Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial

Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom

Trisha Nguyen Mohammed Khadadeh David C. Jeong∗
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
Santa Clara University Santa Clara University Santa Clara University
Santa Clara, California, USA Santa Clara, California, USA Santa Clara, California, USA
ABSTRACT pop culture [22, 47, 60]. With this more mainstream version of
The current work explores emerging patterns of parasocial rela- fandom, being a "fan" of certain media is no longer associated with
tionships with fictional characters within contemporary fandom the obsessive nerd stereotype [22, 60]. Being a fan of a serialized
communities. This article introduces terms used in fandoms to show can mean anything from tuning in to watch the latest episode
further explicate and expand on existing parasocial relationship each week, to buying and displaying the show’s merchandise, to
scholarship. Further, the current work provides a comprehensive creating fan work and sharing it on social media. Williams (2015)
taxonomy of the motivations for entering a parasocial relationship discusses how some fans may even develop relationships either with
with a fictional character, namely factors of character appeal. We other fans or with objects related to the media itself. Relationships
aim to provide a contemporary perspective on parasocial relation- with these objects can take many forms, such as attachment to
ships in fandom spaces by 1) introducing fan-generated terms to physical merchandise [22, 60] or attachment to characters from the
define and delineate these parasocial relationships, and 2) explicat- media [47, 60]. These relationships are parasocial in nature as they
ing our taxonomy of what factors make characters appealing to are one-sided relationships between a person and an object [4].
fans. Ultimately, we aim to normalize the parasocial phenomena The current work offers two novel, substantial contributions to
that occur within fandom spaces by bridging the gap between the scholarship regarding parasocial relationships with fictional char-
terms used in academia and the terms used in fandom, thereby acters (PSR-C).
affording greater opportunities for in-depth research into fandom (1) First, we present comprehensive explications of the many
phenomena. aspects that contribute to the appeal of fictional characters
to their respective fans.
CCS CONCEPTS (2) Second, we introduce prominent, popular fan-generated con-
• Human-centered computing → Empirical studies in HCI; • cepts that have yet to be explored through the lens of PSRs,
Social and professional topics → Cultural characteristics; • and more specifically, PSR-Cs.
Applied computing → Media arts. For the former, we explicate a taxonomy of the components and
factors that motivate people to engage in parasocial relationships
KEYWORDS with fictional characters. We provide examples from a variety of
fandom, fanfiction, game studies, audience studies, parasocial rela- media forms to show how most of these aspects — even while some
tionships of them are medium-specific — can apply to multiple media forms.
ACM Reference Format: For the latter, we introduce four terms used within fandom spaces
Trisha Nguyen, Mohammed Khadadeh, and David C. Jeong. 2023. Shippers that explicitly delineate the nature of the PSR-Cs, including Ship-
and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional ping, Simping, Self-shipping, and Kinning. Our goal is to define and
Characters in Contemporary Fandom. In Foundations of Digital Games 2023 deconstruct the terms for these fan-created, fan-recognized dynam-
(FDG 2023), April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal. ACM, New York, NY, USA, ics within fandom scholarship, analyzing them as not only social
12 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3582437.3582476 phenomena but also understanding how they function as PSRs. We
situate the current work as an extension of and a potential contri-
1 INTRODUCTION bution to existing research on parasocial relationships that we hope
Once a sign of rejecting the mainstream, fandom involvement has will open up novel avenues to explore fan-character PSRs (See [59]
become much more widespread with the use of the internet and for meta-analysis).
social media [34, 60]. Indeed, fandom has become a part of daily life
for many, with people even constructing their own identity around 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
∗ Corresponding Author 2.1 Parasocial Relationships
Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or A parasocial relationship, or a one-sided relationship with an unattain-
classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed able figure, often a celebrity [14, 62] or fictional character [6, 20, 37],
for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation
on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. has been formally recognized since the 1950s [31]. Parasocial re-
For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). lationships have been observed from young children [13, 35] to
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal adolescents [11] to older adults [9, 10] and have been asssociated
© 2023 Copyright held by the owner/author(s).
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503-9855-8/23/04. with related concepts such as transportation [51] and identifica-
https://doi.org/10.1145/3582437.3582476 tion [12].
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal Authors

