ Ae  (10) of water is much higher [8]. The conduction terms of
dz
An empirical formula is mostly used to estimate the rate the ocean heat budget are calculated from equations
of evaporation from the ocean surface. Taking into account which involve the difference between the ocean surface

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1125
DOI: 10.1002/er
M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

temperatures, Ts, and the air temperature, Ta, at a standard 2.5. Thermal
 :  energy transport by ocean
height above the ocean surface, and the wind speed W [43]. currents Q v
The rate of heat loss is, however, not controlled by molec-
ular forces [12]. The heat transfer increases with increasing In lower latitudes, there is a radiation surplus of the Earth–
wind speed, where as a high speed increases turbulence atmosphere system, which decreases with increasing latitude
across the ocean–atmosphere interface [68]. Heat transfer [45], as shown in Figure 7. The surplus thermal energy at
by conduction is proportional to the vertical temperature the lower latitudes is transported to higher latitudes by
gradient in the lowest atmospheric layer, dt/dz, the eddy ocean currents, maintaining an even temperature distribu-
conductivity, Ah, and the specific heat of air at constant tion [62,75]. The temperature of a given location in the at-
pressure, Cp [49,56]. mosphere or in the ocean, averaged over several years, is
nearly constant. Long-term climatic changes are negligible
: compared with daily and seasonal changes. Advection
Qh ¼ CP Ah dt=dz (12) plays a major role in the overall heat energy balance of
the ocean. Changes in the oceanic circulation will affect
Wyrtki, in Ref. [56], simplified this equation to calcu- the overall ocean–atmosphere heat energy balance by af-
late the heat budget for the Pacific Ocean, given as fecting weather patterns, because ocean currents are also
driven by atmospheric winds [12].
:
Qh ¼ 1:88WðTs  Ta Þ (13) The amount of radiation received at different latitudes is
different because of different angles at which sunlight
:
: strikes the Earth, discussed in Section 2.1. The Qv term
The rate of sensible heat loss or conduction, Qh, and the
: in the heat budget (equation 1), or advection, ensures that
latent heat loss by evaporation, Qe, varies together over the
the low latitudes do not continually heat up and the high
ocean surface because of climatic variations. It can there-
: latitudes do not continually cool down [40]. Because of
Q its higher density and minimal mixing with the warmer wa-
fore be said that the ratio, : h , known as the Bowens ratio,
Qe ter of the surface, the cold water from the higher latitudes is
B, remains almost constant [40]. Considering equation 1,
: : carried by ocean currents along the ocean bottom from the
and taking Qv and QT to be zero (no advection and steady poles towards the equator, displacing the lower-density
state) and substituting B water above. These two physical processes create a thermal
structure with a large reservoir of warm water at the ocean
 : : 
: Qs  Qb surface and a large reservoir of cold water at the bottom,
Qe ¼ (14) with a temperature difference between them of 22
C to
Bþ1
25
C [22]. The thermal structure of the oceans is discussed
:
Bowen’s ratio is also calculated by using the tempera- in Section 3.1. For the ocean as a whole, Qv is taken as
tures and the vapor pressures and by assuming that Ae zero because it takes into account the redistribution of ther-
and Ah are numerically similar [12,54] mal energy within the ocean [4,40,49]. Ocean circulation
accounts for 40% of the latitudinal heat transfer from the
  equator to the poles, whereas the remaining 60% heat
Ts  Ta
B ¼ 0:062 (15) transfer occurs through the atmosphere [76].
es  ea Accurate measurements and prediction of the amount of
thermal energy in the oceans remains a difficult task.
Bowen’s ratio increases with latitude for both land and Zhang et al. [77] studied one to two decades of radiative
oceans [64]. The average value of B at the equator is 0.1
: : flux data sets, ocean surface turbulence flux data sets, and
[40]. Figure 6 shows the Qh and Qe terms at different ocean thermal energy data sets and found that even though
latitudes. there are some imbalances, the data sets show excellent

. .
Figure 6. The Qh and Qe terms at different latitudes. B increases with increasing latitudes [40].

1126 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 7. Comparison of the amount of radiation received at different latitudes [53].

quantitative agreement. Studies carried out by Josey et al. density water above and creates a thermal structure with
[38] show that there are some imbalances of the overall en- a large reservoir of warm water at the ocean surface and
ergy budget, but they attribute this to possible errors in flux a large reservoir of cold water at the bottom, with a temper-
equations. Together with an oceanic thermal energy bal- ature difference between them of 22
C to 25
C. This tem-
ance, there is a salt and water balance. The amount of water perature difference can be used to drive an ocean thermal
that is evaporated from the ocean surface is replaced by energy system.
water from rainfall and river runoff [78]. A conservation
of volume analysis based on evaporation and precipitation
is shown in Ref. [56]. Salt is left behind when ocean water 3. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
evaporates. Coastal regions have lower salinities because CONVERSION
of water coming from rivers [4]. The average salinity of
the oceans remains almost constant [54], and it would be An OTEC plant is basically a heat engine that utilizes the
hundreds of years before an increase in the salinity is temperature difference between the warm surface water
detected if all the salts are brought into the oceans from and deep cold sea water to produce electricity [28]. From
rivers [12,56]. the view of a thermodynamicist, any temperature differ-
The rate of heat addition to the ocean by short-wave ence can be used to generate power [22].
radiation is highest in the equatorial regions and varies The technology for OTEC was first proposed by
with different latitudes and seasons. The rate of heat loss Jacques d’Arsonval, in the year 1881 in France [79,80].
by back radiation from the ocean surface increases with de- He proposed a closed-cycle OTEC design that used ammo-
creasing altitudes of the Sun. The rate of latent heat loss by nia as the working fluid [81]. However, it was his student,
evaporation from the ocean surface is the largest contribut- George Claude, who built the first OTEC plant in Cuba in
ing factor to the overall heat losses from the ocean and is 1930 [82]. A low-pressure turbine was used to generate 22
higher close to the equator and decreases with increasing kW of electricity for a short while before the system be-
latitudes. The rate of heat loss by convection and conduc- came damaged [83]. Ocean thermal energy is a potential
tion varies with seasons and latitudes and depends on the source of renewable energy, and with proper designing, it
temperature difference between the ocean surface and the could provide a source of clean renewable energy with
air close to the surface. Ocean currents transfer thermal en- constant power output with many other benefits such as
ergy from the lower latitudes to cooler regions in the higher pure drinking water, which can benefit many small island
latitudes, ensuring that the lower latitudes do not continu- countries and developing countries [84]. An OTEC system
ally heat up or the higher latitudes do not continually cool in its simplest form contains three basic constituents: an
down. The ocean heat budget quantifies the amount of energy supply source, a power generation system, and a
thermal energy gained and lost by the ocean, and this can possible desalination system [85].
be used to determine the overall temperature change of Ocean thermal energy conversion power systems are
the system over a certain period. The transport of cold wa- basically divided into three categories: open cycle, closed
ter from the higher latitudes towards the equator along the cycle, and hybrid cycle. An open-cycle OTEC system uti-
ocean bottom results in the displacement of the lower- lizes the warm surface water as the working fluid. The

