ANTENNA

At their core, antennas are devices that facilitate the conversion of electrical
signals into electromagnetic waves for transmission or the reverse process for
reception. This transformation is made possible through the principles of
electromagnetic wave propagation. Webster’s Dictionary defines an antenna as
“a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving radio
waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–
1983) defines the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves.” In other words, the antenna is the transitional structure between free
space and a guiding device, as shown in Figure 1.1. The guiding device or
transmission line may take the form of a coaxial cable or a hollow pipe
(waveguide), and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy from the
transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver. In the
former case, we have a transmitting antenna, and in the latter a receiving
antenna.

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 Figure 1.Error! No text of specified style in document..2

History of Antenna

The first antenna was devised by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
During the late 1880s, he carried out a landmark experiment to test the theory of
the British mathematician-physicist James Clerk Maxwell that visible light is
only one example of a larger class of electromagnetic effects that could pass
through air (or empty space) as a succession of waves. Hertz built a transmitter
for such waves consisting of two flat, square metallic plates, each attached to a
rod, with the rods in turn connected to metal spheres spaced close together. An
induction coil connected to the spheres caused a spark to jump across the gap,
producing oscillating currents in the rods. The reception of waves at a distant
point was indicated by a spark jumping across a gap in a loop of wire.

The Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi, the principal inventor of

wireless telegraphy, constructed various antennas for both sending and
receiving, and he also discovered the importance of tall antenna structures in
transmitting low-frequency signals. In the early antennas built by Marconi and
others, operating frequencies were generally determined by antenna size and
shape. In later antennas frequency was regulated by an oscillator, which
generated the transmitted signal.

More powerful antennas were constructed during the 1920s by combining

several elements in a systematic array. Metal horn antennas were devised during
the subsequent decade following the development of waveguides that could
direct the propagation of very high-frequency radio signals.

Over the years, many types of antennas have been developed for different
purposes. An antenna may be designed specifically to transmit or to receive,
although these functions may be performed by the same antenna. A transmitting
antenna, in general, must be able to handle much more electrical energy than a
receiving antenna. An antenna also may be designed to transmit at specific
frequencies. In the United States, amplitude modulation (AM) radio
broadcasting, for instance, is done at frequencies between 535 and 1,605
kilohertz (kHz); at these frequencies, a wavelength is hundreds of meters or
yards long, and the size of the antenna is therefore not critical. Frequency
modulation (FM) broadcasting, on the other hand, is carried out at a range from
88 to 108 megahertz (MHz). At these frequencies, a typical wavelength is about
3 meters (10 feet) long, and the antenna must be adjusted more precisely to the
electromagnetic wave, both in transmitting and in receiving. Antennas may
consist of single lengths of wire or rods in various shapes (dipole, loop, and
helical antennas), or of more elaborate arrangements of elements (linear, planar,
or electronically steerable arrays). Reflectors and lens antennas use a parabolic
dish to collect and focus the energy of radio waves, in much the same way that a
parabolic mirror in a reflecting telescope collects light rays. Directional
antennas are designed to be aimed directly at the signal source and are used in
direction-finding.

Working of Antenna

For most of us, a mobile phone is a part of our lives, but there will be questions
on our minds that have always been struck by such questions as how a mobile
phone makes a call, and why there are different generations of mobile
communications. Antennas are widely used in the field of telecommunications,
and we know many applications for them. Antennas receive an electromagnetic
wave and convert it to an electric signal or receive an electric signal and radiate
it as an electromagnetic wave.

