ALLIANCE SYSTEM / SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES IN EUROPE

BEFORE WW1

 The alliance system was started by Bismarck, the German

Chancellor from 1871 to 1890. After the Franco-Prussian
War, Bismarck held that Germany was a "satiated state"
which should give up ideas of further conquest. Thus
Bismarck organized a system of alliances designed to
maintain Germany's hegemony on the European
continent.
 France was determined to challenge the hegemony of
Germany because France had been defeated by Germany
in 1871 and had been forced to cede two provinces
(Alsace-Lorraine) to Germany. Bismarck tried to befriend
Austria,Russia, Italy and Britain in order to isolate France.
 1, Dreikaiserbund 1872

 Also known as the League of the Three Emperors

(1872).Bismarck's aim for forming this League was to isolate
France by making friends with Austria and Russia. The
partners were Kaiser William I of Germany, Czar Alexander II of
Russia and Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria.
 These three rulers agreed:
 (i) to maintain the existing territorial arrangements in Europe;
 (ii) to resist the spread of revolutionary (e.g. socialist)
movements; and
 (iii) to consult one another if any international difficulties
arose.
 France was being diplomatically isolated. But the underlying
weakness of this personal understanding between the three
emperors was the rivalry between Austria and Russia over the
Balkan Peninsula. Both sought to dominate the Balkans. It was
difficult for Bismarck to keep them in the same camp.
Balkan
 2, Dual Alliance 1879

 The Congress of Berlin 1878

 Rivalry between Austria and Russia in the Balkans came to a head in
1877-78. In 1875, five Balkan states revolted against the Turkish rule.
Russia supported the Balkan states and defeated Turkey. On March 8,
1878, Turkey was forced to sign the Treaty of San Stefano, in which an
independent, Big Bulgaria was created. Seeing that this Bulgaria would
be a Russian puppet, Austria intervened, backed up by Britain, the
traditional rival of Russia in the eastern Mediterranean. Bismarck
volunteered to act as an "honest broker" and called the Congress of
Berlin to settle the Balkan problems. At this Congress, Germany sided with
Austria and Britain.
 Russia had to give up the Treaty of San Stefano and sign the Treaty of
Berlin. The Treaty split Bulgaria into three parts (Bulgarian Proper was to
be independent, Eastern Rumelia and Macedonia were to be ruled under
Turkish sovereignty.) and brought Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian
military occupation (but not annexation). Russia felt diplomatically
humiliated. The anger of Russia turned against Bismarck because he
chaired the Congress.
 Germany sided with Austria

 Unable to maintain friendly relations with both Austria

and Russia, Bismarck chose Austria to be his ally
because
 firstly, Germany preferred a weaker partner which
could be more easily controlled;
 secondly, alliance with Austria would throw open the
Danube valley to German trade;
 thirdly, Austria had racial ties with Germany;
 fourthly, such an alliance would enable Germany to
exercise influence in the Balkans;
 and fifthly, alliance with Russia would antagonize
Britain as Britain did not like her colonial rival to be
supported by a strong power
 The terms of the Dual Alliance

 On October 7, 1879 Bismarck made the Dual Alliance with

Austria-Hungary. The terms were:
 (i)each would support the other militarily until the end of the
war if attacked by Russia or by Russia and another power;
and
 (ii) each agreed to remain neutral if her ally was attacked
by a power other than Russia.

 Consequence
 The Dual Alliance gave Germany a firm military ally but
committed her more to the support of Austrian interests in
the Balkans. In the meantime, however, Bismarck still
wanted to keep the friendship of Russia for fear that Russia
would turn to the side of France, in which case Germany
would face an enemy on both east and west
 3, Second Dreikaiserbund 1881

 Also known as The Second Three Emperors' League (1881)

 Bismarck still wanted to keep Russian friendship after the signing of
Dual Alliance (1879) with Austria. The year 1881 was particularly
favorable for the restoration of the League of the three conservative
Emperors. In that year, Czar Alexander III ascended the Russian throne
after the assassination of Alexander II. The fate of his father made
Alexander III ready for a renewal of the Three Emperors' League of 1872
which promised to suppress the revolutionary movements.
 The terms of the League were:
 ( i ) the Balkans was to be divided into two spheres of influence--the
western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina) belonged to Austria and the
eastern Balkans (Bulgaria) belonged to Russia;
 (ii) the three Emperors agreed to consult one another if there was
another Balkan crisis, and
 (iii) the three Emperors agreed to preserve benevolent neutrality if any
one of them found himself at war with a fourth power.
 The League could not last long because Austria and Russia would soon
rival over the Balkan Peninsula again
 4, Triple Alliance 1882