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1127
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M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

surface water is pumped into a chamber where a vacuum performed by Kim et al. [98] suggest that working fluids
pump reduces the pressure to allow the water to boil at can be selected on the basis of the specific environment
low temperature to produce steam. The steam drives a tur- and working conditions without affecting the efficiency
bine coupled to a generator and then is condensed (using much.
deep cold seawater pumped to the surface) to produce de- An energy harnessing scenario involves three steps: (i)
salinated water [22,86]. A closed-cycle OTEC system determining the activities in the target society that requires
incorporates a working fluid, such as ammonia or ammo- energy, (ii) determining the available energy resources, and
nia/water mixture, operating between two heat exchangers (iii) matching the demand and the supply [99]. Moreover,
in a closed cycle. A closed cycle utilizes the warm surface even though the thermal resource is available to many
water to vaporize the working fluid in a heat exchanger countries, there are many factors that must be taken into
(evaporator). The vaporized fluid drives a turbine coupled account before a particular country or location is selected
to a generator. The vapor is then condensed in a heat ex- for an OTEC plant installation. Some of them are as fol-
changer (condenser) using cold deep seawater pumped to lows: distance of the thermal resource from land; depth
the surface. The condensed working fluid is pumped back of the ocean bed; depth of the resource; size of the thermal
to the evaporator where vapor is generated, and the cycle resource within the exclusive economic zone; replenish-
is repeated. The thermodynamic principles of the open cy- ment capability for both warm and cold water; ocean cur-
cle and the closed cycle are similar [22,87]. The cycles are rents; waves; hurricanes; seabed conditions for mounting;
basic Rankine cycles that operate between a heat source seabed conditions for power cables of floating plants; cur-
and sink to generate electricity [88,89] with efficiencies rent local power source; annual consumption; present cost
close to 3% [88]. To increase the thermal efficiency of per unit; local oil or coal production; scope for other
the OTEC system, other kinds of energies such as solar en- renewables; aquaculture potential; potable water potential;
ergy, geothermal energy, industrial waste energy, and solar and environmental impacts [100].
ponds can be introduced to increase the temperature differ-
ence [90–92]. Preheating of the feed water is also per- 3.1. The thermal structure of the ocean
formed in commercial plants operating on Rankine
cycles, such as fuel-fired plants, to improve the efficiency Below the ocean surface, as the depth increases, the tem-
[93]. Major differences between the open and closed-cycle perature of the water generally decreases [8,21]. The depth
systems are the sizes of ducts and turbines, and the surface at which the temperature gradient, which is the rate of de-
area required by heat exchangers for effective heat transfer crease of temperature with increase of depth, is a maxi-
[22]. For a given OTEC system with a certain power out- mum is called the thermocline [101]. Below the water
put, a closed-cycle system with ammonia as the working surface, the water is usually divided into three zones on
fluid requires a much smaller duct and turbine diameter the basis of the temperature structure of the ocean: an up-
compared with an open-cycle system that has water as per zone with a depth of approximately 50 to 200m with
the working fluid [94]. The difference is attributed to the temperatures similar to that of the surface, a zone below
pressure difference across the turbine and the specific vol- 200m and extending up to 1000m in which the tempera-
ume of the working fluids. The heat exchangers for closed- ture changes rapidly (this is the thermocline), and a zone
cycle systems require large surface areas to have effective below 1000m in which the temperature changes are small
heat transfer [22]. [56]. The actual depth of the zones is difficult to determine
The hybrid system integrates the power cycle with desa- because of the minor irregularities in the temperature
lination to produce electricity and desalinated water. against depth profile. Figure 8 shows the temperature ver-
Nearly 2.28 million liters of desalinated water can be sus depth profile at different latitudes. Figure 9 shows the
obtained everyday for every megawatt of power generated temperature versus depth profiles for some countries.
by a hybrid OTEC system [95]. Electricity is generated in In low and middle latitudes, there is a permanent ther-
the closed-cycle system circulating a working fluid, and mocline present at all the times whereas there is no perma-
the warm and cold seawater discharges are passed through nent thermocline in polar waters [17]. The thermocline is
the vacuum chamber and condenser to produce fresh water shallow in spring and summer, deep in the autumn, and
[22]. The power that the pumps need to do work is sup- disappears in winter. In winter, the heat loss at the surface
plied from the gross power output of the OTEC power- produces instability, and the resulting convection mixes the
generating system. The hybrid cycle eliminates the use of water column to a greater depth, thus eliminating the ther-
a large low-pressure turbine as is required by an open cy- mocline. In the tropics, winter cooling is not strong enough
cle. The vacuum chamber is also reduced in size [22]. to destroy the thermocline, and thus, the tropical thermo-
The working fluids for either closed or hybrid cycles cline or permanent thermocline is maintained throughout
should be such that the system is able to operate between the year [104]. The temperature in the lower half of all
the low temperatures and still give optimum efficiency. the oceans is uniformly cold, with temperatures as low as
Mostly Freon and ammonia are used, whereas ammonia 2.3
C [12]. The surface temperature of the oceans range
and water mixture are also accepted for use [96]. The use from as high as 28
C from the equator to 2
C at high lati-
of mixtures instead of one component fluid improves the tudes. Figure 10 shows the ocean surface temperature var-
thermodynamic performance of power cycles [97]. Studies iation with latitudes. The temperature is highest at low