1.2 Characteristics of Antenna

There are certain fundamental properties all antennas possess which enable
them to function effectively. These key properties of antennas are listed below:

 Intensity of radiation
 Radiation pattern
 Input impedance
 Effective length
 Bandwidth
 Effective aperture
 Polarization
 Gain and Directivity
 Power Gain and Radiation Efficiency

1. WAVELENGTH

Wavelength is the distance a radio wave travels during one cycle. The
formula for wavelength is given by,

c
λ=
f

Where: λ is the wavelength

c is the speed of light (3*108 m/s)

f is the frequency
2. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

For efficient transfer of energy, the impedance of the radio, the antenna, and
the transmission line connecting the radio to the antenna must be the same.
Radios typically are designed for 50 Ohms impedance, and the coaxial cables
(transmission lines) used with them also have 50 Ohms impedance. Efficient
antenna configurations often have an impedance other than 50 Ohms. Some
sort of impedance-matching circuit is then required to transform the antenna
impedance to 50 Ohms. Larsen antennas come with the necessary
impedance-matching circuitry as part of the antenna. We use low-loss
components in our matching circuits to provide the maximum transfer of
energy between the transmission line and the antenna.

3. VSWR AND REFLECTED POWER

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the quality of the

impedance match. VSWR is often abbreviated as SWR. A high VSWR is an
indication the signal is reflected prior to being radiated by the antenna.
VSWR and reflected power are different ways of measuring and expressing
the same thing. A VSWR of 2.0:1 or less is often considered acceptable.
Most commercial antennas are specified to be 1.5:1 or less over some
bandwidth. Based on a 100-watt radio, a 1.5:1 VSWR equates to a forward
power of 96 watts and a reflected power of 4 watts, or the reflected power is
4.2% of the forward power.

4. BANDWIDTH

Bandwidth can be defined in terms of radiation patterns or VSWR/reflected

power. The definition used is based on VSWR. Bandwidth is often expressed
in terms of percent bandwidth because the percent bandwidth is constant
relative to frequency.
5. DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN

Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular

direction when transmitting or to receive energy better from a particular
direction when receiving. There is a relationship between gain and
directivity. We see the phenomena of increased directivity when comparing a
light bulb to a spotlight. A 100-watt spotlight will provide more light in a
particular direction than a 100-watt light bulb and less light in other
directions. We could say the spotlight has more “directivity” than the light
bulb. The spotlight is comparable to an antenna with increased directivity.
Gain is the practical value of directivity.

6. RADIATION PATTERNS

Radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the radiated

field in various directions from the antenna at a constant distance. The
radiation pattern is a “reception pattern” as well since it also describes the
receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-
dimensional, but it is difficult to display the three-dimensional radiation
pattern in a meaningful manner. It is also time-consuming to measure a
three-dimensional radiation pattern. Often radiation patterns measured are a
slice of the three-dimensional pattern, resulting in a two-dimensional
radiation pattern that can be displayed easily on a screen or piece of paper.
These pattern measurements are presented in either a rectangular or a polar
format.

Antenna Pattern Types

1. Omnidirectional Antennas
 For mobile, portable, and some base station applications the type of antenna
needed has an omnidirectional radiation pattern. Omnidirectional antennas
radiate and receive equally well in all horizontal directions. The gain of an
omnidirectional antenna can be increased by narrowing the beamwidth in the
vertical or elevation plane. The net effect is to focus the antenna’s energy on
the horizon. Selecting the right antenna gain for the application is the subject
of much analysis and investigation. Gain is achieved at the expense of beam
width. Higher-gain antennas feature narrow beam widths while the opposite
is also true. Omnidirectional antennas with different gains are used to
improve reception and transmission in certain types of terrain. A 0 dB gain
antenna radiates more energy higher in the vertical plane to reach radio
communication sites located in higher places. Therefore, they are more
useful in mountainous and metropolitan areas with tall buildings. A 3 dB
gain antenna is a good compromise for use in suburban and general settings.
A 5 dB gain antenna radiates more energy toward the horizon compared to
the 0 and 3-dB antennas. This allows the signal to reach radio
communication sites further apart and less obstructed. Therefore, they are
best used in deserts, plains, flatlands, and open farm areas.

2. Directional Antennas

Directional antennas focus energy on a particular direction. Directional

antennas are used in some base station applications where coverage over a
sector by separate antennas is desired. Point-to-point links also benefit from
directional antennas. Yagi and panel antennas are directional antennas.