Unlike typical relationships, parasocial relationships (PSRs) de- 2.1.2 Identification. Identification has been discussed as a signifi-
mand the emotional investment [41, 43, 61], interest, and time of cant factor for PSRs [6, 14, 29, 32, 35, 51], and refers to one’s psycho-
just one party [44], reflective of the investment model of PSRs [24]. logical connection with a character through similar traits [29, 37].
While parasocial relationships are understood as one-sided, they Identification with characters is based on personality, as someone
are not deemed to be inherently harmful, with the capacity to be can either identify with a character with similar traits or modify
both healthy and beneficial in moderation [17]. The two forms of their own traits to match the character they connect with [49]. In-
PSRs can be divided into either a PSR-P, which pertains to perform- dividuals also tend to experience a cognitive overlap with fictional
ers, or a PSR-C, which pertains to fictional characters [54]. For the characters when a character represents one’s actual self [53].
purposes of this paper, we will be focusing on PSR-Cs. It is important to consider how identification does not require
Though the current work explores PSR dynamics, it is important the objective recognition of important similar traits. The similarity
to note that PSRs inherently differ from parasocial interaction (PSI). between a viewer and character is dependent on what values and
PSI specifically refers to the phenomenon in which engagement in attributes of themselves the viewer considers important and can see
the relationship occurs during the viewing process [54]. Addition- reflected in the character. Additionally, wishful identification can
ally, while PSI occurs in just one specific moment in time, a PSR play a part, as individuals may have a desire to be like a character,
is formed as a result of multiple instances of PSI in succession and influencing their perceived similarity [50].
exists outside of viewing [54]. It is possible for PSI to develop over Another important aspect of parasocial identification is how it
time into a PSR, but we will not be examining factors of immediate builds off the human motivation of self-expansion. Generally, our
engagement with the original media when outlining the dynamics sense of self is explored throughout everyday interactions with
since said dynamics are notable for being relationships viewers others, growing and developing our character [50]. Self-expansion
have with characters beyond the viewing process. can also occur when someone experiences cognitive overlap, since
PSRs are also distinguished from retrospective imaginative in- being able to see oneself in another makes it easier to apply the
volvement (RII), which refers to looking back at a piece of media experiences of the other as a source of one’s own growth [53].
after the passage of time and involving oneself in some way [54]. People tend to identify with fictional characters who demon-
Both have to do with the post-viewing experiences of the viewers, strate success and exhibit likable traits [30] and characters that
but PSR involves a certain social aspect – in our case, viewers’ dy- are widely liked rather than disliked [57]. Naturally, negative traits
namics with the characters and their attachment to them – while will be scrutinized more closely than positive ones, and people will
RII doesn’t necessarily revolve around one’s social world. often distance themselves from a disliked character [57]. When an
While this current work will touch upon engagement with media individual forms a connection with a character, they are less likely
characters and media retrospection, we will be focusing primarily to challenge the character’s ideals and attitudes and will align with
on PSRs. Thus, we will delve into the social dynamic and relation- them in some way [38].
ships formed between viewers and fictional media characters that Character identification is stronger in interactive media as well [48].
endure beyond the interactions themselves. An example is the 2015 video game Undertale, which uses the
player’s relationships with monster non-player characters (NPCs)
to its advantage in order to create immersion and player-character
attachment. PSRs may form in this instance through repeated in-
2.1.1 Parasocial Relationships and Romance. One prominent di- teractions with monsters aside from combat [21].
mension of parasocial relationships is a romantic attraction to-
ward a media persona. The intensity of parasocial phenomena has
become stronger due to the advancement in technology develop- 2.2 Simulacra
ment [40]. PSRs often mirror interpersonal relationships, although Baudrillard coined the term "hyperreal" in reference to something
a PSR cannot replace a real-life friendship [24]. Some will even form that is real, yet lacking a true origin. Essentially, it is a representation
parasocial romantic relationships (PSROMs) similar to real-life ro- or sign without an obvious original referent, such as Santa Claus
mantic relationships because of the retention of similar benefits, or Disneyland [7]. According to Baudrillard (1995), the concept
with fewer limitations [3]. of hyperreality can be understood through two sub-components:
PSRs have also been noted as having degrees of intimacy, often simulation and simulacra. While a simulation is the imitation of a
impacted by factors such as one’s attachment style [17, 18]. For real-world process, simulacra are copies of objects and ideas that
instance, anxiously attached fans tend to be the most intensely have no real-world correlation. A simulation involves the coales-
involved in PSRs [17, 18], with additional evidence to suggest they cence of reality and representation, taking place in a non-physical
tend to be the most concerned and distressed about break-ups in realm such as the mind or technology.
these PSRs. Parasocial “break-ups” usually involve the end of one’s An example of this is the online fandom space deconstructed
investment in a fictional character due to a variety of reasons [17]. by Busse, who draws attention to how fans with one another and
These are generally less stressful than interpersonal breakups be- share their own fan-created content such as fanfiction and fanart
cause they do not involve or depend on another party [23], though online. Through these interactions paired with an individual’s re-
the effect is dependent on one’s attachment style [17]. However, lationship with the base media, fans trade interpretations of the
attachment in a PSROM is only one way of connecting with a char- content and build off each other, evolving and transforming both
acter. A different — and arguably more prominent — connection community representations and internalized mental representa-
comes through identification [50]. tions of the media beyond what it was originally [15].
Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal

Figure 1: The overarching aspects of character appeal

Baudrillard) describes four stages of a simulacrum that show data from social media to support their consideration when it comes
how far removed a simulacrum can become from the reality it is to understanding why a viewer might like a character.
meant to represent. Therefore, infighting over character interpreta- Figure 1 shows the overarching aspects and how they lead into
tions can be seen as the convergence of unique fan simulacra (fan fandom interactions. Figures 2 - 7 expand upon the overarching
imaginations and understandings of these characters). Sometimes, aspects.
these are collectively agreed upon by fans. Disagreements tend to It is important to note some of these aspects only exist in certain
begin when divergent fan simulacra meet. media. In an effort to define these aspects and demonstrate their
Tsay-Vogel and Sanders directs discussion of how gaining a flexibility and reach across media forms, we provide examples from
deeper understanding of characters and stories leads to the creation games as well as from different media production for each of the
of hierarchies in fandoms (p.44). These hierarchies take the form lower-level aspects. A "lower-level aspect" refers to an aspect with
of "fans self-identifying as novices, rookies, [and] experts." This, no aspects under it in each of the expansion figures (Figures 2 - 7).
in turn, could provide credibility to interpretations or simulacra All the other aspects are built from these lowest-level aspects and
of characters, given their standing in the fandom hierarchy. These function as categories.
fandom-based perceptions of characters can become so widespread We now define each of the aspects:
that fans will end up developing PSRs with the interpretation rather
than the original [46]. 3.1 Potential
The balance between what is known and what is unknown about
3 CHARACTER APPEAL a character. An excess of information does not leave room for
further potential. An absence of information may not be enough to
There are sources referencing that PSRs are based on character work with in terms of imagining potential. This potential is created
likability and dislikability from Tian and Hoffner and Elvery (p.5) through the character’s design and characterization.
but fail to identify why people like or dislike characters. Charac-
ter relatability and physical attractiveness have been discussed at 3.2 Design
length in the aforementioned articles. The sensory elements of a character; how they look, sound, and
However, there is a lack of elaboration surrounding other aspects feel to play.
of characters that make them appealing. To further explore this, we
have created an expanded chart of these aspects. We have gathered 3.2.1 Visual Design. All visible elements of a character.
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal Authors

Instrumentation. Recurring musical instruments that are tied to

Figure 2: The aspects of character appeal under the "Visual the character’s audio design. A character may become associated
Design" aspect, extending Figure 1 with a certain sound in their presence, such as Jhin from League of
Legends having violins join him when he makes an entrance or uses
an ability. This can be seen in-game and in his reveal teaser [39].
Associating violins with the character is a design choice that helps
solidify his fine arts theme. This aspect is paramount in stage plays
and musicals. For a well-known example, see how the harpsichord
is associated with King George’s character in Lin-Manuel Miranda’s
Hamilton to create an invasive and antiquated character [45].
Physical Attractiveness. Features of the character’s appearance
that fit the viewer’s subjective aesthetic/visual preferences and/or Leitmotif. A recurring melody or musical theme that is tied to
beauty standards. Tsay-Vogel and Sanders mentions the audience the character. Many fan remixers will tend to incorporate these
can like a character by being attracted to them (p. 33). Jinxylord, a leitmotifs into some of the fan remixes they make. For example:
character designer at Riot Games, discusses how some of League of Maya Fey’s leitmotif from the Ace Attorney series is a recognizable
Legends’ female characters (such as Lux, Jinx, Syndra, and Ahri) tune for most fans. Some remixers or cover artists will give this
were designed to be conventionally attractive. While fans have particular leitmotif special treatment such as placing using it to
been asking them for more conventionally attractive characters, end a medley [25]. An iconic non-game example is Jaws’ leitmotif
they discuss how they will be moving away from producing female which creates a palpable presence for the shark, signaling its arrival.
characters with "hourglass figures" in order to fully capture the In both cases, the leitmotif is used as an extension of the character,
variety of what fans consider "attractive" [36]. Note that although allowing the character to create an atmosphere around them when
this aspect falls under visual design, the character does not need they are present.
to be seen by the audience. Written fiction will often describe the
physical attributes of a character. For example, Veronica Roth, the 3.2.3 Game Design. The character’s gameplay mechanics; how
author of Divergent, will bring attention to some of the main love they feel to play. A popular example is Mario from Super Mario 64,
interest’s physical features such as his lips (p. 59) or his back muscles who has a very distinct feel to his controls, including acceleration
(p. 289) the same way a movie scene might be filmed in order to and multiple different jumping techniques.
frame those parts of the body.
Figure 4: The aspects of character appeal under the "Game
Imagery and Aesthetics. Recurring visual elements, colors, styles, Design" aspect, extending Figure 1
and/or symbols that are linked to the character. In the classic Mega
Man series, the villain, Dr. Wily, has a logo which is found near
most boss rooms. Additionally, Mega Man 4 introduces a skull motif
to the villain, whose design integrates a skull into his fortresses,
his fighting machines, and even sometimes his clothes. The Dr.
Wily logo has become so iconic to the point where its inclusion
in a game after the character’s death, Mega Man X5, has led to
fan theories around his influence postmortem. (See Isoc’s fandom
wiki page [1] for some of these theories.) For a non-video-game
example, in Cyberpunk: Edgerunners, Lucy is heavily associated
with the moon, resulting in fan art featuring the character with
moon and space imagery (Ep. 2). Ease of Play. Some games allow the choice between different
characters for the player to use as an avatar. A character may be
easy or challenging to play. The three main characters in Crypt of the
3.2.2 Audio Design. Music and sound effects linked to the charac- Necrodancer – Cadence, Melody, and Aria – each have similar play
ter. styles but are characterized by increasing difficulty levels, leading
to players becoming attached to the characters that correspond
Figure 3: The aspects of character appeal under the "Audio with the difficulty level they enjoy.
Design" aspect, extending Figure 1
Immersion. How easy it is for the player to empathize with the
character, or step into their shoes or their world. Elvery discusses
how player-avatar interactions can lead to identification with the
character (p.4). Playing as Ori in Ori and the Will of the Wisps
allows the player to experience Ori’s interactions with characters
and control them. This also helps with getting invested in other
characters, as the avatar’s investment in other characters can help
the player form the same investment with those characters [21].
Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal

In the case of Ori, this may manifest as the player caring for Ku, what the players want to do. This aspect can also help the viewer
Kwolok, the Moki, or even the villain, Shriek. sympathize with an antagonist character. The animated series, The
Owl House, introduces Hunter as an antagonist in the second sea-
son. Starting off as a funny, quippy villain, Hunter is difficult to
Playstyle. The skills needed to play as a character. For example,
sympathize with, but when his motivation is revealed to be his
in a typical role-playing game (RPG), a wizard who uses ranged
desperation to please, prove his worth to, and escape punishment
attacks, and a rogue who uses melee attacks, will have very dif-
from his uncle, he quickly rose to be a fan-favorite.
ferent playstyles and require expertise in different strategies. In
the game Trine, the characters of wizard, knight, and thief each
employ a very different playstyle (ranged magic, melee combat, Values. The character’s codes and standards. Tsay-Vogel and
and ranged weapons, respectively) and therefore each require a Sanders (2017, p. 33) states that sharing a character’s perspective
different approach to the game. can help viewers identify with them. For a video game protagonist,
this can even become a driving force for the player. For example,
see how in Sonic Adventure, the player controls E-102 Gamma to go
Variability. The adaptability of a character to different playstyles; on a self-destructive mission for the sake of fulfilling his self-given
how easy is it to approach playing the character a different way. directive of "freeing" the E-100 series robots. By "freeing," he refers
An example of this is Zagreus from Hades not only having access to destroying robots in order to free the animals captive within
to different weapons, but also having different aspects that can be them. Gamma’s values regarding freeing animals are shared with
activated to vary the playstyle of each weapon. the player especially after the player has played as other characters
in the game. However, playing as a character who is also a cage for
3.3 Characterization an animal creates a sense of dread within the player for when it
How the narrative framing builds the audience’s understanding of comes to freeing Gamma himself. A good example of this aspect
the character. from an animated series is Aang from Avatar: The Last Airbender,
who resolves not to kill anyone even in a war against an imperialist
3.3.1 Personality. The behaviors, mannerisms, and thought pro-
emperor.
cesses the character exhibits as discussed by Tian and Hoffner (2010,
p. 256).
Archetype / Trope. A common character type or role that this
Figure 5: The aspects of character appeal under the "Person- character fulfills or subverts. This aspect is paramount in table-
ality" aspect, extending Figure 1 top role-playing games (TTRPGs) such as Dungeons and Dragons
(D&D). Race, class, and moral alignment help define many of the
character archetypes in D&D, such as the lawful-good paladin or
the chaotic-evil, drow warlock. However, some players will opt to
challenge these archetypes by considering moral alignments that
do not usually get paired with certain classes or races. Elvery (2022)
discusses how knowledge of common tropes prepares the viewer
for the tropes to be subverted, which further sets them up to like
the characters who subvert said tropes (p.5). In textual media, some
Backstory. What the character has been through before their readers will read works based on the tropes they include. Some
introduction into the narrative. An example of a character whose bookstores (such as Books Inc. or select stores on Etsy) will offer
backstory makes them more appealing is the character Flowey from "Blind Dates with a Book" where the store will wrap books and
Undertale [21]. Flowey starts off as a simple mean-spirited villain, market them using a list of tropes and a brief description rather
but if the player manages to make the correct choices in the game, than the book’s name. Archetypes/tropes are even more popular in
he is given depth by having his origins revealed. A similar exam- fanfiction, as well-known fanfiction archive, Archive of Our Own
ple of this from a textual medium is the character of Harrowhark (AO3), allows users to search by tropes in the tags.
Nonagesimus from Tamsyn Muir’s Gideon the Ninth. Harrowhark
also starts off as a standoffish and mean antagonist, but through
Quirks. Unique parts of the character’s mannerisms and interac-
learning her backstory and how her family raised her, the audience
tions that make them stand out. Elvery (2022) mentions how one
and the main character are allowed to sympathize with her.
of the selling points of Undertale’s characters is their quirkiness
(p.1). Some of the game’s more important characters even have their
Motivation. What drives the character’s actions. Having under- quirks integrated into their boss fights as mechanics. One such ex-
standable motives can make a character appealing to the audience ample is Papyrus’s bone puns and sense of humor being integrated
[58]. In the case of a video game protagonist, this aspect can also into his fight as visual comedy using bone-shaped attacks. Quirks
help a player become more immersed if the player’s motivations can also make characters easier to remember in a large cast, such
align with the protagonist’s [21, 58]. For example, in the Professor as in the musical, Cats, where each of the cats is given a quirky
Layton series, what motivates the main characters, Hershel Layton trait and a song to help the audience remember them through their
and Luke Triton, is solving the game’s main mystery, which is also quirk.
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal Authors

