Teaching English

as a Foreign
Language (TEFL)
Justen Ricketts
Coordinator: Gisela Granena
Table of contents
Course description and learning outcomes ...................................................................... 4
1. Theories of language learning...................................................................................... 5
1.1. Theoretical approaches to explaining first language learning ............................ 5
1.1.1. Behaviorism ........................................................................................... 6
1.1.2. Innatism ................................................................................................. 9
1.1.3. Interactionism....................................................................................... 12
1.2. Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learning .................... 13
1.2.1. Behaviorism ......................................................................................... 16
1.2.2. Innatism ............................................................................................... 16
1.2.3. Interactionism....................................................................................... 17
Summary ................................................................................................................. 19
Quiz ......................................................................................................................... 20
2. Teaching methods, methodological principles and pedagogic procedures ................ 21
2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21
2.2. History and Scope of Language Teaching Approaches ................................... 22
2.2.1. Pre-twentieth century ........................................................................... 22
2.2.2. Early and mid-twentieth century........................................................... 23
2.2.3. Late twentieth-century.......................................................................... 26
2.2.4. The post-methods era .......................................................................... 28
Summary ................................................................................................................. 29
Quiz ......................................................................................................................... 30
3. Individual differences in second language learning ................................................... 32
3.1. Individual differences in second language learning ......................................... 32
3.2. Biological individual diferences ........................................................................ 34
3.2.1. Age....................................................................................................... 34
3.3. Cognitive individual diferences ......................................................................... 36
3.3.1. Intelligence ........................................................................................... 36
3.3.2. Language aptitude ............................................................................... 37
3.3.3. Learning styles ..................................................................................... 42
3.4. Affective individual diferences .......................................................................... 45
3.4.1. Motivation............................................................................................. 45
3.4.2. Personality ........................................................................................... 46
Summary ................................................................................................................. 49
Quiz ......................................................................................................................... 50
4. Assessment and Evaluation ....................................................................................... 51

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 2

 4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 51
4.2. Assessment and Testing .................................................................................. 52
4.2.1. Types of testing.................................................................................... 52
4.2.2. Traditional versus current approaches to language testing ................. 53
4.3. Assessment and Learning ................................................................................ 54
4.3.1. Summative versus Formative purposes for assessment ..................... 54
4.3.2. Types of language assessments ......................................................... 54
4.3.3. Feedback ............................................................................................. 55
4.3.4. Portfolios and Self-Assessment ........................................................... 57
4.3.5. Course and Instructor Feedback for the Teacher ................................ 58
Summary ................................................................................................................. 59
Quiz ......................................................................................................................... 60
5. The lesson plan .......................................................................................................... 61
5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 61
5.2. What does planning do for the instructor? ....................................................... 62
5.3. Student needs .................................................................................................. 63
5.4. Student learning outcomes versus lesson aims/objectives .............................. 64
5.5. Formal Planning ............................................................................................... 66
5.5.1. Before class ......................................................................................... 67
5.5.2. During class ......................................................................................... 68
5.5.3. After class ............................................................................................ 69
Summary ................................................................................................................. 70
Quiz ......................................................................................................................... 71
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 72

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 3

Course description and learning
outcomes

Aims of this course

The goal of this course is to provide students with the skills to effectively teach
English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Our focus will be on practical
applications of second language teaching in the classroom, although we will
also examine how theory and research in second language acquisition has
shaped methodological and pedagogic principles from past to present.

By the end of this course, students will be able to:

1. Differentiate between the main theories of language learning.

2. Draw from a scope of teaching methods to guide your approach towards a

diverse range of language courses.

3. Choose, evaluate, adapt, and create materials for EFL teaching.

4. Design and implement activities, lessons, and evaluation tools based on

established principles of language teaching to achieve course and student
learning outcomes.

5. Assess student language ability using the Common European Framework

of Reference (CEFR).

6. Develop an approach to deal with individual differences amongst learners

and intercultural issues in the classroom.

The course is organized into five units:

1. Theories of language learning

2. Teaching methods, methodological principles and pedagogic procedures
3. Individual differences in second language learning
4. Assessment and evaluation
5. The lesson plan

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 4

1. Theories of language learning

Aims of this unit

1. Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
2. Differentiate between the main theories of language learning.
3. Identify the main differences between first and second language learning.
4. Understand how language learning theories can be applied to language
teaching practice.

1.1. Theoretical approaches to explaining

first language learning
The question of how first language acquisition takes place is a controversial topic. Over
the past 70 years, there have been three main theoretical approaches to explaining it:
behaviorist, innatist, and interactionist approaches.

Early research into language learning was heavily dependent on the dominant linguistic
and psychological paradigms. One of the earliest scientific explanations of language
acquisition was provided by the psychologist Skinner (1957), the pioneer of behaviorism.

But Skinner’s approach was soon heavily criticized by the linguist Noam Chomsky, who
argued that behaviorism was not able to explain the logical problem of language
acquisition or ‘poverty of the stimulus’ (i.e., the fact that a child can never be exposed to
the infinite number of sentences they are able to produce). Language came to be seen
not as a set of automatic habits, but as a set of structured rules based on innate
principles.

More recent approaches include interactionism, which is primarily concerned with the
environment in which second language learning takes place and on how learners use
their linguistic environment to build their knowledge of the second language.
Interactionism is neutral as to the role of innate linguistic knowledge (Universal
Grammar). In other words, it is compatible with a view of second language acquisition
that posits an innate learning mechanism and it is also compatible with a model of
learning that posits no such mechanism.

Although interactionism is neutral as to innateness, interactionists believe that

there are biological and cognitive factors that contribute to language learning
(a human capacity for language learning) in addition to the environment.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 5

1.1.1. Behaviorism
Psychological theory of learning which was very influential in the 1950’s. It is based on
the idea that language learning is the result of imitation, practice, reward, and habit
formation. Children imitate the sounds and patterns around them and receive positive
reinforcement for doing so. They continue to imitate until they form habits of correct
language use.