3. Beamwidth

Beamwidth is the angle from which most of the antenna's power, as

illustrated on the radiation pattern’s main lobe, radiates. It may be measured
in the horizontal or vertical planes and is the distance between two points
where the power is less than half of the maximum. Beamwidth varies with
the physical and electronic characteristics of an antenna such as type, design,
orientation, and frequency. It may be horizontal (azimuth) or vertical
(elevation) or in the case of omnidirectional around 360 degrees
horizontally. Directional antennas focus the RF energy in a specific
direction, with the bandwidth inversely proportional to the
level gain or directivity of the antenna.

Beam width categorized into two types and are expressed using the unit
radians or degrees.

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) is the angular separation, in which the
magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases by 50% (or -3dB) from the peak
of the main beam. It is the angle in which relative power is more than 50% of
the peak power, in the effective radiated field of the antenna. This is the part
of the antenna output that has maximum consistency and utility and is
closely related to the gain of the antenna. If planning an antenna array, the
HPBW will be the point where neighbouring sectors cross over.
 Figure 1.Error! No text of specified style in document..3

When a line is drawn between radiation pattern’s origin and the half power
points on the major lobe, on both the sides, the angle between those two
vectors is termed as HPBW, half power beam width. This can be well
understood with the help of the above diagram.

The mathematical expression for half power beam width is −

70 λ
Half Power Beam Width=
D

Where, λ is wavelength.

D is diameter.

First Null Beam Width (FNBW) is he angular span between the first
pattern nulls adjacent to the main lobe. It is angular width which is measured
between first nulls or first side lobes on antenna radiation pattern. It is found
 between the null points of the main lobe of the antenna's radiation pattern.
This measurement can assist in the assessment of antenna interference.

FNBW can be indicated by drawing tangents on both sides starting from the
origin of the radiation pattern, tangential to the main beam. The angle
between those two tangents is known as First Null Beam Width (FNBW).

This can be better understood with the help of the following diagram.

Figure 1.Error! No text of specified style in document..4

The mathematical expression of First Null Beam Width is,

FNBW =2 HPBW
FNBW 2
D ( )
70 λ 140 λ
=
D

Where, λ is wavelength.

D is Diameter.

4. Near-field and Far-field Patterns

 The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not the same as the
pattern at large distances. The term “near-field” refers to the field pattern
existing close to the antenna. The term “far-field” refers to the field pattern at
large distances. The far-field is also called the radiation field and is what is
most commonly of interest. The near field is called the induction field
(although it also has a radiation component). Ordinarily, it is the radiated
power that is of interest, so antenna patterns are usually measured in the far-
field region. For pattern measurement, it is important to choose a distance
sufficiently large to be in the far-field, well out of the near-field. The
minimum permissible distance depends on the dimensions of the antenna in
relation to the wavelength.

5. Antenna Polarization

Polarization is defined as the orientation of the electric field of an

electromagnetic wave. Two often-used special cases of elliptical polarization
are linear polarization and circular polarization. The initial polarization of a
radio wave is determined by the antenna launching the waves into space. The
environment through which the radio wave passes on its way from the
transmit antenna to the receiving antenna may cause a change in polarization.
With linear polarization, the electric field vector stays in the same plane. In
circular polarization the electric field vector appears to be rotating with a
circular motion about the direction of propagation, making one full turn for
each RF cycle. The rotation may be right-hand or left-hand.

Types of Antennas
Antennas come in various forms and shapes, each designed to serve specific
purposes and applications. These different types of antennas are engineered to
maximize their efficiency and performance in transmitting or receiving
electromagnetic waves. Here is an overview of some common types of
antennas:

1. Dipole Antennas

Dipole antennas are one of the simplest and most widely used types of antennas.
They consist of two conductive elements, typically rods or wires, aligned in a
straight line. A dipole antenna is typically fed at its center, and it radiates
electromagnetic waves in all directions perpendicular to its axis. Dipole
antennas are commonly used in applications such as radio broadcasting and
television reception.