1128 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 8. Typical mean temperature versus depth profiles of the open ocean at different latitudes [102].

latitudes and decreases at higher latitudes [56]. In lower the parcel of water means that it is raised in an insulated
latitudes, there is a radiation surplus (Figure 7), which container so that there is no exchange of heat with its sur-
decreases with increasing latitude [52]. It is the almost con- roundings [105]. The water parcel, however, is not actually
stant temperature at the beginning and end of the thermo- brought to the surface. The potential temperature is there-
cline that can be used to drive OTEC plants. Above the fore always less than the in situ temperature [12,105–
thermocline, there is an almost constant source of heat, 107]. Potential temperature finds applications for stratified
and below the thermocline, there is an almost constant heat fluids, which are fluids with varying densities along the
sink [22]. An OTEC plant, which is similar to a heat engine axis of gravity. Changes in pressure affect the water tem-
governed by the first law of thermodynamics, is driven be- perature and the water temperature can increase with depth
tween the heat source and sink to produce work output in very deep ocean trenches and within the ocean mixed
[35], shown by a schematic diagram in Figure 11. layer. The use of potential temperature eliminates these un-
The temperature of the ocean water can be described in stable conditions [108].
two ways: in terms of in situ temperature and in terms of Thermal energy in the oceans is distributed by three
potential temperature [12]. In situ temperature is the ob- processes: advection, diffusion, and vertical mixing. All
served temperature of a parcel of water at a certain depth, these processes do not change the energy content of the
whereas potential temperature is defined as the temperature ocean. Vertical mixing redistributes thermal energy within
of a parcel of water at the sea surface if it is raised adiabat- a column of the ocean whereas advection and diffusion
ically from some depth in the ocean. Adiabatically raising move it horizontally as well [109]. The strength of the

Figure 9. Typical mean temperature versus depth profiles for some countries [103].

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1129
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M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

Figure 10. Latitudinal variation of surface temperature, salinity, and density (st) average for all oceans [56].

vertical mixing depends on the wind speeds on the ocean is the power required for pumping deep cold seawater, and
:
surface [110]. In a vertical water column in the ocean, W WFP is the working fluid pumping power.
the yearly changes in heat content are more notable in the
:
upper layers of the ocean than the lowermost layers (a) Generator power, W G
[111]. A vertical column of the ocean gains thermal energy As the working fluid pump, the evaporator, the condenser,
from the incoming solar radiation and loses it by back radi- and the turbine are steady flow devices, the processes of the
ation and evaporation. The rate of sensible heat gain or loss power cycle are analyzed as steady flow processes. Work is
depends on whether the sea is warmer or colder than the air performed by the turbine; therefore, there is positive work
close to the ocean surface [112]. The vertical heat transfer output. Processes 1–2 are adiabatic and undergo isentropic
can be thought of as being caused by very slow large-scale expansion. The generator power is given as
vertical water motion and by faster vertical motion in small
eddies. Upwelling and downwelling can be considered as : :
W G ¼ mWF T G ðh1  h2 Þ (18)
large-scale water motion, where upwelling reduces the en-
ergy content of the column because it brings up cold water :
where mWF is the mass flowrate of working fluid, T is the
from the bottom of the ocean, and downwelling increases turbine efficiency, and G is the generator efficiency.
the heat content [111]. (b) Condenser
The heat source and the heat sink at the beginning and (i) Heat rejection from working fluid in the condenser is
end of thermocline can be used to drive OTEC plants.
The analyses of basic OTEC systems are presented in : :
QC ¼ mWF ðh2  h3 Þ (19)
Sections 3.2.-3.4 The equations are derived from Refs.
[22,44,87,89–91,96,97,113,114,117].
(ii) The heat gained by cold water in the condenser
3.2. Closed-cycle OTEC system
: :
The analysis of the three systems is similar with most of the QC ¼ mCS Cp ðTcso  Tcsi Þ (20)
equations being same, as all the three systems undergo the :
same thermodynamic cycles. Figure 12 shows a schematic where mCS is the mass flowrate of the deep cold sea water,
of a closed-cycle OTEC system and its T-S diagram. Cp is the specific heat, Tcso is the temperature of cold sea-
: water at exit of condenser, and Tcsi is the cold sea water
The net power, W N, of an OTEC plant is the net power
of the thermal cycle minus the pumping power required by temperature at inlet of condenser.
the working fluid pump, and the warm and cold water
pumps [22], given as (iii) The heat transfer in the condenser based on the heat
transfer coefficient and the log mean temperature differ-
: :  : : :  ence (LMTD) is
W N ¼ W G  W WSP þ W CSP þ W WFP (17) :
QC ¼ UC AC ðΔTm ÞC (21)
: :
where W G is the power available at the generator, W WSP is where UC is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the con-
:
the power required for pumping warm surface water, W CSP denser, AC is the heat transfer area of the condenser, and

1130 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

where T2 and T3 are temperatures of the working fluid at

the inlet and outlet of the condenser.
:
(c) Working fluid pump power, W WFP
Work is performed on the pump, therefore negative work
output. Processes 3–4 are adiabatic and undergo isentropic
compression. The working fluid pump power is calculated
as
:
: mWF ðh4  h3 Þ
W WFP ¼ (23)
WFP

where WFP is the working fluid pump efficiency.The shaft

work for a steady flow device (pump) is

Z4
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of an OTEC plant operating as a W¼ vdp (24)
heat engine. 3

The working fluid pumping power is also given as

(ΔTm)C is the LMTD of the condenser. The LMTD is cal-
culated as: : :
W WFP ¼ mWF vf ðP4  P3 Þ (25)
ðT2  Tcsi Þ  ðT3  Tcso Þ
ðΔTm ÞC ¼ n o (22)
T csi where vf is the specific volume of the working fluid, and P3
ln TT32T cso
and P4 are the operating pressures.