Behaviorism believes that success in language learning depends on the quality and
quantity of language, as well as on the consistency of the reinforcement. By imitation,
behaviorism understands word-for-word repetition of all or part of someone else’s
utterance.

© WrightStudio - Fotolia

For example

Mother: Would you like some bread and butter?

Child: Some bread and butter.

By practice, behaviorism understands repetitive manipulation of form.

For example:

Child: I can fix it. Peter can fix it. We can fix it.

Behaviorism can offer a partial explanation of some aspects of children’s early language
learning. However, it cannot explain the development of more complex aspects of
language.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 6

 Activity

Examine the following transcripts of children playing with an

adult and look for examples of imitation and practice.

Peter (24 months)

Peter: Get more.

Mother: You’re gonna put more wheels in the dump truck?
Peter: Dump truck. Wheels. Dump truck.
...
(later)
Mother: What happened to the truck?
Peter: Lose it. Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall!
Mother: Yes, the dump truck fell down.
Peter: Dump truck fell down. Dump truck.

Peter (25 months)

Peter: (indicating he wants daddy to draw) Mommy. Mommy too. Daddy. Mommy
too!
Father: Oh, you want mommy to have some paper?
Peter: Mommy have some paper?
...
(later)
Father: Let’s see if I can draw what you draw. Draw something!
Peter: Draw something!

Cindy (24 months)

Cindy: Kawo? Kawo? Kawo? Kawo? Kawo?

Mother: What are the rabbits eating?
Cindy: They eating… kando?
Mother: No, that’s carrot.
Cindy: Carrot. (pointing to each carrot on the page) The other…carrot. The other
carrot. The other carrot.
Mother: What does this rabbit like to eat?
Cindy: eat the carrots. He eat carrots. The other one eat carrots. They both eat
carrots.

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 Cindy (25 months)

Cindy: Doll go to sleep.

Mother: Does the doll want to go to sleep?
Cindy: Come on doll. Go to sleep with the tiger. Go to sleep. Doll wants to go to sleep.
Mother: Does the tiger want to go to sleep?
Cindy: Tiger wants to go to sleep. The doll wants to go to sleep. He go to sleep.

Adapted from Lightbown & Spada (1999:10)

These samples seem to support the behaviorist explanation of language acquisition.

Peter imitates a great deal and Cindy practices new structures all the time. However, not
all children imitate or practice this much. Peter’s transcripts consist of up to 40%
imitations, whereas other children may imitate less than 10%. Also, children do no
imitate at random. They imitate new words and structures until they incorporate them.
They are selective, unlike parrots. Even when the child imitates, what they imitate is
based on what they have already begun to understand. Also Cindy chooses what she
will practice.

Although children do imitate and practice, this cannot account for how they learn all
aspects of their native language. We also need to be able to explain language
development in those children who rarely imitate or practice.

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 Activity

The next examples show how imitation and practice cannot

explain some of the forms created by children. Think about how
they arrive at the forms they produce.

Example 1

Kyo: I’m hungry.

Father: We’ll have some poppy seed bread in a little while.

Kyo: No. I want it now.

Father: We have to wait til it’s defrosted.

Kyo: But I like it frossed.

Example 2

Michel: Mummy, I’m hiccing up and I can’t stop.

Example 3

Mother: I love you to pieces.

David: I love you three pieces.

These examples show how the children are learning the rules of word formation and
overgeneralizing them to new contexts and how they are in the process of discovering
the full meaning of words. These are not sentences that they heard from adults. They
create new forms and uses of words until they finally figure them out.

So behaviorism can offer an explanation of how children learn some of the

routine aspects of language but it cannot explain the acquisition of more
complex structures.

1.1.2. Innatism
This approach is based on Noam Chomsky’s claims that children are biologically
endowed or programmed for language learning.

Learning to talk is not different from learning to walk. There is no need for teaching.
Most children learn to walk about the same age. Walking is essentially the same in all
human beings. The same applies to learning a language. The environment makes a
contribution by having people speak to the child, but the child’s biological endowment
does the rest. That is why it is called the “innatist position”.

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Chomsky proposed this theory in the 1950s in response to the weaknesses of the
behaviorist theory of learning, according to which learning is based on imitation and
habit formation. Chomsky argued that the behaviorist theory could not account for the
‘logical problem of language acquisition’. This refers to the fact that children come to
know more about language than they could be expected to learn on the basis of the
language they are exposed to. The language they are exposed to (oral language) is full
of confusing information (false starts, incomplete sentences, etc.) and does not provide
all the information the child needs. Also, children are not corrected systematically or
instructed on language. When parents correct, they tend to focus on meaning and not
on form, usually simply reformulating what the child said in a complete grammatical
form. Children often ignore corrections. Finally, children can produce language they
have never heard before and be playful and creative with language, so not everything
they say was learned through imitation.

According to Chomsky, children are not blank slates but they are born with a
special ability to discover the underlying rules of language for themselves.

Chomsky initially called this special ability as the ‘language acquisition device’ (LAD)
and described it as an imaginary black box in the brain. This black box would contain all
the principles that are universal to all human languages and would guide the child in
trying to learning his/her language. The LAD would get activated with samples of a
language and then the child would match the innate language knowledge to the
particular language in the environment.

The term LAD was later replaced with the term Universal Grammar (UG), the set of
principles which are common to all languages. The child’s task is to learn which of these
principles are used by their language and how they are used (Chomsky 1981, Cook,
1988, White, 1989). Evidence for this can be the fact that children develop language in
similar ways and on a similar schedule, even though there are differences in speed (or
rate) of acquisition. Some children are faster than others but all of them reach a similar
outcome: linguistic competence in their language (the knowledge of how their language
works).

© ikonacolor – Fotolia

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 10

Show what you know
Decide which of the following statements are true according to Chomsky’s innatist
position.