Relatability. Any parts of the character’s personality that the Flaws. Parts of the character that limit them or stand to pose
audience might be able to identify with [21, 57, 58]. The character’s problems for them. Flaws make characters feel more realistic. Elvery
intersecting social identities (eg. race, age, ethnicity, gender, sexual (2022) discusses how some of the characters’ flaws such as social
orientation, ability, socioeconomic status, etc) can help make them anxiety or OCD make them easier to identify with (p.11). However,
more relatable [57, 58]. Some video game series such as the God of this can be equally frustrating if the flaws are not relatable or if
War series and The Witcher series have shifted towards having their it makes the characters irritating [57]. For a video game character
main characters become fathers to keep this aspect of relatability. example, see Luigi’s cowardice; how his learning to overcome it
Many of their fans grew up with the series, so having the characters in the Luigi’s Mansion series makes him more endearing. Similarly,
grow up and evolve keeps them relatable to the same fans. To the characters of Shaggy and Scooby from most Scooby Doo shows
contrast this, Ash Ketchum from the Pokémon animated series has and movies are known for their cowardice but will overcome it
been ten years old for over twenty years of the show’s run, keeping when given a snack or when their friends need them most.
him relatable to a specific age demographic rather than the same
group of fans.
Effects on Others. How what the character does, says, or is im-
pacts other characters. Some characters have such a strong impact
Voice. The way the character’s personality shines through their that they will drive the narrative even though they have been dead
speech. Note that voice does not need to be audible. A character’s from the start. See how Michael, the main character’s dead brother,
written voice is how the character’s diction and sentence struc- from Oxenfree has such a profound impact on the entire cast, to
ture showcase their personality. Elvery (2022) discusses how a the point where players will try to get the secret ending where
character’s realistic speech patterns make them appealing to the they prevent his death. Similarly, Star War’s Yoda has such a strong
audience (p.15). In video games, written voice can also be created impact on the characters of Luke Skywalker and therefore, Rey as
using dialogue typewriter effects that type out the characters’ lines a mentor even after his death.
letter-by-letter. Adjusting the speed of this text typewriter, adding
text effects, or pauses allows the creation of essentially what can Symbolism and Themes. Concepts, ideas, topics, and messages
be called "voiceless voice acting" [42]. This can be seen in games that are tied to the character. A game that ties symbolism to game-
such as Night in the Woods, the Animal Crossing series, and the Ace play and visual design really well is Psychonauts. Many of the char-
Attorney series. However, audible voice and voice casting are also acters’ mental states are symbolized by their mental landscapes,
important. A well-known instance of voice casting making char- and many fans consider the landscapes and the gameplay in those
acters much more appealing to the audience in non-game media landscapes as what makes the characters likable. For a comic book
is Mark Hamill’s performance as The Joker in animated Batman example of this, the character of Uncle Ben from many Spider-Man
media. origin stories is very symbolic. Uncle Ben (and mainly his death) is
there to drive home the core message of many Spider-Man stories:
3.3.2 Development. How the character changes in the eyes of the “with great power comes great responsibility.”
audience. Some characters might be static from their own per- 3.3.3 Relationships. How two or more characters are linked to-
spective, but the narrative’s framing can develop them from the gether.
audience’s point of view. Consider The Beginner’s Guide, a game
built entirely on trying to understand a person who is never present
just by looking at what they have made. And the character develops
Figure 7: The aspects of character appeal under the "Rela-
as we, the audience, discover more about them. The movie Memento
tionships" aspect, extending Figure 1
similarly develops the main character by providing us more infor-
mation about the main character as the movie progresses and he
learns more about himself.