Figure 12. Schematic diagram of a closed-cycle OTEC system and its T-S diagram [114].

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1131
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M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

(d) Evaporator The warm surface seawater pumping power is given as

(i) Heat absorption by the working fluid in the evapora- : : h
tor is given as W WSP ¼ mWS gΔ WSP (33)
WSP
: :
QE ¼ mWF ðh4  h1 Þ (26)
where WSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational ac-
celeration, and ΔhWSP is the total head loss in the warm water
(ii) The heat lost by warm water in the evaporator
pipe. The total head loss across the warm water piping system is
: :
QE ¼ mWS Cp ðTwsi  Twso Þ (27)
ΔhWSP ¼ ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞE (34)
:
where mWS is the mass flowrate of the warm surface sea
where (ΔhWS)SP is the frictional headloss in the straight pipe,
water, Cp is the specific heat, Twsi is the temperature of
(ΔhWS)M is the minor head losses in the pipe due to bends,
warm seawater at inlet of evaporator, and Twso is the warm
and (ΔhWS)E is the head loss of warm water in the evapo-
sea water temperature at outlet of evaporator.
rator. The warm seawater pumping power is thus given as
: :  
(iii) The heat transfer in the evaporator based on the W WSP ¼ mWS g ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞE
heat transfer coefficient and the LMTD is (35)
WSP
:
QE ¼ UE AE ðΔTm ÞE (28) 3.3. Open-cycle OTEC system

where UE is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the con- Figure 13 shows a schematic of an open-cycle OTEC system
denser, AE is the heat transfer area of the condenser, and and its T-S diagram.
:
(ΔTm)E is the LMTD of the evaporator.The LMTD is cal- The net power, W N , is given as
culated as : :  : : : 
W N ¼ W G  W WSP þ W CSP þ W V (36)
ðTwsi  T1 Þ  ðTwso  T4 Þ : :
ðΔTm ÞE ¼ n o (29)
wsi T 1
ln TTwso where W G is the power available at the generator, W WSP is
T 4 :
the power required for pumping warm surface water, W CSP
is the power required for pumping deep cold seawater, and
where T1 and T4 are temperatures of the working fluid at :
W V is the power required by the vacuum pump.
the inlet and outlet of the evaporator.
: :
(e) Cold sea water pumping power, W CSP (a) Generator power, W G
The cold seawater pumping power is given as The generator power is calculated as
 
: : ðTsteam Þcond
: : h W G ¼ T Qin 1  (37)
W CSP ¼ mCS gΔ CSP (30) Twsi
CSP
:
where T is the turbine efficiency, Qin is the heat input to
where CSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational the system, Twsi is the temperature of warm seawater enter-
acceleration, and ΔhCSP is the total head loss in the cold ing the flash evaporator, and (Tsteam)cond is the condensing
water pipe. The total head loss across the cold water piping temperature of steam.
system is
(b) Heat transfer in the condenser when steam condenses
ΔhCSP ¼ ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd (31) : :
QC ¼ msteam ðh3  h5 Þ (38)
:
where ms team is the mass flowrate of steam, h3 is the
where (ΔhCS)SP is the head loss due to friction in the
enthalpy of vapor before the turbine, and h5 is the enthalpy
straight pipe, (ΔhCS)M is the minor head losses due to
of vapor at exit of turbine. The mass flowrate of steam is
bends, (ΔhCS)C is head loss of cold water in the condenser,
calculated as :
and (ΔhCS)d is the head loss due to density differences. The : mws Cp ðTwsi  Twso Þ
cold seawater pumping power is thus given as msteam ¼ (39)
Hfg  Cp ðTwso  Tsat Þ
:   :
: mCS g ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd where mws is the mass flowrate of warm surface water, Cp
W CSP ¼ is the specific heat, Twsi is the warm water temperature at
CSP
inlet of flash evaporator, Twso is the warm water tempera-
(32) ture at exit of flash evaporator, Hfg is the latent heat of va-
: porization, and Tsat is the saturation temperature at
(f) Warm sea water pumping power, W WSP corresponding flash evaporator pressure.

1132 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of an open-cycle OTEC system and its T-S diagram [115,116].

(i) The heat gained by cold water in the condenser is of warm seawater at inlet of flash evaporator, and Twso
given by equation 20 is the warm sea water temperature at outlet of flash
: : evaporator.
QC ¼ mCS Cp ðTcso  Tcsi Þ
: :
where mCS is the mass flowrate of the deep cold sea water, (d) Cold sea water pumping power, W CSP
Cp is the specific heat, Tcso is the temperature of cold sea- The cold seawater pumping power is given by equation 30:
water at exit of condenser, and Tcsi is the cold sea water :
temperature at inlet of condenser. : mCS gΔhCSP
W CSP ¼
CSP
(ii) The heat transfer in the condenser based on the heat
transfer coefficient, and the LMTD is given by
where CSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational ac-
equation 22
: celeration, and ΔhCSP is the total head loss in the cold wa-
QC ¼ UC AC ðΔTm ÞC ter pipe. The total head loss across the cold water piping
system is
where UC is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the con-
denser, AC is the heat transfer area of the condenser, and
(ΔTm)C is the LMTD of the condenser. ΔhCSP ¼ ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd (40)