1. Animals, even primates receiving training from humans, cannot learn to

manipulate a system as complicated as the language a three- or four-year-old
child can speak.

2. Children cannot accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without

someone pointing out to them which sentences are correct and incorrect.

3. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a time in life when
they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated.

4. Children can only successfully master the basic structure of their native language
in specific conditions that enhance language development (caring, attentive
parents, etc.)

5. The language children are exposed to does not contain examples of all the
linguistic rules and patterns which they eventually know.

See the answers below.

1. Animals, even primates receiving training from humans, cannot learn to manipulate a
system as complicated as the language a three- or four-year-old child can speak. TRUE.

There has never been an example anywhere of a nonhuman expressing an opinion, or

asking a question. Animal communication systems may share some properties of
human language, but none is as complex as human language.

2. Children cannot accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without

someone pointing out to them which sentences are correct and incorrect. FALSE.

Parents and caregivers do not usually correct children (especially at the grammatical
level) unless there is a communicative breakdown that interferes with communication. In
spite of this, all children learn their language.

3. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a time in life when they
would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated. TRUE.

Learning a language is the most cognitively complex thing a human being learns and
this is accomplished by age 3 when children are still developing cognitively.

4. Children can only successfully master the basic structure of their native language in
specific conditions that enhance language development (caring, attentive parents, etc.).
FALSE.

Even children who do not receive proper care learn their language. Lack of care could
have an impact on areas of language such as breath of vocabulary, but not on learning
the language itself.

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5. The language children are exposed to does not contain examples of all the linguistic
rules and patterns which they eventually know. TRUE.

This is what Chomsky called “the poverty of the stimulus”. Children are not exposed to
rich enough data to acquire every feature of their language. It is used as an argument
against the fact that language cannot be learned solely through experience.

1.1.3. Interactionism

This view focuses on the role of the linguistic environment in interaction with
the unique human capacity of the child to acquire language.

Interactionists attribute considerably more importance to the environment in which the

child develops. Interactionists attribute considerably more importance to the
environment than the innatists do. Unlike the innatists, interactionists claim that
language which is modified to suit the capability of the child (i.e., child-directed speech)
is a crucial element in the language acquisition process. Child-directed speech is
adjusted in ways to make it easier for children to understand. In English, child-directed
speech involves a slower rate of delivery, higher pitch, more varied intonation, shorter
and simpler sentence patterns, topics about the ‘here and now,’ repetition, and
paraphrase. For example, if the child says ‘Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall!, the adult
may respond: ‘Yes, the dump truck fell down’.

© Zarya Maxim - Fotolia

It is important to point out, however, that child-directed speech is not universal. In some
societies, adults do not provide modified interaction to very young children and, despite
that, these children are able to achieve full competence. This shows that opportunities
for conversation rather than simplification is what is necessary for language
development. Evidence for this can be found in the case of children born to deaf parents
and who have little contact with speaking adults up to a certain age (e.g., age 3). If their
parents do not use sign language, these children do not develop language normally.
Exposure to impersonal sources of language such as television or radio alone is not
sufficient to learn a language.

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Among interactionist positions we can include those articulated by the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget observed children in their play and interaction with
adults. Piaget did not see language as based on a separate module of the mind.
Language was one of the symbol systems developed in childhood used to represent
knowledge acquired through physical interaction with the environment.

A strong interactionist view was the sociocultural theory by Lev Vygotsky. He concluded
that language develops completely from social interaction. Children need a supportive
interactive environment to advance to a higher level of knowledge. Vygotsky called
‘zone of proximal development’ what the child can do through interaction. While for
Piaget language developed as a symbol system to express knowledge acquired through
interaction, for Vygotsky children internalized speech and speech emerged in social
interaction.

Supporters of usage-based learning are also interactionists. They hypothesize that

language acquisition does not require a separate module of the mind. They contend that
language learning can be explained in terms of learning in general and it happens
thanks to children’s general cognitive capacities. What children need is already available
in the language they are exposed to. Frequency of exposure is important. By being
exposed to language, children can generalize, learn rules, and be creative without any
need for a universal grammar. This learning is based on associations. For example,
children speaking French learn to associate the appropriate article and adjective forms
with nouns. They learn that ‘la’ and ‘une’ go with ‘chaise’ (chair) and ‘le’ and ‘un’ go with
‘livre’ (book). Learning takes place gradually, as the number of links among language
forms and meanings are built up.

1.2. Theoretical approaches to explaining

second language learning
Theories to explain second language acquisition are closely related to those discussed
for first language acquisition. Some theories give importance to innate characteristics;
others emphasize the role of the environment; and others integrate learner
characteristics and environmental factors.

Reflection Activity* 1

It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different

from a child acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and
conditions for learning. Fill in the following chart and indicate the presence (+) or
absence (–) of the learner characteristics and learning conditions under first
language or second language acquisition. A child learning the second language
informally means a child living in the second-language environment or in an
environment with second language native speakers. An adolescent learning a
second language in a formal language learning setting means that the adolescent
in studying the second language at school. Finally, an adult learning a second
language informally means in the workplace, among friends, or in the second-
language environment.

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 First
Second language
language
Learner Child Adolescent Adult
Child
characteristics (informal) (formal) (informal)
Knowledge of
another language

Cognitive maturity

Metalinguistic
awareness

Knowledge of the
world

Anxiety about
speaking

Learning conditions

Freedom to be
silent

Ample time

Corrective
feedback on
grammar and
pronunciation
Corrective
feedback on word
choice, meaning,
politeness

Modified input

* Adapted from Lightbown and Spada (1999)

All second language learners have already acquired at least one language.
This may be an advantage since they have an idea of how languages work.
However, knowledge of other languages can lead learners to make incorrect
guesses resulting in errors that first language learners would not make.