Figure 6: The aspects of character appeal under the "Devel-

opment" aspect, extending Figure 1

Foils. How two or more characters are defined by how they

contrast. For example, Street Fighter’s rival characters, Ryu and
Ken, are foils not only in their opposite character backstories and
motivations but also in their gameplay. Ryu uses a ranged Hadouken
projectile attack while Ken uses a melee Shoryuken punch. So not
Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal

only do the characters feel different to play, their playstyle fits their 4.1 Shipping
opposing personalities A well-known non-game example of this Shipping, derived from the “ship” part of the word "relationship,"
is the relationship between Iron Man and Captain America in the describes the desire for two or more characters to be in a romantic
MCU. Both have a high standing within the Avengers, but both also or sexual relationship [19]. As such, shipping is often a result of how
have differing ideologies which lead to an all-out battle in Captain a viewer interprets the foils, narrative parallels, and interactions of
America: Civil War. characters, whether this is inherent in the original media or rooted
in the viewer’s own simulacra of the characters. Fans will often
abbreviate the word "relationship" to "ship," when discussing these
Narrative Parallels. How two or more characters go through relationships. Shipping can constitute creating content, such as art
similar developments, interactions, and plot points, developing a or fanfiction, consuming fan-made content, or analyzing the source
similar theme. The Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Dual Destinies material for hints that the relationship in question is confirmed
characters, Apollo Justice and Aura Blackquill have such a parallel in canon. Figure 8 shows the trends in the popularity of the term
regarding the loss of a loved one. And while Justice is character "Shipping."
the player is controlling, Blackquill is a non-player character. This
places the viewer in the shoes of Justice, allowing them to steer
Figure 8: The worldwide interest in the search term "Ship-
him away from succumbing to the same fate as Blackquill. This
ping" on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day
parallel is recognized in the community with some fan blogs going
so far as to refer to the two characters as "Watching [each other]
through the mirror" [28]. A non-game example of this is President
Snow compared with Alma Coin in the Hunger Games. Snow was
the main villain of the series, who was going to be replaced by Coin
(the resistance leader), but the similarities between the two led to
Katniss realizing that Coin would not have improved life for the
people of Panem.

Interactions. The dynamics between two or more characters es-

tablished by their dialogue and actions. The characters of Harry
Du Bois and Kim Kitsuragi from Disco Elysium build most of their
character appeal from their interactions with themselves and others.
Although those who engage in shipping (i.e., known as "ship-
As Du Bois is the player character, the player even gets to control
pers") are not directly involved in the relationship between the
and define these interactions themselves. For a non-game example,
set of characters, shippers demonstrate the one-sided emotional
see the interactions between Twilight’s Edward Cullen and Jacob
investment that defines parasocial relationships.
Black. Especially when it comes to Twilight Eclipse, the two have
While shipping has an inherent dimension of romance, shipping
many interactions that showcase their rivalry and their teamwork.
doesn’t necessarily involve any romantic or sexual attraction to-
The two have built so much character appeal to the point where
ward the characters involved, though it can be a factor depending on
they have sparked a large debate within the fandom about which
the individual and characters involved in the ship itself. Ironically,
of the two characters should end up with the main character.
shipping has a stronger connection to identification, as shipping is
a way to explore relationship dynamics the individual finds inter-
4 DEFINING FANDOM PSR-C TERMS esting or desirable [26, 47]. Though shippers may vary in the ships
they support and the reasons behind doing so, shipping at its core
While there is a substantial amount of prior research done on PSR- roots in self-expansion whether it be through exploring one’s sense
Cs [54], the terms used to describe these PSR-Cs tend to abstract of self through the ship itself or by exploring one’s sense of self
them to a point where the history or the granularity of these rela- through the interactions that arise from the investment in a ship.
tionships is obfuscated [12, 27], and is distant from the actual fans
that engage in parasocial relationships. As such, data collection
within social media and fandom spaces would require translating 4.2 Simping
or re-categorizing contemporary PSR-C terms into the aforemen- Simping, derived from the word "simpleton," refers to an expression
tioned categories. This process of categorization is reductive and an abnormal amount of attraction for someone, whether fictional
loses the nuance of some fan-defined PSR-Cs. In order to retain the or real. Originally used as a derogatory term to deride men that
above nuance, we outline the following four fan-defined PSR-Cs would make irrational decisions in order to earn the attention of an
and show how their popularity has been on the rise. Figures 8 - 14 attractive woman, simping is now more commonly used to describe
show how these fan-defined terms have been rising in popularity. attraction in general.
It is important to note that as with all PSRs, the intensity of the Though simp is a word also commonly used outside of the fan-
following PSR-Cs varies depending on the individual. Additionally, dom space, due to its prevalent use in the fandom space and the
none of these PSR-Cs are mutually exclusive, nor are they inherently connotations it carries with respect to "simping for a fictional char-
restricted to a specific amount of characters. acter," it is still important to consider what simping is in the context
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal Authors

of PSR-Cs. Aspects such as a character’s physical attractiveness not all shipping is self-shipping, all self-shipping can be considered
from their visual design or a character’s quirks and relatability from shipping.
their personality can contribute to a character’s simpability. Some of the most common search terms related to self-shipping
Figures 9 and 10 show the trends in the popularity of the terms are “x reader” and “y/n.” “Y/n” stands for “your name,” where the
"simping" and "simp," respectively. reader is expected to fill in the blanks of a story with their own
name [56]. “X” is used in shipping to indicate that certain characters
Figure 9: The worldwide interest in the search term "simping" are being shipped together, so “character x reader” refers to a ship
on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day between the reader and a certain character. A slash (/) can also
be used in lieu of an X. Both of these terms primarily appear in
fanfiction and the greater fanworks community to refer to self-
insert characters [5]. Figures 11 and 12 show the trends in the
popularity of the terms "x reader" and "y/n," respectively.