(c) Heat transfer in the flash evaporator is given by equa- where (ΔhCS)SP is the head loss due to friction in the
tion 27 straight pipe, (ΔhCS)M is the minor head losses due to
: :
QFE ¼ mWS CP ðTwsi  Twso Þ bends, (ΔhCS)C is head loss of cold water in the con-
: denser, and (ΔhCS)d is the head loss due to density dif-
where mWS is the mass flowrate of the warm surface ferences. The cold seawater pumping power is thus
sea water, Cp is the specific heat, Twsi is the temperature given as

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1133
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M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

: :
:   QC ¼ mCS Cp ðTcso  Tcsi Þ
: mCS g ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd
W CSP ¼
CSP (iii) The heat transfer in the condenser based on the
(41) heat transfer coefficient and the LMTD is cal-
:
(e) Warm sea water pumping power, W WSP culated using equation 22:
:
The warm surface seawater pumping power is given by QC ¼ UC AC ðΔTm ÞC
equation 33:
:
: mWS gΔhWSP :
W WSP ¼ (c) Working fluid pump power, W WFP
WSP The working fluid pumping power is given by equations
23 and 25:
where WSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational :
: mWF ðh4  h3 Þ
acceleration, and ΔhWSP is the total head loss in the warm W WFP ¼
water pipe. The total head loss across the warm water pip- WFP
ing system is: : :
W WFP ¼ mWF vf ðP4  P3 Þ
ΔhWSP ¼ ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞFE (42)

where (ΔhWS)SP is the frictional headloss in the straight (d) Evaporator

pipe, (ΔhWS)M is the minor head losses in the pipe due to (i) Heat absorption by the working fluid in the
bends, and (ΔhWS)FE is the head loss across the flash evap- evaporator is given by equation 26:
orator. The warm seawater pumping power is thus given as : :
QE ¼ mWF ðh4  h1 Þ
:  
: mWS g ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞFE (ii) The heat lost by warm water in the evaporator is
W WSP ¼
WSP given by equation 27:
(43) : :
QE ¼ mWS Cp ðTwsi  Twso Þ
3.4. Hybrid-cycle OTEC system (iii) The heat transfer in the evaporator based on the
heat transfer coefficient and the LMTD is calcu-
Figure 14 shows a schematic of a hybrid-cycle OTEC sys-
lated using equation 28:
tem and its T-S diagram. :
: QE ¼ UE AE ðΔTm ÞE
The net power, W N , is given as
:
: :  : : : :  (e) Cold sea water pumping power, W CSP
W N ¼ W G  W WSP þ W CSP þ W WFP þ W V (44) The cold seawater pumping power is given by equation
: : 30:
where W G is the power available at the generator, W WSP is
: : : h
the power required for pumping warm surface water, W CSP W CSP ¼ mCS gΔ CSP
is the power required for pumping deep cold seawater, CSP
: :
W WFP is the working fluid pumping power, and W V is The total head loss across the cold water piping system
the power required by the vacuum pump. is
:
(a) Generator power, W G ΔhCSP ¼ ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd þ ðΔhCS ÞDC
The generator power is calculated using equation 18: (45)
: :
W G ¼ mWF T G ðh1  h2 Þ where (ΔhCS)SP is the head loss due to friction in the
straight pipe, (ΔhCS)M is the minor head losses due to
: bends, (ΔhCS)C is head loss of cold water in the condenser,
where mWF is the mass flowrate of the working fluid, T is
the turbine efficiency, and G is the generator efficiency. (ΔhCS)d is the head loss due to density differences, and
(ΔhCS)DC is the head loss in the desalination condenser.
(b) Condenser The cold seawater pumping power is thus given as
(i) The heat rejection from the working fluid in the :  
: mCS g ðΔhCS ÞSP þ ðΔhCS ÞM þ ðΔhCS ÞC þ ðΔhCS Þd þ ðΔhCS ÞDC
condenser is calculated using equation 19: W CSP ¼
CSP
: :
QC ¼ mWF ðh2  h3 Þ :
(46)
(e) Warm sea water pumping power, W WSP
(ii) Heat gained by cold water in the condenser is The warm surface seawater pumping power is given by
calculated using equation 20: equation 33:

1134 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of a hybrid-cycle OTEC system and its T-S diagram [117,118].

: :  
: mWS gΔhWSP : mWS g ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞE þ ðΔhWS Þfc
W WSP ¼ W WSP ¼
WSP WSP
(48)
The total head loss across the cold water piping system is
3.5. Feasibility, technological issues, and
impacts of OTEC plants
ΔhWSP ¼ ðΔhWS ÞSP þ ðΔhWS ÞM þ ðΔhWS ÞE þ ðΔhWS Þfc
(47) Ocean thermal energy conversion plants can be located
across about 60 million square kilometers of tropical
where (ΔhWS)SP is the frictional headloss in the straight oceans, generally at latitudes within about 20
or 25
of
pipe, (ΔhWS)M is the minor head losses in the pipe due to the equator. Ocean water more than 1000m below the sur-
bends, (ΔhWS)E is the head loss of warm water in the evap- face is normally at a temperature of about 4
C. This vast
orator, and (ΔhWS)fc is the head loss across the flash cham- resource of cold water is constantly supplied by the deep
ber. The warm seawater pumping power is thus given as cold water that flows from the polar regions [22,119].