Very young learners begin the task of first language acquisition without the cognitive
maturity or metalinguistic awareness the older second language learners have. They
have begun to develop these characteristics, but they still have far to go in these areas
and in the area of world knowledge in order to reach the level attained by adults and
adolescents. Cognitive maturity and linguistic awareness allow older learners to solve
problems and engage in discussions about language. The use of these cognitive skills
can actually interfere with language acquisition.

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In addition to cognitive differences, there are also attitudinal and cultural differences
between children and adults. Most child learners are willing to try to use the language,
but adults and adolescents may find it stressful when they are unable to express what
they want correctly. In all the cases there are individual differences. Some learners
happily chatter away, while others prefer to listen and observe.

Young second language learners are often allowed to be silent until they are ready to
speak. They may also participate in songs and games that allow them to blend their
voices with those of other children. Older second language learners are often forced to
speak from the beginning.

Another way in which younger and older learners may differ is in the amount of time they
can actually spend learning a second language. First language learners spend
thousands of hours in contact with the language. Young second language learners may
also be exposed to the language for many hours a day. Older learners, however,
especially those in a classroom receive far less exposure, perhaps only a few hours a
week. A typical foreign language student will have no more than a few hundred hours of
exposure (around 700 or 800), spread out over a number of years. Classroom learners
also tend to be exposed to a smaller range of discourse types. For example, they are
taught more formal language in comparison to the language that is used in most social
settings. In many classrooms, teachers may even switch to their students’ first language.

Parents tend to respond to the meaning of children’s language rather than to their
grammatical accuracy. In second language learning outside the classroom, errors that
do not interfere with meaning are also overlooked. Most people would feel they are
being impolite if they interrupted to correct someone. But they may react to an error if
they cannot understand what the speaker is trying to say. Therefore, errors of grammar
and pronunciation may not be corrected, but the wrong word choice may receive
comment from an interlocutor. In a situation where the second language speaker uses
inappropriate language, interlocutors may feel uncomfortable, but it is unlikely that they
will comment on that. The only place where corrective feedback is present with high
frequency is the language classroom.

One condition that seems to be common to all learners is exposure to modified/adapted

input. This adjusted style is called child-directed speech in first language acquisition and
foreigner talk or teacher talk in second language acquisition.

Activity

Think about how you

would adjust the
interlocutor’s speech so that
the second language learner
could understand.

Foreigner:

Excuse me, where toilet, please?

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 Flight arrivals information desk:

Unfortunately, the entire plumbing system is currently under repair. It may be possible to
use the public conveniences which are situated about five blocks from here.

© luckybusiness - Fotolia

1.2.1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism accounts for learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement, and
habit formation. According to behaviorism, all learning takes place through the same
underlying process. Learners receive rewards for their correct imitations, and corrective
feedback on their errors. It is assumed that learners start off with the habits formed in
their first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the
second language. Where there are similarities between the first language and the
second language, the learner will learn with ease; where there are differences, the
learner will have difficulty (i.e., Constrastive Analysis Hypothesis).

There is agreement that a learner’s first language influences the acquisition of a second
language. However, research has shown that not all errors predicted by the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis are actually made, plus there are errors that the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis is not able to predict. For example, adult beginners use simple
structures in the target language just as children do: ‘No understand’ or ‘Yesterday I
meet my teacher.’ These sentences resemble a child’s first language sentences rather
than translations from the learner’s first language.

Many of the initial sentences a second language learner makes would actually be
ungrammatical in their first language so this contradicts the claim that they are
translating. In fact, many second language learners are reluctant to translate from their
first language because they feel that the translation will be incorrect. Also, some
characteristics of these initial sentences are very similar across all second language
learners, regardless of their first language.

The conclusion is that behaviorism has been an incomplete, simplistic

explanation of both first language acquisition and second language
acquisition.

1.2.2. Innatism
According to Innatism, the innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar
allows all children to acquire language during a critical period in their development.

Chomsky did not make specific claims about second language acquisition.

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Some supporters of this theory believe that it is the best theory to understand second
language acquisition because learners eventually know more about the language that
could have learned if they only depended on the input they receive. Others argue that it
cannot explain second language acquisition for adult learners who have passed the
critical period for language acquisition.

1.2.3. Interactionism
Evelyn Hatch (1992), Teresa Pica (1994), and Michael Long (1983) have argued that
much second language acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. This
is similar to the first language theory that gives importance to child-directed speech.
They believe that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. This is
based on Stephen Krashen’s 1982 Input Hypothesis, according to which learners
acquire language in only one way, by exposure to comprehensible input: input that
contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competence
(what Krashen calls ‘i+1’).

The key question for interactionists is how to make input comprehensible.

What learners need is not simplification of the linguistic forms but an
opportunity to interact with other speakers in ways which lead them to adapt
what they are saying. Modified interaction does not involve simplification. It
includes elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, additional contextual cues,
etc.

Examples of modifications are the following:

The same activity of interacting with a speaker remotely can be accomplished via
text-based chat or video chat.

Comprehension checks
Efforts by the interlocutor to ensure that the learner has understood.
For example:
‘The bus leaves at 6:30. Do you understand?’

Clarification requests
Efforts by the learner to get the interlocutor to clarify something.
For example:
‘Could you repeat please?’

Self-repetition or paraphrase
The interlocutor repeats his or her sentence partially or entirely.
For example:
‘She got lost on her way home from school. She was walking home from school. She
got lost.’

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Conversational interaction forms the basis for the development of language rather than
being only a forum for practice of specific language features.

As Long (1996) said in his Interaction Hypothesis:

“Negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers

interactional adjustments by the native speaker or more competent
interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner
capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways.”

Long, 1996, pp. 451-452

Through negotiation work, the learner’s attentional resources may be oriented to:

a. a particular discrepancy between what he or she knows about the second

language and what is the reality or
b. an area of the language the learner does not know.

Learning may take place during the interaction, or this may be an initial step in learning
that will take place later serving as a catalyst.