2. Yagi-Uda Antennas

The Yagi-Uda antenna, often referred to as a Yagi antenna or beam antenna, is a

directional antenna that provides high gain in one direction while suppressing
signals from other directions. It consists of a driven element, one or more
directors (shorter elements in front of the driven element), and one or more
reflectors (longer elements behind the driven element). Yagi-Uda antennas are
frequently used in television reception and amateur radio.

3. Patch Antennas

Patch antennas, also known as microstrip antennas, are flat, planar antennas that
are compact and easy to manufacture. They are commonly used in high-
frequency applications, including wireless communication systems such as Wi-
Fi routers and GPS devices. Patch antennas are characterized by their low
profile and directional radiation patterns.
4. Horn Antennas

Horn antennas are named for their distinctive horn-shaped structure. They are
widely used in microwave and radar systems due to their ability to provide high
gain and excellent directivity. Horn antennas are particularly useful for
applications that require precise control of the electromagnetic radiation pattern.

5. Parabolic Reflector Antennas

Parabolic reflector antennas, also known as dish antennas, use a curved

parabolic reflector to focus incoming or outgoing electromagnetic waves onto a
single point. These antennas are often used for satellite communication, high-
gain point-to-point links, and radio astronomy.

6. Log-Periodic Antennas

Log-periodic antennas are designed to operate over a wide range of frequencies.

They have a tapered structure with varying elements that allow them to provide
consistent performance across a broad frequency spectrum. Log-periodic
antennas are commonly used in applications where the frequency of operation
may vary, such as broadband communication and spectrum monitoring.

7. Helical Antennas

Helical antennas consist of one or more helical-shaped elements. They are

known for their circular polarization and are commonly used in applications like
satellite communication, GPS, and space exploration.

8. Phased Array Antennas

Phased array antennas use multiple antenna elements and phase-shifting

techniques to steer the direction of the transmitted or received beam
electronically. They are employed in radar systems, satellite communication,
and modern wireless communication systems like 5G for their ability to rapidly
adjust their beam direction.

9. Monopole Antennas

Monopole antennas are simple, vertically oriented antennas that use a single
radiating element and a ground plane. They are commonly used in portable
devices, such as walkie-talkies and mobile phones.

10. Loop Antennas

Loop antennas come in various shapes, including circular and rectangular loops.
They are known for their compact size and are used in applications like AM
radio reception and magnetic field sensing.

1.3 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

1.3.1 Introduction:

Microstrip antennas received considerable attention starting in the 1970s,

although the idea of microstrip antenna can be traced to 1953 and a patent in
1955. One of the major benefits of microstrip antennae is that they are very
comfortable on planar and non-planar surfaces. This was the main reason that
the microstrip antenna acquired serious attention from the researchers in the
early 1970s when high-performance applications such as aircraft, spacecraft,
missile, and satellite communication put the motivation for researchers to
investigate on usefulness of conformal microstrip antennas. After about 2 years
Howell introduced a basic rectangular shape microstrip antenna that was fed
using the microstrip transmission line. In those days microstrip antenna was a
major focus for investigators. Researchers introduced many various designs.
However, it was difficult to get better radiation efficiency that was limited up to
90%. Narrow bandwidth was also a severe problem for microstrip antennae.
1.3.2 Microstrip Antenna: In a most basic form, a microstrip antenna comprises
two thin metallic layers (t ˂˂𝜆0, where 𝜆0is wavelength in free space) one as
radiating patch and second as ground plane and a dielectric substrate is placed
between them. The conductor patch is placed on the dielectric substrate and
used as a radiating element. On the other side of the substrate, there is a
conductive layer used as the ground plane as represented in Fig.1.3. Copper and
gold are used normally as a metallic layer. Radiating patches can be of any
shape, but simple shapes are used to design a patch because patches' basic
shapes are easy to analyze by the available theoretical models and it is easy to
predict the performance. Square, rectangular, dipole, triangular, elliptical, and
circular are some basic shapes. Circular, rectangular, and dipole are the most
often used shapes because of ease of analysis and fabrication. A variety of
dielectric materials are available for the substrate with dielectric constants
2.2≤ԑ𝑟 ≥ 12. The height of the substrate plays an important role in antenna
characteristics generally in the range 0.003𝜆0 ≤ h ≥ 0.05𝜆0.