 Franco-Italian rivalry in Tunis

 Bismarck had tactfully encouraged France to expand overseas in the hope of diverting her
attention away from Alsace-Lorraine. French annexation of Tunis in northern Africa in 1881 alienated
Italy, which was ambitious to build up an Italian empire in Africa. Italy was thus driven into
Bismarck's camp in anger.
 The terms of the alliance
 The terms were: (i) if Italy or Germany was attacked by France, each would aid the other; (ii) if
Austria was attacked by Russia, Italy would remain neutral, although Austria would aid Italy if she
was attacked by France; (iii) if one of the parties was attacked by two or more powers, the other
signatories were to come to her aid; and (iv) at Italy's request, both Austria and Germany agreed
that in no case would the Treaty operate against Britain.
 Note: Italy and the Triple Alliance ,The position of Italy in the Triple Alliance seemed to be rather
dubious. It was because the reasons which had impelled Italy to join the Triple Alliance were no longer
important. By 1900, the Italians had resigned themselves to the loss of Tunis. They wanted to
conquer Tripoli with French support. Moreover, by 1900, Italy needed not fear any attempt by the
French monarchist-clericals to intervene in her domestic politics on behalf of the Pope as the
republicans had secured power in France. Thus, in 1900, a secret arrangement was concluded between
France and Italy: France was given a free hand in Morocco, Italy in Tripoli. In 1902, another secret
agreement was made between France and Italy: each promised to be neutral if either was provoked
into declaring war on a third power. This ran contrary to the terms of the Triple Alliance, by which
Italy promised to aid Germany in case of a Franco-German war. By 1909 Italy made her Racconigi
Agreement with Russia. By this Italy would remain neutral in any Russian attempt to regain the
control of the Straits and Constantinople in return for Russian diplomatic support for the Italian
conquest of Tripoli. These Italian agreements made the Triple Alliance almost null and void.
 Consequence: the emergence of the first alliance
camp

 By this time, a powerful bloc had been formed in

central Europe. Germany was now guaranteed against
Russia by Austria, and against France by Italy. Bismarck
had successfully kept the friendship of both Russia,
Austria and Italy and kept France completely isolated.
He was indeed a skillful diplomat who was able to
handle the European powers for Germany's
advantage.
 Yet Italy's commitment to the Triple Alliance was
doubtful because the arch-enemy of Italian unity was
Austria and ,on the other hand, France was the friend
of Italian unity. Once Italy's anger over Tunis cooled
off, she would prefer an alliance with France to that
with Austria
 Reinsurance Treaty 1887

 Austro-Russian rivalry over Bulgaria (see below) led to the collapse of

the Second Three Emperors' League again. Bismarck secretly made a
treaty with Russia without informing Austria.
 Russia and Germany would observe neutrality towards each other if
either became involved in war with a third power, except if Germany
attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary.
 By making this treaty, Bismarck had been able to prevent his
nightmare -- a two front war—from being realized.

 Austro-Russian rivalry over Bulgaria

 According to the terms of the Second Three Emperors' League, Bulgaria
was recognized as a Russian sphere of influence The Bulgarians were
experiencing an awakening of national self consciousness and did not
want to be dominated by the Russians.
 In 1885, in defiance of the Treaty of Berlin, the Bulgarians united
Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia objected to the emergence of a
large anti-Russian state but Austria and Britain gave their recognition
to the union of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia hated the
Austrians for breaking the terms of the Second Three Emperors League
and allowed the League to lapse in 1887
 Change of German Policy after 1890

 Bismarck made no formal alliance with Britain but remained on friendly terms with
her. He did his best to avoid colonial conflicts with Britain and always declared that
"Britain was Germany's old and traditional ally" and "there were no differences
between England and Germany.“
 Kaiser William II - His ambition
 Bismarck was a skillful diplomat. For twenty years, he made Germany the centre
of the diplomatic stage. France was kept isolated, but Austria, Russia, Italy and
Britain were on friendly terms with Germany. Bismarck's alliances were non-
aggressive and kept Europe at peace.
 Yet after 1890, Bismarck fell from power and the new Kaiser took matters into
his own hands. Kaiser William II was ambitious, rash and aggressive by nature.
Rejecting the idea that Germany was a "satiated state", he wanted to make
Germany not only a European power but a world power. He advocated Drang
nach Osten (the drive eastwards into the Balkans and Middle East), colonial
expansion and naval expansion.
 He was also influenced by Pan-German feelings to support Austria's expansionist
policy in the Balkans. To pursue his ambitions, he often adopted blackmailing,
threats and other unpopular methods. From 1890 to 1907, he succeeded in
alienating Britain, France and Russia, and thus helped to create a rival bloc of
anti-German alliances
 Franco-Russian Alliance 1893

 Russo-German friendship ended

 When William II came to hold absolute power in Germany, he thought that sooner or later Germany
would clash with Russia; so he allowed the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse. He stressed Germany's
political and military ties with Austria instead. Such a policy, together with the growing Pan-
Germanism, aroused strong Russian suspicion. Russia naturally turned to the side of France,
which was the irreconcilable enemy of German

 Russia turned to France

 Although at first there seemed little possibility for Czarist Russia to ally with Republican France,
two factors made such an alliance possible:
 firstly, both felt necessary to form a military pact to offset the military threat of Germany; and
 secondly, France had floated several huge loans to help Russia to industrialize.