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Summary
A theory of language acquisition is intended to account for the ability of human learners
to acquire language within a variety of social and instructional environments. They try to
account for something that cannot be observed directly. We can observe the outcome of
the ability to acquire language but not the process itself.

The innatist perspective is defended by linguists who try to explain the complexities of
language competence. Cognitive psychologists place more attention on the environment
and the input. Interactionists emphasize the role of conversation and negotiation of
meaning. Support from interlocutors is key.

© Photographee.eu – Fotolia

Teachers and educators are often frustrated because they hope that language
acquisition theories will help with their language teaching practice. The lack of
agreement among experts and the variety of language acquisition perspectives make
theory confusing. Research that has theory as its goal has important long-term
significance for language teaching and learning, but agreement on a complete theory of
language acquisition is a long way off. Teachers must still continue to teach and plan
lessons in the absence of a single theory of second language learning.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 19

Quiz
Show what you know
Identify the following statements as True or False:

1. There are no major differences between young and adult second language
learners.
2. Innatism was proposed as a reaction to Behaviorism in the 1950’s.
3. Interaction facilitates acquisition by helping the learner make connections
between input and output.
4. Evelyn Hatch, Teresa Pica, and Michael Long are names associated with the
interactionist perspective.
5. Michael H. Long proposed the interaction hypothesis in 1996.
6. Noam Chomsky supported Behaviorism.

See the answers below.

1.There are no major differences between young and adult second language learners.
FALSE.

Language learning in children and adults is qualitatively different. Young children only
rely on implicit learning mechanisms, while adults can also rely on explicit learning
mechanisms that help them reflect on and analyze language.

2. Innatism was proposed as a reaction to Behaviorism in the 1950’s. TRUE.

Chomsky proposed innatism in 1959 as a reaction to B. F. Skinner and his behaviorist

theory in 1957.

3. Interaction facilitates acquisition by helping the learner make connections between

input and output.TRUE.

Interaction helps the learner make connections between language form, meaning and
function. For exemple, a learner can adjust output after receiving input asking for
clarification.

4. Evelyn Hatch, Teresa Pica, and Michael Long are names associated with the
interactionist perspective. TRUE.

Michael H. Long proposed the interaction hypothesis in 1996.

5. Noam Chomsky supported Behaviorism. FALSE.

Chomsky was completely against behaviorism.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 20

2. Teaching methods,
methodological principles and
pedagogic procedures

Aims of this unit

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Compare the principles behind the gamut of foreign language teaching

methods and approaches used in the past

2. Explain the current trends in second language pedagogy

3. Predict where the field of teaching methodology is heading in the future

4. Understand that there is no ‘one-method-fits-all’ approach and that each

course necessitates its own particular requirements according to its aims
and its students

2.1. Introduction
Since the beginning of second language teaching, many different approaches and
methods have been developed in search of the most effective way to instruct and
facilitate second language learning. New approaches have often arisen in response to
perceived inadequacies in the popular methods or theories of the time.

In this unit, we will explore the progression of second language teaching throughout
history, focusing on the methodological principles followed by each major approach or
method in hopes of informing ourselves what can be learned and later applied in the
classroom thanks to our predecessors’ trials and tribulations, their successes and
failures, and research done by second language acquisition academics.

While teachers in training may find studying language acquisition theory and
methodological history burdensome, it cannot be denied that a teacher who is well-
informed in these areas will more easily understand what goes on in a L2 learner’s
interlanguage. Thus, our goal is to bridge the gap between theory and practice as we
strive to effectively adapt the appropriate approaches towards teaching a particular
course based on learner and institutional needs and aims.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 21

2.2. History and Scope of Language
Teaching Approaches
2.2.1. Pre-twentieth century

Grammar-translation
Largely influenced by German scholar, Karl Ploetz (1819-1881).

 Based on the systematic study of grammar as used in the analysis of classical

texts (i.e. Greek and Latin).
 Instruction is given in students’ native language, with target language rarely, if
ever, used for classroom communication. In fact, the instructor may not even be
competent in speaking the target language.
 Students study grammatical forms, and core course exercise is translating
foreign texts to native language and vice versa.

Question for thought

What do you think is the biggest linguistic weakness that exists

amongst students who undergo the grammar-translation approach?

The direct method

First work published by French educator Francois Gouin (1880), who was influenced by
German philosopher-scientist Alexander von Humboldt in his assertion that languages
cannot be taught, rather, the instructor can only provide the necessary conditions for
language learning to take place.

 Target language is used in the classroom exclusively. Use of students’ first

language is not permitted.
 Examples of classroom techniques are: instruction using pictures and actions,
dialogues, roleplays, anecdotes, leisure reading.
 Rather than focusing on grammatical forms and explicit instruction, both
grammar and culture are taught inductively by repeated exposure to language in
context.

Question for thought

What do you think is the biggest linguistic weakness that exists

amongst students who undergo the grammar-translation approach?

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 22

The reform movement
Established in 1886 by the International Phonetic Association, who made some of the
first scientific contributions to language pedagogy, focusing on pronunciation and oral
articulation.

 Speaking should be at the forefront of language learning, and it should be

instructed using findings from studies on phonetics

Mini-task
Search the internet for an image of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA Chart). For the purposes of this task, it may be helpful to
find one with sample words associated with each phonemic symbol.
Write the following words in IPA: sit, sheet, very, berry, pull, pool, is.

2.2.2. Early and mid-twentieth century

The reading approach

Endorsed by the Modern Language Association of America in the 1930s and 1940s with
the perspective that reading is the only language skill that can be mastered by students
being taught by a non-native teacher.

 Class materials include great literary and philosophical works with vocabulary
and grammar topics selected based on appearance and frequency in texts
 Instruction is given in the teacher’s first language with reading comprehension
and translation being the core skills emphasized

Question for thought

If you were to teach a course using the reading approach, cite one
text you would select for your students to read. Why? How does the
particular language of this text influence your decision?