Figure 1.3.1 Basic Microstrip Antenna with Inset Feed

Microstrip antenna suffers from very Narrow frequency bandwidth. However,

in some applications where narrow bandwidth is essential such as government
security systems, microstrip antennas are useful. The bandwidth of the
microstrip antenna is directly proportional to the height of the substrate. There
are two main techniques to improve the bandwidth: one circuit theory and a
second structural.

An antenna characteristic not only depends on the antenna element but also be
influenced by the TX-line and antenna combination. Generally, the input
impedance of the microstrip antenna is complex and the characteristic
impedance of the TX-line is real (usually 50 ohm). This will result in impedance
mismatching and cause a voltage standing wave pattern on the transmission line
resulting in low impedance bandwidth. One way to overcome this problem is
the use of impedance-matching networks between the antenna and transmission
line. There are several impedance matching techniques available, Circuit theory
deals with the impedance matching techniques.

Structural technique deals with the modification of substrate properties such as

height and dielectric constant. By increasing the height, we can increase the
8bandwidths. But it will also introduce surface waves which increase loss of the
power and lead to performance and characteristics degradation. Various types of
methods introduced by the researchers such as stacking, defective ground plane,
parasitic patches, and improvement of bandwidth of microstrip antenna is still
an interesting topic for investigation. By choosing a particular shape one can
easily design an antenna with the desired resonance frequency radiation pattern,
and polarization. It is easy to design a microstrip antenna with reconfigurable
polarization, resonance frequency, and radiation patterns just by adding loads
like PIN diode, and Varactor diodes.

1.3.3 Configurations:

Since the early development of microstrip antennae until now, a variety of

configurations have been produced and investigated to improve the performance
of microstrip antennae as shown in Fig. 1.3. Some of the common shapes are
rectangles; triangle, and circular are shown in the figure. Several shapes such as
pentagon and ellipse are known to give circular polarization.

Figure 1.3.2 Different Shapes of Microstrip Patch Antennas

1.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages:

Microstrip antenna is a low-profile antenna that is lightweight and is very easy

to install due to which it is very popular in handheld wireless devices such as
cell phones, pagers, and in some high-performance communication systems
such as satellites, missiles, spacecraft, aircraft, etc. Some of the major
advantages of microstrip antenna as discussed by Ramesh Garg are given
below:

 Inexpensive and easy to fabricate.

 Can be planted easily on any surface.

 Can easily get reconfigurable characteristics.

 Can easily design antenna with desired polarization.

 Mechanically robust, Resistant against vibration and shock.

  Suitable to microwave integrated circuits (MICs).

 For high gain and directivity Array of antennas can be easily formed.

Conversely microstrip antennas also have a few disadvantages and limitations

when compared to other antennas. Some of the major disadvantages of
microstrip antennas are written below:

 High quality factor.

 Cross polarization.

 Poor polarization efficiency.

 Suffers from spurious feed radiation.

 Narrow impedance bandwidth (5% to 10% without any technique)

There are various methods to overcome these limitations, bandwidth of

microstrip antenna can be increase by using some special methods like defected
ground plane strategy, stacked patches, slotted patches, parasitic patch. Gain
and the power handling ability of antenna can be improved by making an
antenna array. Use of Electromagnetic Band Gap (EBG) structure and met
material also results in the improvement of the antenna characteristics.

1.3.5 Feeding Techniques

Feeding methods can be divided into two categories: contacting feeds and other
one is non-contacting feeds or electromagnetically coupled feeds. In contacting
feeds the feed line is directly connected to radiating element. The main
drawback of contacting feeds is that it shows inherent asymmetry which
produces the higher order modes that lead to an increase in cross-polarization
level. To minimize these non-contracting feeds are used. Microstrip line feed
and coaxial probe feeding are two mainly used direct contact feedings and
aperture coupled and proximity coupling are 10 two non-contacting couplings
which are described in brief below:

1.3.5.1 Microstrip line feed:

In this type of feeding the radiating patch is directly fed by the microstrip feed
line and has a narrow width as compared to the patch as shown in Fig. 1.3.5.1. It
is the simple and most used feeding method. Because the microstrip line can be
treated as an extended part of the radiating patch and fabricated on the same
substrate on the board.