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1135
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M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

3.5.1. Feasibility demonstration plant was constructed offshore. Cold water

There is a high potential for OTEC plants in tropical is- at a temperature of 4.4
C was drawn from a depth of 670
land countries where the temperature difference between m. The seabed at the site was a steep rocky volcanic slope
surface and deep cold water at 1000m is approximately be- with very rough topography. The platform was moored by
tween 20
C and 24
C and is sufficient to operate OTEC using a 30,000-lb submerged weight. Ammonia was used as
plants [22]. The ocean thermal gradient essential for OTEC the working fluid. Polyethylene pipe was used for transport-
plants operation is mostly found between latitudes 20
N ing cold water. Polyethylene has a very smooth interior, and
and 20
S [120,121]. There are at least two separate mar- this reduces biofouling [131]. Two plate type titanium heat
kets for OTEC plants: (i) industrial nations and islands exchangers were used [132]. During actual operation of the
and (ii) smaller or less industrialized islands with modest plant, it was found that biofouling, effects of mixing the
needs for power as well as desalinated water [122]. deep cold water with the warm surface water, and debris
Commercial OTEC plants should be located in a stable clogging did not have any negative effects on plant opera-
resourceful environment for efficient operation of the sys- tion. The longest continuous operation was for 120h. The
tem [123]. The country’s population, economies, policies, plant designers had expected 50kW of electricity to be
and energy demands should also be looked at. An energy generated and 40kW to be consumed in running the pumps
analysis that involves the environment, economy, and ser- and other equipment on board, and these were met [131].
vices should be put together for an emergy evaluation A 100-kW OTEC pilot plant was constructed on-land
(emergy with an ‘m’) to determine the cost benefits for demonstration purposes in the Republic of Nauru in
[124]. As capital costs are very high for OTEC plants, October 1981 by Japan. This pilot plant proved the validity
the by-products of these plants, such as fresh water, should of the mechanical and electrical designs and also the deep-
be considered in a financing strategy to help overcome the water pipelines for deep cold water. The system operated
initial costs [125]. Studies have been carried out by between the warm surface water and the cold heat source
Srinivasan et al. [126] on the cost effectiveness of OTEC of 5–8
C at a depth of 500–700m, with a temperature dif-
plants, and they designed a new OTEC system by introduc- ference of 20
C. A pipeline length of 945m was required
ing a subsea condenser. When identifying locations for to reach a depth of 580m. Freon-22 was used as the work-
OTEC plants, the thermal gradient suitable to drive the ing fluid in the closed cycle because it is less harmful com-
plants should not be very far away from the shore. The pared with ammonia. The heat exchanger tubes were
OTEC piping systems are a major part of the initial capital surface treated with titanium to improve performance.
cost of OTEC plants [119]. Table I shows some countries The shape of the seabed was very irregular from the lagoon
with their thermal gradients and the distance of the thermal tip to a 50-m depth, after which there was a continuous
resource from the shore. slope with a 40–45
inclination. This favorable coastal site
Ocean thermal energy conversion plants can be land was utilized to construct the demonstration plant on land.
based, shelf mounted on platforms, or floating types on The pipe material used was polyethylene after investigat-
deep water [127,128]. The plants installed on or near land ing the thermal and mechanical stresses. Polyethylene
do not require complicated mooring, long power cables, or pipes are superior in flexibility to steel pipes and adapts
high maintenance costs such as with open-ocean environ- well to seabed irregularity [133]. The tests performed were
ments. They can be installed in sheltered areas to keep it load response characteristics, turbine, and heat exchanger
safe from storms and heavy seas. Land based or near-shore performance tests. The internal efficiency of the turbine
located OTEC plants can be operated in combination with was well over 80%. Heat exchanger performance was
industries such as for mariculture or for desalinated water highly satisfactory. During operation, warm water from
[127,129]. A shelf mounted OTEC plant can be towed to the surface brought some seaweeds and sand, but nothing
a favorable site of about 100-m depth and fixed to the sea was trapped in the screen for cold water. The plant had op-
bottom. This is performed to have closer access to the cold erated by two shifts with one spare shift, and a continuous
water resource. Shelf-mounted plants have to bear the power generation record of 10days was achieved. The
open-ocean environmental conditions, and the power de- plant produced 31.5kW of OTEC net power during
livery is also a concern because of the long underwater continuous operation and was connected to the main
cables required to reach land [127,129]. Floating OTEC power system [133].
plants are designed to operate offshore and are preferred A 1-MW floating demonstration plant was planned to
for large power capacity plants. Offshore plants are diffi- be built off the coast of Tamil Nadu by the National Insti-
cult to stabilize and to moor in deep water, and the cables tute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), India, with a gross
attached to floating plants are more vulnerable to damages power generation capacity of 1MW and a net power of
in the open-ocean environments. External forces such as 500kW. This was to be commissioned in the south east
waves, wind, and ocean currents affect the stability of the of Tutricorin, South India. The plant was supposed to have
plant [127,130]. ammonia as a working fluid and would have been the
world’s first floating plant. The evaporators had a special
3.5.1.1. Some OTEC case studies. The first-ever steel coating on the ammonia side to enhance nucleate
OTEC plant that was successfully commissioned in boiling. An after-condenser was introduced after labora-
1979 was in Hawaii. A 50-kW closed-cycle floating tory tests. A four-stage ammonia turbine was also