Auto-lingual approach
Developed by behaviorism-influenced, structurally-focused linguists during and post-
World War II (1940s, 50s, 60s) in reaction to the US military’s rapidly increasing demand
for language competent personnel.

 Influenced by the direct method, lessons present model dialogues as a means of

contextualizing specific target language episodes.
 A structural ‘building block’ approach focuses on correct audio recognition and
verbal production of basic language units (phonemes, morphemes, etc.) and
expands into full phrases and sentences via ‘listen and repeat,’ repetition-based
memorization.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 23

  Instruction is controlled via an inductive approach in which grammar exposure is
carefully sequenced, skill production progresses from listening > speaking >
reading > writing, vocabulary range is intentionally limited, and pronunciation
errors are prudently addressed.
 Practice often isolates language, disregarding situational context.

Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP)

Stemming from the Audio-Lingual approach, PPP lessons consists of three stages.

A grammar point is selected as the focus of the

lesson. The teacher presents a contextualized
situation to students in which the selected grammar
point frequently appears. Upon observing the
1st stage – Presentation communicative interaction (in the form of a dialogue,
roleplay script, picture story, slide presentation,
animation, video, etc.), the teacher then gives a
linguistic explanation of the function and use of the
grammar point.

Students then get the opportunity to practice the

grammar point in the form of controlled activities such
2nd stage – Practice
as choral repetition, cue-response drills, fill-the-gap
exercises, etc.

Grammar practice is carried out, initially in pairs or

small groups and then possibly performing for the
3th stage – Production whole class, by engaging in communicative activities
in which students must actively produce the language
on their own.

Oral-situation approach
Britain’s parallel to the audio-lingual approach, the oral-situational approach slightly
differs in its instructional content and organization in which lexical and grammatical
items are directly drawn from contextualized situations such as at the doctor, at the
market, etc.

 Primarily taught in the target language with controlled oral pattern production,
choral repetition, and memorization of roleplay dialogues employed as teaching
techniques.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 24

 Question for thought
Imagine that you’re planning a lesson for a Business English class.
Identify three (3) specific interactional situations that business
students might find useful to analyze and practice in the form of
dialogue roleplays. Cite some vocabulary and grammar items that
might arise from each of these contexts.

The reading approach

Two asian girls studying and

reading a book in their classroom,
kid education concept

© mangpor2004 - Fotolia

Audio-lingual approach

Adult education, student in

headphones working on comp

© anyaberkut - Fotolia

Presentation, Practice,
Production (PPP)

Education high school teamwork

and people concept

© auremar - Fotolia

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 25

2.2.3. Late twentieth-century

Cognitive approach
Unlike the previous two methods which depended on habit-forming behaviorist
principles, the cognitive approach sees language as a complex rule-governed cognitive
behavior that requires hypothesizing of rules, and testing of these hypotheses, by the
leaner while en route to language acquisition. This system of patterns and rules can
then be extended to generate language for an indefinite array of contexts in the pursuit
of meaningful communication. Noam Chomsky’s work in linguistics in the 1950s and 60s
largely influenced this approach.

 Language analysis and error correction feedback utilized to reinforce language

rules.
 Reading, writing, and vocabulary take a major role in learning, along with an
emphasis on individualized learning.
 Pronunciation is largely ignored as native-level speech is thought to be
unattainable after a critical period of language acquisition in childhood.

Affective-humanistic approach
Learning a new language is seen as a self-realization process within the constraints of a
dynamic social atmosphere. Personally meaningful content is emphasized for individuals
to expound upon, and materials and methods are adapted accordingly to students’
interests.

 A positive, interactional class atmosphere in which the teacher acts as a

facilitator rather than a lecturer is considered more important than employing
specific methods or providing a certain type of language material.
 Pairwork, groupwork, and supportive peer interaction are seen as necessary for
the learning process.

Comprehension-based approach
Founded on first language (L1) acquisition research under the belief that second
language (L2) acquisition undergoes the same processes. Stephen Krashen’s work on
Monitor Theory and the Natural Approach in the 1980s suggested that comprehensible
input is the essential component to language acquisition.

 The learner will only learn if provided with meaningful, comprehensible input that
is one step above their current proficiency. Thus, listening skills are the key
building block for understanding, which will then in turn give rise to the
development of the other language skills (reading, writing, speaking).
 Beginners should be initiated with a silent period, in which they solely focus on
comprehending spoken language. Pronunciation practice should not be
implemented until later once the learner has been thoroughly exposed to the
phonetics of native speakers (i.e. a native teacher or audiovisual materials in the
target language) and can, thus, more likely reproduce native-like speech.
 Language use arises spontaneously under certain contexts and conditions that
provide comprehensible input, so grammar rules should be taught merely as a
way to check, or monitor, one’s own language production.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 26

Communicative approach
An overarching term that includes some of today’s most popular teaching methods. The
viewpoint is that meaningful communication is the ultimate goal of language and that
instruction must facilitate learners’ end goal communicative contexts in the target
language.

 Rather than solely emphasizing the learning of linguistic structures, course

design considers social context and professional goals.
 Course content (academic or professional in nature) can become equal to, or
even more important than, linguistic goals.
 Classroom activities are largely based on pair work or group work in which
students must negotiate meaning to complete information gap tasks. Also,
roleplays are used to simulate the actual situations in which the students will
have to perform in the target language outside of class.
 More than one, if not all, language skills are often integrated into the same task,
and materials may be authentic in nature rather than being pedagogically
designed for language learning.
 Examples of integrated communicative approaches are Content-Based
Language Instruction (CBI), Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL),
Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT).

Designer methods
Term coined by Nunan (1989b) to describe pedagogic trends in the 1970s and 1980s.
Four of the most popular ones are:

The learner receives visual and comprehensible

Silent way linguistic input in the target language but hardly
speaks if at all.