Figure 11: The worldwide interest in the search term "x

reader" on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day

Figure 10: The worldwide interest in the search term "simp"

on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day

Figure 12: The worldwide interest in the search term "y/n"

on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day

In some cases, fans who simp for certain characters will create
"fancams" of said characters. A fancam usually consists of video
clips, stitched together and overlaid with visual effects and back-
ground music [8].
In contrast to shipping, simping should be considered a PSROM.
Simping for a character involves a one-sided attraction from the
viewer towards the character, and that attraction contributes to
the degree of investment and intimacy directed towards a char-
acter one may simp for despite these feelings being perpetually In contrast to both shipping and simping, self-shipping refers to
unreciprocated. Though simping for a character doesn’t mean the a more self-involved parasocial relationship. In contrast to shipping
attachment is derived from how attractive one considers said char- and simping, self-shipping involves considering a character to be
acter, the attraction contributes to the intensity of the PSR-C with included in one’s social world and vice-versa. Self-shipping does
said character. not mean that a self-shipper literally considers themselves to be in
a relationship with the fictional character or consider the character
4.3 Self-Shipping to be a part of their social world the same way real-life companions
Self-shipping is the act of shipping oneself with a fictional charac- are. Rather, self-shippers consider the character to be in their social
ter. At its core, self-shipping represents a combination of shipping world to the extent of developing a way to trade interactions with
and simping. The difference between shipping and self-shipping is said character.
that self-shipping involves a real person (the viewer), whereas ship- While a shipper involves themselves with their ship through ob-
ping oftentimes will not. Unless specified, the mention of shipping serving and creating content around said characters, self-shipping
usually implies a relationship between media personas while self- constructs a one-sided romantic relationship between themselves
shipping inherently requires the inclusion of the self. Thus, while and the character or characters they ship themselves with. As such,
Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal

self-shipping is a PSROM akin to simping. Additionally, while simp- Kinning has the most direct relation to the preexisting PSR and
ing may to a certain extent hold similar benefits to romantic rela- PSR-C frameworks, as it directly reflects the identification dimen-
tionships (such as characters being a source of emotional support sion of parasocial relationships. It relies on perceived identification,
or as a figure of adoration), self-shipping more actively and directly often includes the aspect of wishful identification, occurs with a
replicates aspects of real-life romantic relationships. cognitive overlap between one’s self and the character involves,
Though not as prevalent, self-shipping also involves aspects of and the cognitive overlap allows for exploration of the self through
identification, particularly in relation to self-expansion. Similar to the understanding of the character [60]. Essentially, perceived iden-
shipping, viewers explore one’s sense of self through the way they tification is the core of kinnies’ one-sided attachment.
explore their own ideals and understandings of romantic relation- Despite its overlap with parasocial identification and perceived
ships through their self-imposed romantic relationship with their identification, it is important to recognize kinning as its own phe-
chosen fictional character or characters. nomenon heavily due to the history and connotations that are
associated with kinning. Delineating kinning as its own PSR-C
4.4 Kinning
creates a space where the kinning is recognized as the unique phe-
Kinning, derived from the words "kin" and "otherkin," refers to nomenon it is, allowing for deeper analysis of its history, how it
the act of identifying as a fictional character. People who kin fic- functions, and how it manifests.
tional characters are often referred to as "fictionkin" to differentiate
them from other otherkin; they are also occasionally referred to as
“kinnies.”
Though the intensity of many parasocial relationships exists on
a spectrum, it is important to note that kinning in particular has
5 DISCUSSION
been used to refer to a range of perceived identification. While PSR-C’s and character appeal are connected due to the fact that
some individuals who claim to kin a character feel a shared kinship a fan is simply more likely to enter a PSR-C with an appealing
through perceived similarity to said character, those who would character [57]. Each of the lower-level aspects is given a game
say they "seriously" kin a character may believe that one is a rein- example and a non-game example to demonstrate the versatility
carnation of that character themselves [55]. In both cases, kinning of the aspects through different media forms. This versatility is
tends to lean on a character’s relatability. important because it shows the range of what can make a fan enter
Figures 13 and 14 show the trends in the popularity of the terms a PSR-C.
"I kin" and "kinning," respectively.
Figure 13: The worldwide interest in the search term "I kin"
on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day
5.1 Rationale for the PSR-C definitions
Figure 15 shows the five PSR-C terms and how they are linked.
The concept of identification ultimately relies on the abstraction
of many different forms of concrete PSR-Cs, and as such represents
a powerful umbrella term. However, as previously stated, it loses
the concrete reality of what form the "identification" is taking.
The four terms we have defined (shipping, self-shipping simping,
kinning) not only reintroduce this missing granularity, but allow us
to refer to these relationships using the same names the participants
use, allowing for easier gathering of statistics. Each of these terms
has been seeing an increase in popularity over the past decade,
with notable spikes around 2020-2021, the height of the COVID-19
Figure 14: The worldwide interest in the search term "fic- Pandemic.
tionkin" on Google Web Search from 2004 to the present day Centreoftheselights identifies the statistics of the most popular
ships on the fanfiction archive, Archive Of Our Own (AO3) from
the year 2021. The top ship on the list, Dean Winchester x Castiel
(colloquially known as "Destiel") from the CW’s hit series Super-
natural had 96,616 fanworks posted to the Archive that year [16].
Most of the ships on this list have had at least 10,000 fanworks
posted on 2021. These statistics show just how popular shipping is.
At the time of writing, the tag "#kinning" has over 22 million views
on Tiktok. "#yn" (a tag associated with self-shipping) has over 12
billion.
Each of these PSRs are related to identification, yet their popu-
larity and their mechanics are different. As such, it is imperative
that we distinguish between them if we intend to properly analyze
and study their patterns and effects.
FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal Authors