1136 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

Table I. Countries with adequate ocean thermal resources less diverted to desalination using the OTEC cold water
than 25km from shore [120,123]. pipe [134].
Country/area Temperature difference
A land-based open-cycle OTEC experimental plant was
(
C) between the surface Distance from installed in Hawaii in 1993. The turbine generator was
water and water at a resource to designed for an output of 210kW for 26
C warm surface
depth of 1000m shore (km) water and 6
C deep water temperature. A small fraction
(10%) of the steam produced was condensed using a sur-
Africa face condenser to produce desalinated water. The experi-
Benin 22–24 25 mental plant successfully operated for 6years. The
Gabon 20–22 15 highest gross power achieved was 255kW with a
Ghana 22–24 25
corresponding net power of 103kW and 0.4L/s of desali-
Kenya 20–21 25
nated water [30].
Mozambique 18–21 25
Saga University, Japan, is actively involved in OTEC
São Tomé 22 1–10
and its byproduct studies. Experimental studies have been
and Príncipe
conducted on heat exchangers for use as evaporators and
Somalia 18–20 25
Tanzania 20–22 25
condensers. A spray-flash evaporation desalination system
Latin America and the Caribbean is also being investigated. This desalination system can be
Bahamas, The 20–22 15 utilized to convert 1% of raw seawater to fresh water.
Barbados 22 1–10 Other studies carried out are on mineral water production
Cuba 22–24 1 using deep cold water, lithium extraction from seawater,
Dominica 22 1–10 hydrogen production, air-conditioning and aquaculture
Dominican 21–24 1 applications using deep cold water, and using the deep cold
Republic water for food processing and medical (cosmetic) applica-
Grenada 27 1–10 tions [135].
Haiti 21–24 1
Jamaica 22 1–10 3.5.2. Technological issues
Saint Lucia 22 1–10 The proper designs of OTEC systems include the con-
Saint Vincent and 22 1–10 sideration of leakage of piping systems that carry ammonia
the Grenadines in a closed cycle. A major disadvantage of OTEC systems
Trinidad and 22–24 10 is the high capital cost [79]. Extensive research has been
Tobago performed on the OTEC components; for example, heat
US Virgin Islands 21–24 1
exchangers should have compact designs with optimum
Indian and Pacific Oceans
heat transfer and low unit cost [136]. Experimental studies
Comoros 20–25 1–10
on heat exchangers for use in OTEC plants have also been
Cook Islands 21–22 1–10
conducted in Saga University, Japan [22]. Guo-Yan et al.
Fiji 22–23 1–10
Guam 24 1
[137] have presented a techno-economic study on compact
Kiribati 23–24 1–10
heat exchangers to choose an optimum heat exchanger
Maldives 22 1–10 with minimum pressure drop. They concluded that all
Mauritius 20–21 1–10 compact heat exchangers are feasible from an energetic
New Caledonia 20–21 1–10 point of view. However, the performance differs because
Pacific Islands 22–24 1 of the materials used. Biofouling in the heat exchangers
Trust Territory provides resistance to heat transfer, therefore affecting
Philippines 22–24 1 their performance [87]. Cleaning methods such as contin-
Samoa 22–23 1–10 ual circulation of close fitting balls and by chemical addi-
Seychelles 21–22 1 tives to the water are used [87]. Together with a large
Solomon Islands 23–24 1–10 pressure difference across the turbine, a high heat transfer
Vanuatu 22–23 1–10 rate between the working fluid and the ocean water in the
heat exchangers is required for optimal power production
in OTEC plants. Very-large-sized turbines are required
for the low-temperature and low-pressure vapor at the
developed, and the plant was integrated on a floating barge. evaporator [22].
The floating barge was to be moored on a single point Another major design concern is the cold water pipe
mooring at a depth of 1200m by using a 1-m-diameter that transports cold water from the deep ocean to the sur-
high-density polyethylene pipe, which was the intake for face. The cold water pipes that pump deep cold ocean wa-
the cold water pipe [94]. Even though all the components ter to the surface require much pumping power, which
were tested before commissioning, there was a problem increases the costs [113]. Approximately 4m3/s of warm
in establishing the 1-km-long high-density polyethylene surface seawater and 2m3/s of deep cold seawater (ratio
pipeline. Thus, this project was abandoned with focus 2:1), for a temperature difference of 20
C, are required

Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1137
DOI: 10.1002/er
M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed Ocean heat budget and OTEC

for every megawatt of electricity generated [138]. It is sub- Sun. The effective back radiation from the ocean sur-
jected to forces such as drag by ocean currents, oscillation face is the difference between the outward radiation
forces, stresses at the connections, forces due to harmonic from the surface and the re-radiation (or down radia-
motion of the platform, and the dead weight of the pipe it- tion) from the atmosphere. Heat lost by evaporation
self. Also, problems will arise during installation because from the ocean surface is the largest contributing factor
of difficulties in construction and transportation to deploy- to the overall heat losses from the ocean. The evapora-
ment site due to its very large size. The choice of materials tion is higher close to the equator and decreases with
is also debatable [22,87,139]. The successful installations increasing latitudes. Heat lost by convection and con-
of offshore oil drilling platforms have provided technical duction has seasonal and regional variations and
guidance that can be directly applicable to OTEC cold wa- depends on the temperature difference between the
ter pipe design [22]. ocean surface and the air close to the surface. Ocean
currents transfer thermal energy from the lower lati-
3.5.3. Environmental impacts of OTEC plants tudes to cooler regions in the higher latitudes. The
Renewable energy utilization will always have some ocean energy budget quantifies the amount of heat
impacts on the environment. OTEC plants will have an im- gained and lost by the ocean, and this can be used to
pact on the physical characteristics of the region it is determine the overall temperature change of the system
deployed in [140]. These plants can be used to help im- over a certain period. The accurate measurements and
prove the environment by combining it with artificial coral predictions of the ocean energy budget terms are diffi-
reef ecosystems [141]. However, changes in the climate cult, and some errors and imbalances are still present.
characteristics are also possible [140]. OTEC plants can al- The transport of cold water from the higher latitudes to-
ter the ocean surface energy balance by lowering the sur- wards the equator along the ocean bottom results in the
face temperatures, and the tropical ocean environment displacement of the lower-density water above and cre-
can be modified by OTEC implemented upwelling and in- ates a thermal structure with a large reservoir of warm
crease in CO2 production due to increased mixing rate be- water at the ocean surface and a large reservoir of cold
tween surface and deep ocean waters. The deep water water at the bottom, with a temperature difference be-
temperature can increase, and the albedo of the surface tween them of 22
C to 25
C. This temperature differ-
can also increase because of increased phytoplankton on ence can be used to drive an ocean thermal energy
the surface [22,140]. system. OTEC plants operate using this temperature dif-
Deep cold seawater used in OTEC plants contains much ference to run a turbine with efficiencies close to 3%.
dissolved inorganic nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate, The thermal structure of the oceans, or the thermocline,
and silicate, which could be expected to promote blooms varies with different latitudes and is permanent for
of photosynthetic organisms if the seawater is discharged lower latitudes. The thermodynamic principles are sim-
and contained within the upper ocean or in coastal waters ilar for the basic cycles, namely, open cycle, closed cy-
[142]. However, the rich nutrients will be discharged at cle, and hybrid cycle. There are many technological
the surface, which is poor in nutrients and is much warmer issues for OTEC plant implementation, such as getting
compared with deep ocean water. The resulting complica- cold water from the ocean depths, which is a major
tions due to this forced nutrient mixing are not fully under- concern. Many technological problems are however
stood [143]. Alterations in climate and ocean surface solved, such as fouling and compact designs of heat
conditions will be more significant when multiple OTEC exchangers. The case studies clearly show that OTEC
plants operate in a region. Also, the water intake by OTEC technology can be successfully commissioned. How-
plants at the ocean surface would induce circulation, which ever, proper design and planning is required. It is seen
could affect the coastal circulation [22]. An experimental that most of the power generated at the turbine is used
analytical study conducted by Jirka et al. [144] on the mix- up in running the pumps and other equipment. The first
ing and recirculation of surrounding ocean waters of an 50kW OTEC plant in Hawaii in 1979 used 40kW of
OTEC plant shows that large discharge velocities and plant the power in running the pumps and other equipment
flowrates contribute a lot to recirculation. on board. The initial capital cost for OTEC plants is
very large, but once the plant is operational, the costs
will be recovered in the long run. OTEC plants can al-
4. CONCLUSIONS ter the ocean surface energy balance by altering the sur-
face temperatures and increased CO2 production due to
The heat exchange processes across the ocean surface and increased mixing of surface and deep waters. But no such
the technology for OTEC are presented. The heat exchange issues were faced during the actual operation of the dem-
processes across the ocean surface are represented in an onstration OTEC plants in Hawaii and Nauru.
ocean energy budget. The heat added to the ocean by
short-wave radiation is different at different latitudes NOMENCLATURE
and over different seasons, the maximum being at the
equator. Heat lost by back radiation from the surface AC = heat transfer area of condenser, m2
of the ocean increases with decreasing altitudes of the Ae = eddy diffusivity of water vapor, m2/s