 Alliance formed
 The terms of the alliance were as follows:
 (i) if France was attacked by Germany or Germany and her ally (Italy), Russia would aid France; in
return, if Russia was attacked by Germany or Germany and her ally (Austria), France would aid
Russia;
 (ii) if one or more members of the Triple Alliance mobilized -- they would mobilize to help one
another automatically; and
 (iii) this agreement would continue as long as the Triple Alliance was in force.
 Consequence

 The Dual Alliance ended the isolation of

France, created a rival alliance to the
Triple Alliance, and, most serious of all,
faced Germany with the threat of a two
front war.
 But William II failed to sense the danger
at the time. He was contented to have
Austria as an ally and continued his
drive for power and prestige.
 End of British Isolation

 Frantic British Efforts to Win Allies (1893-1902)

 After the formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance, Britain found herself diplomatically
isolated. Throughout the 19th century, she had followed the policy of 'splendid isolation',
i.e. to avoid involvement in European affairs. But by the late 19th century, she felt that
this policy was no longer a practical policy, for she could no longer command respect in
world politics. This was illustrated by the following three incidents:
 (i) In 1895, the Continental Group forced Japan to hand back Liaotung Peninsula to China.
Britain was excluded. (The Continental Group made up of France, Germany and Russia.
Even though these three powers did not cooperate in Europe, they sometimes
cooperated in the Ear East.)
 (ii) In 1896, Dr. Jameson, encouraged and supported by the British Prime Minister of the
Cape Colony, organized a raid into the Dutch Republic of Transvaal in South Africa. (Britain
had long desired to obtain more colonies in Africa. Jameson Raid was one example of the
British colonizing efforts.) The raid failed and Dr. Jameson and his raiders were all
captured by the Dutch (Boers). Public opinion in most of the European countries was
strongly anti-British. Kaiser William II congratulated on the Dutch efforts by sending the
famous 'Kruger Telegram' to President Kruger of Transvaal. The European reactions to the
Jameson Raid suggested that Britain had no diplomatic support in Europe.
 (iii) Between 1893 and 1898, in Armenia, the Turkish Sultan slaughtered 200,000 of his
Christian subjects. Britain's suggestion of sending a navy to the Armenian shore to rescue
the Christians went unheeded.
 British-German alliance failed

 Britain at first sought to make some sort of alliance with Germany, but
she failed because:
 (i) Germany wanted Britain to join the Triple Alliance, but Britain
refused for fear that it would involve her in European conflicts of no
direct concern to Britain,
 (ii) Germany's naval expansion after 1898 threatened Britain's naval
supremacy, and
 (iii) Germany's colonial interests clashed with those of Britain in China
and the Balkans.

 Note: Germany wanted to divide China into spheres of influence but

Britain wanted to keep an open door for trade for all nations in
every part of China. In the Balkans, Germany wanted to bring Turkey
under the economic and political control of Germany. But Britain tried
to maintain the integrity of the Turkish Empire for fear that if Germany
controlled Turkey, she would threaten the British naval and economic
interests in the Mediterranean.
 Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902

 Consequently Britain concluded an alliance

with Japan in 1902. The Alliance was
important in European diplomatic relations
in two ways:
 (i) Britain had abandoned her policy of
isolation, and
 (ii) since Britain could make use of Japan to
check Russian aggression in the Far East,
her fear of Russian colonial expansion
lessened and this helped to pave the way
for their future cooperation
 Entente Cordiale 1904

 Britain and France needed mutual support

 After concluding the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain was still looking for a European
ally. She naturally turned to France, the irreconcilable enemy of Germany. France
also wanted Britain as her ally. France did not want to support Russia in a war in
the Far East because it would mean a war with both Britain and Japan (Britain's ally in
the Anglo-Japanese alliance). Alliance with Britain might absolve France from
supporting Russia. In Africa, France wanted to settle many of her colonial disputes
with Britain peacefully and gained the help of the latter in acquiring Morocco.
(Morocco was rich in mineral and agricultural wealth, so France wanted to take over
it as her colony.)

 Note: There were many conflicts between Britain and France in Africa. In 1898, the
conflict at Fashoda in North Africa nearly brought them into a war. But France
realized that her greatest foe was Germany. Thus she wanted to settle her conflicts
with Britain and concentrate her efforts against Germany.
 The last obstacle to the formation of the British and French Entente was removed in
1901. In that year Queen Victoria died and was succeeded by her son Edward VII.
Kaiser William II was Victoria's grandson, his mother having been the Queen's
daughter. Thus Queen Victoria preferred an alliance of Germany to that of France. But
Edward VII did not share his mother's sentiment towards Germany.
 Terms of the Entente

 Consequently Britain reached a series of agreements with France in

1904. These agreements settled their old colonial disputes in Siam,
West Africa, Madagascar, the remote New Hebrides and fishing
rights in Newfoundland.
 The most important agreement was the one by which France
recognized Egypt and the Sudan as British sphere of influence and
Britain recognized Morocco as French sphere of influence; in
addition, both would support each other if their respective spheres
of influence were challenged by a third power.

 German reaction
 The Entente Cordiale (friendly agreement) was not an
alliance in name, but it rapidly became something like it in
fact. Kaiser William II was furious at it, both because it
seemed to shut Germany out of Morocco and because it
indicated that British influence would be used in the
interests of France, rather than those of Germany