Figure 15: The five PSR-C terms and how they are connected

5.2 Future work queer theory that not only affords diverse media representations of
With the foundation now defined, in forthcoming work, we will marginalized fans, but also presenting critical resistance to hege-
collect information about how these dynamics function by reaching monic structures of heteronormativity.
out to a variety of people who consider themselves participants
of the various PSR-C phenomena. Through this process, we can
draw comparisons between the information we gathered on how
these various fan-character dynamics function, and the previous 6 CONCLUSION
research regarding PSR-Cs, in order to effectively understand them
While research surrounding parasocial phenomena has expanded
within the broader scope of PSRs. By identifying and examining
tremendously since its initial formal recognition in the 1950s, schol-
them in greater detail, we can expand our understanding of how
arship regarding contemporary character appeal and fandom termi-
people may interact with fictional characters and the reasons why.
nology is still limited. As digital media becomes more widely used
Potential avenues of future research also include doing a deep-
and fictional characters become more ingrained everyday life, it
dive into each of the re-conceptualized PSR-Cs as PSRs, such as
becomes increasingly relevant to deconstruct and understand the
deconstructing the evolution and spectrum of kinning, as this paper
factors that cause people to form opinions and attachments towards
currently only lays down the framework. Similarly, while we de-
fictional characters. Due to the influence of the fandom sphere on
fined the four most prominent PSR-Cs seen in fandom communities,
our culture, it is important to account for how fandom interaction
there is room for future works to analyze other fandom phenomena
and fan-recognized dynamics come into play in order to effectively
not yet recognized in the realm of PSR literature. For instance, since
understand parasocial relationships in a contemporary manner.
this paper identifies shipping, simping, self-shipping, and kinning,
This paper addresses the aforementioned areas of PSR scholar-
there is potential to research kindating, a fan-generated term seen
ship by laying out the factors of fictional character appeal and defin-
in action less frequently yet an arguably more intense parasocial
ing fandom-recognized PSR. In outlining these terms in a scholarly
phenomenon.
context, we aim to encourage further study of parasocial relation-
Further, the contemporary PSR-Cs this article presents represent
ships with fictional characters in a manner that actively takes into
both a direct and indirect alignment with queer theory. Not only do
account patterns and behaviors recognized by fans and fandoms
fans negotiate queer potentials within character-character relation-
themselves. Though we have identified four unique PSR-Cs that are
ships and fan-character relationships, but the very act of engaging
prevalent in fandoms, these are not the only notable fan-defined
in these contemporary forms of parasocial relationships embody
phenomena that can be analyzed as PSR-Cs. This groundwork is
the challenges to hegemonic constructions of heteronormative sex-
essentially a recognition of certain, new fandom behavior as an
uality [2, 26]. As such, future work in PSR-C should build on the
integral part of how individuals interact with media. We are mind-
conceptualization of queer theory within game studies by Shaw
ful of the historic stigma around fan studies [33], which presents
(2015). Shaw argues queer studies ultimately represents any ap-
limitations on the potential to critically analyze the very pervasive
proach that presents challenge to systems of categorization that
PSR-C phenomena we have described in this work. In the hopes
have defined constructions of heteronormative sexuality. Parasocial
of critically analyzing these often neglected topics, we hope to re-
relationships with fictional characters, particularly among “kinnies”
move the stigma around these terms and open up a novel form of
and “shippers” can be understood as a manifestation of modern
socio-psychological inquiry into contemporary fandoms.
Shippers and Kinnies: Re-conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom FDG 2023, April 12–14, 2023, Lisbon, Portugal

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