1138 Int. J. Energy Res. 2011; 35:1119–1144 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Ocean heat budget and OTEC M. Faizal and M. R. Ahmed

AE = heat transfer area of evaporator, m2 Tcsi = cold seawater temperature at inlet of con-
Ah = eddy conductivity, kg/ms denser,
C
An = noon altitude of the sun, degrees Tcso = cold seawater at outlet of condenser,
C
B = Bowen’s ratio (Tsteam)cond = temperature of steam in open-cycle OTEC
C = Cloud cover, okta condenser,
C
Cp = specific heat of air (or water) at constant UC = overall heat transfer coefficient of con-
pressure, kJ/kg
C denser, W/m2 K
dt/dz = vertical temperature gradient in the lowest UE = overall heat transfer coefficient of evapo-
atmosphere,
C/m rator, W/m2 K
de/dz = gradient of water vapor concentration in V = evaporation, cm/year
the air above ocean surface vf = specific volume of liquid working fluid,
ea = actual vapor pressure at 10m above ocean m3/kg
surface, kPa W: = wind speed at 10m above sea surface, m/s
es = saturated water vapor pressure at ocean W: G = generator power of an OTEC plant, W
surface, kPa W: N = net power of an OTEC plant, W
Fe = rate of evaporation of water, kg/s/m2 of W: V = vacuum pump power, W
sea surface W: CSP = power required by cold seawater pump, W
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2 W WSP = power required by warm seawater pump,
h = enthalpies, kJ/kg : W
Hfg = latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg W WFP = power required by working fluid pump, W
L:t = latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg G = efficiency of generator
m: CS = mass flowrate of cold seawater, m3/s T = efficiency of turbine
m: Steam = mass flowrate of steam, m3/s CSP = efficiency of cold seawater pump
m: WF = mass flowrate of working fluid, m3/s WFP = efficiency of working fluid pump
mWS = mass flowrate of warm seawater, m3/s WSP = efficiency of warm seawater pump
N = precipitation, cm/year ΔhCSP = total head loss across cold water piping, m
P: = operating pressures, Pa ΔhWSP = total head loss across cold water piping, m
Qb = rate of heat loss from the ocean by back (ΔhCS)C = head losses in the condenser, m
: radiation, W/m2 (ΔhWS)E = head losses in the evaporator, m
Q: C = heat transferred in the OTEC condenser, W (ΔhCS)d = head losses due to density differences, m
QE = heat transferred in the OTEC evaporator, (ΔhCS)M = minor head losses in the cold water pipe,
: W m
Qe = rate of heat loss by evaporation from the (ΔhWS)M = minor head losses in the warm water pipe,
: ocean surface, W/m2 m
Qh = rate of sensible heat loss from ocean sur- (ΔhCS)DC = head loss in the desalination condenser,
: face by convection and conduction, W/m2 m
Qr = amount of short-wave radiation reflected (ΔhWS)FE = head losses in the flash evaporator of
: from the ocean surface, W/m2 open-cycle system, m
QS = rate of heat added to ocean by short-wave (ΔhCS)SP = frictional head loss in cold water pipe, m
: solar radiation, W/m2 (ΔhWS)SP = frictional head loss in warm water pipe, m
Q′S = amount of solar radiation received by (ΔhWS)fc = head losses in the flash chamber of hybrid-
ocean surface after cloud disturbance cycle system, m
: approximations, W/m2 (ΔTm)C = LMTD of condenser,
C
QT = total rate of heat gain or loss by a given (ΔTm)E = LMTD of evaporator,
C
: area of the ocean, W/m2 ΔT = change in seawater temperature,
C
QV = heat transported by moving currents (ad- r = seawater density, kg/m3
vection) within the ocean, W/m2 s = Stefan–Boltzmann constant, W/m2/K4
S = salinity, parts per thousand (%)
t = period, s
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