Students meet to discuss (in the L1) what they want

to learn to say. The instructor, who must be proficient
Community language learning in both the L1 and L2, then translates the desired
language for the students who then practice while
being recorded.

Only using the L1, the teacher gives commands to

the students, who then must respond appropriately
by physically carrying out the command given by the
Total physical response
instructor. Once students learn the target structures,
they can give the commands to their students to
follow.

Students meet in a living room atmosphere rather

than a classroom, and they receive scripts
accompanied by music from the teacher. Teachers
Suggestopedia drill the material in the form of songs, games, and
choral repetition, and then students are given the
opportunity to perform theatrical performances or
skits with the newly learned language.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 27

 Question for thought
Can we really consider the designer methods to be methods? In
other words, can you imagine teaching an entire academic course via
these ‘methods’ or are they simply ‘techniques’ that can be implemented
occasionally throughout the span of a course? If this is this case, in what
contexts (language levels, age groups, type of class, language topic
whether it be grammatical/lexical/pragmatic/cultural etc.) would you
implement these techniques? Give concrete examples of how you could
use each one.

Man teacher and kid students learning and looking on tablet device with self book in the background
© ultramansk4 - Fotolia

2.2.4. The post-methods era

By the end of the twentieth century, language pedagogists came to a general consensus
that there is no single ideal teaching method. A one-method-fits-all perspective must be
rejected considering that:

 Method efficacy is context-dependent. While one method may be appropriate

for one context, another method may be more appropriate for another. Thus,
choosing an appropriate method must take into account the students’ needs
and the educational institution and its pedagogic goals.
 All methods have some valid principles, each one carrying with it its own
advantages and disadvantages for different classroom contexts.
 While many methods may seem distinct initially, the human behaviors of
communication and interaction ultimately lead to similar classroom dynamics
across contexts, regardless of method.
 It is impossible to empirically prove that one method is superior to another.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 28

 Boy Shows His Presentation on Interactive Whiteboard © Gorodenkoff – Fotolia

Mini-Task

Reflecting on Kumaravadivelu’s (1994) 10 macrostrategies for a

post-methods framework (Celce-Murcia 2014, pp. 10-11), choose one and
describe how you could incorporate it into an activity or task for one of your
classes.

Summary
Having covered this overarching survey of second language teaching approaches,
methods, and techniques, it can be concluded that the notion of an ideal, all-
encompassing teaching method does not exist. Rather than adopting a particular
pedagogic dogma, a teacher must have the ability to adapt to the educational
circumstances at hand and develop the course curriculum, syllabus, method, materials,
and pedagogic procedures to fit the particular goals of the students and educational
institution. By being aware of past approaches and the knowledge gained from second
language acquisition research, a competent EFL teacher will be able to effectively
identify and implement which approaches, methods and techniques will best suit his/her
classroom.

English as a lingua franca at local and international levels seems to be a linguistic reality
for the foreseeable future. As the demand and standard for proficient English users
continues to rise, so does that of those who teach it. Some scholars suggest that the
field is transitioning from a post-methods era towards a new juncture between traditional
methods and technological advances in computational and applied linguistics, which
puts in question the importance of the role of the teacher in language learning. While the
language teacher is far from being replaced by technology, new channels for language
learning in the form of computer-mediated learning platforms, online translators and
language learning applications, to name a few, are constantly providing learners with a
larger variety of resources from which to acquire knowledge and skills, and so, it is up to
teachers to play the ever important role of mediator and facilitator to help learners reach
their language goals.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 29

Quiz
Show what you know
Identify the following statements as True or False:

1. Flipped classrooms, in which students take a more active and didactic role as
opposed to the traditionally teacher-centered classroom, is currently the best
approach to language teaching.
2. The grammar-translation approach requires the teacher to be proficient in the
target language, although he/she does not need to be able to speak it fluently.
3. The designer methods that proliferated in the late twentieth century were
generally individual attempts to find the ideal method for teaching and learning a
language, but their rigidity resulted in techniques that may be occasionally
utilized in the classroom rather than full-fledged methods.
4. The cognitive approach views language learning as a habit-forming behavior in
which grammatical structures should be learned through oral drilling and
situational practice.
5. The communicative approach follows a Chomskyan, rule-governed perspective
of language learning in which grammar must be taught deductively.

See the answers below.

1. Flipped classrooms, in which students take a more active and didactic role as
opposed to the traditionally teacher-centered classroom, is currently the best approach
to language teaching. FALSE.

While flipped classrooms can be tried occasionally, they should not be the default
teaching approach. A traditional teacher-centered classroom is not ideal either. Learner-
centered approaches such as Task-Based Language Teaching are the best and most
effective.

2. The grammar-translation approach requires the teacher to be proficient in the target

language, although he/she does not need to be able to speak it fluently. TRUE.

This is precisely part of the problem of the grammar-translation approach. A useful

approach to learn Latin but not to learn a modern language like English.

3. The designer methods that proliferated in the late twentieth century were generally
individual attempts to find the ideal method for teaching and learning a language, but
their rigidity resulted in techniques that may be occasionally utilized in the classroom
rather than full-fledged methods. TRUE.

Designer methods cannot become default teaching methods. They became fashionable
in the 70’s but they were limited approaches that were difficult to implement.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 30

4. The cognitive approach views language learning as a habit-forming behavior in which
grammatical structures should be learned through oral drilling and situational practice.
FALSE.

Habit formation is associated with behaviorism and Pavlov’s principles (stimulus-

response). The cognitive approach focuses on the mental processes involved in learning,
on the “black box” that allows language learning to happen.

5. The communicative approach follows a Chomskyan, rule-governed perspective of

language learning in which grammar must be taught deductively. FALSE.