Figure 1.3.Error! No text of specified style in document..5.1 Microstrip Patch Antenna with Inset line Feed

This feeding is simple to fabricate, and its easy impedance-matching techniques

are very compatible with this type of feed. But this feed also has some
drawbacks, suffers from spurious feed radiation and surface wave losses, and
has low bandwidth.

1.3.5.2 Coaxial probe feed:

One of the widely used feedings for microstrip antenna. In this type of feeding
core of the coaxial cable is directly connected to the patch using the soldering
and the outer cable is connected to the ground. The core conductor is inserted in
the substrate via a hole.
 Figure 1.3.5.2

The main advantage of this feeding is that we can directly feed or connect the
inner conductor to the feed point where the input impedance is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the feed line as shown in figure 1.3.5.2.

1.3.5.3 Proximity coupled feed:

Two types of dielectric substrates are used in this type of feeding. The
microstrip line is not directly connected to the patch and left open-ended and is
sandwiched between the substrates. Energy from the feed line is coupled
electromagnetically to the radiating patch. The microstrip line can be extended
as a stub to increase the bandwidth. Substrate dielectric constants play a lead
role and are selected to increase the bandwidth and decrease the spurious feed
radiations from the feed line. A structural view of this type of feeding is shown
in Fig. 1.6.
 Figure 1.3.5.3 Proximity Coupled Feed

Thick Material with a low dielectric constant is selected for Upper substrates
because the lower the dielectric constant more the fringing field and more the
radiations from the patch and thin substrate with a high dielectric constant is
selected for the lower substrate. This type of feeding has the largest bandwidth
as compared to others. It is easy 12 to model and has low spurious feed
radiation however its fabrication is more difficult because the exact alignment
of the feed line is required. The length of the extended stub and the width-to-
line ratio of the patch can be optimized to control the antenna characteristics.

1.3.5.4 Aperture coupled feed:

The structural view of this type of feeding is shown in Fig. 1.7. As shown this
feeding also uses two types of substrate ground plane is placed between them
and a microstrip line is used generally to feed which is placed below the lower
substrate.
 Figure 1.3.5.4 Aperture Coupled Feed

Aperture coupling feeding the energy is electromagnetically coupled to the

patch through an aperture or slot made in the ground plane. Different types of
aperture shapes are used generally rectangular and circular shapes are widely
used. Cross-shaped and annular ring shape slots are used for exciting the
circular polarization. The parameters of slots are used to improve the antenna
characteristics. As in proximity coupled feeding substrates dielectric constant is
selected to get better radiation and bandwidth. The thick substrate with a low
dielectric constant is used for the upper substrate to get good radiation and
bandwidth. Thin and high dielectric constant material is used for the upper
substrate for efficient transfer of energy from the feed line to the patch. To get
the maximum coupling between the feed structure and the patch slot should be
located at the place where the magnetic field is maximum. We know that from
the current and voltage distribution along the patch length, the electric field is
maximum at the ends and the magnetic field is maximum at the Centre of the
patch. The microstrip feed line is extended a length extra and is used as a stub.
Stub works as an open-circuited transmission line that has admittance is in
parallel to that of the slot. By optimizing the extended length of the feed line
(stub) the reactive components of the slot can be cancelled out to that of the stub
which will result in better impedance matching.
 Figure 1.3.5.4 Equivalent Techniques for Feeding Techniques

The area of the slot is kept small to minimize the radiation below the ground
plane. This type of feeding has better polarization purity, low spurious feed
radiation, and large bandwidth as compared to microstrip and coaxial probe
feeding. The equivalent circuit for each of them is shown in Fig. 1.8 above.