The communicative approach is more inductive than deductive. The learner uses
language actively in meaning-based tasks and learns grammar inductively through
usage.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 31

3. Individual differences in second
language learning

Aims of this unit

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Identify the main types of learner differences affecting language learning

success

2. Analyze how to measure individual differences

3. Understand how theory on individual differences can be applied to

language teaching practice

3.1. Individual differences in second

language learning
We are all successful in acquiring our mother tongue (or first language). Children are
almost always successful in acquiring a second language in early childhood (between
ages 3 and 6), provided that they have adequate opportunities to use the language over
time. Variations or individual differences in success become more evident in late
childhood (after age 7), and clearly in teenagehood and adulthood (after age 12).

Both educators and researchers have an interest in understanding how the

characteristics of learners are related to their ability to succeed in learning a second
language. Individual differences can be divided into three main types: biological (starting
age of language learning), cognitive (such as aptitude or memory), and affective (such
as motivation or personality).

© MichaelJBerlin - Fotolia

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 32

 Reflection Activity*

Reflect on your own experience as a language learner:

 What language do you speak best? Do you speak more than one language
equally well?

 Which second language have you learned with the most success?

 Which second language have you learned with the least success?

For questions 2 and/or 3 answer the following questions in the appropriate

columns:

Languages learned Languages not learned

successfully successfully

How old were you when you first tried to learn

the language?

Did you have a choice about learning this

language or were you required to learn it?

Do you currently speak this language

regularly?

Do you regularly read this language for

information or enjoyment?

How much of your learning experience with

this language was in a foreign language
classroom?

Can you estimate how many years you spent

learning or using it?

How much time have you spent living in a

place where the language is spoken?

* Adapted from Lightbown and Spada (1999)

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 33

3.2. Biological individual diferences
3.2.1. Age
The age at which second language learning begins is considered the most important
factor affecting success in language learning. It is frequently observed that most children
from immigrant families eventually speak the language of their new community with
native-like fluency, while their parents do not.

The explanation given for such differences is called the Critical Period
Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, humans are genetically programmed
to acquire certain kinds of knowledge at specific times in life.

Evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis

Evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis in first language acquisition is found in cases
of children who have been deprived of contact with language from birth. Two of the most
famous cases are those of ‘Victor’ and ‘Genie.’

Victor

In 1799, a boy who became known as Victor was found wandering naked in the woods in France. His
story was dramatized in a 1970 movie called L’enfant sauvage (The Wild Child). When Victor was
found, he was about 12 years old. He had not had any contact with humans. Doctors worked on
socializing Victor and teaching him language. Although they succeeded to some extent in developing
Victor’s sociability, there was little progress in his language ability.

Genie

Around 200 years later, a 13-year-old girl was discovered in California. She had been isolated,
neglected, and abused. She was called Genie. Genie had spent more than 11 years tied to a chair in a
small, dark room. She was beaten when she made any kind of noise, and she had resorted to complete
silence. Genie was undeveloped physically, emotionally, and intellectually. She had no language. After
she was discovered, she went into rehabilitation. Genie made remarkable progress in becoming
socialized. However, after five years of exposure to language, Genie’s language was not like that of a
typical five-year old. There was a larger than normal gap between comprehension and production. She
used grammatical forms inconsistently and overused formulaic and routine speech.

Victor and Genie are unusual cases. It is not possible to know whether they suffered
from brain damage or specific impairments before they were found.

Better evidence is provided by children who come from homes where they receive love
and care, but who do not have access to language at the usual time. For example, deaf
children who have hearing parents. Hearing parents may not realize that their child
cannot hear. These children’s later experience in learning sign language has been the
subject of research. Studies show that there are significant differences in knowledge of
grammatical markers between native sign language users (exposed to sign language
from birth), early signers (exposed to sign language between ages four and six), and
late signers (exposed to sign language after age 12).

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 34

International adoptees also provide evidence in support of the Critical Period
Hypothesis. These are children who were adopted at an early age by families who did
not speak the child’s language. Although they are adopted as early as 13.5 months age,
they score lower than their native speaker peers on some language abilities when tested
years later. In addition, there is evidence that they remember the first language they
were exposed to at birth. For example, Korean adoptees in the Netherlands (even those
adopted before 6 months age) are more sensitive to Korean language and are to re-
learn Korean faster than Dutch children who have never been exposed to Korean
before.

© majivecka - Fotolia.com

It has been hypothesized that there is a critical period for second language
acquisition just as there is for first language acquisition.

Developmental changes in the brain affect the nature of second language acquisition.
Older learners may depend on more general learning abilities, the same ones they are
using to acquire other kinds of knowledge. These general abilities are not as effective as
the implicit capacities available to the young child.

In addition to age, in second language learning there are other differences between
younger and older learners. Younger learners usually have more time to devote to
learning language. They have more opportunities to use the language in stress-free
environments. Their early imperfect efforts are accepted and praised. Older learners are
more likely to find themselves in situations that require more complex language and
more complicated ideas. Adults get often embarrassed by their lack of mastery. They
get frustrated in trying to say exactly what they mean. This may have negative
consequences on their motivation and willingness to speak the language.

Research on the Critical Period Hypothesis has led education policy makers to
conclude that second language learning will be more successful if it begins at
a young age. However, the evidence is not clear.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 35

Some studies show that older learners are more efficient than younger learners by using
their metalinguistic knowledge, memory, strategies, and problem-solving abilities. In
educational settings, learners who begin learning a second language at primary school
level do not always achieve greater proficiency in the long run than those who begin in
adolescence. The problem in this context is that the years of second language
instruction are limited and typically end by the time the learner is 17.

We know that older learners can be faster at the beginning of the learning process by
using their metalinguistic knowledge, memory strategies, etc. As a result, it is not
possible to know whether starting early gives us a real advantage in the long-run, unless
learners go on learning the second language beyond age 17 on a regular basis. Also,
even if older learners may be more successful in the short-run in general, there are
specific areas where younger learners show better results (e.g., especially in the area of
phonology: pronunciation and sound discrimination).

Having a foreign accent is the most frequently cited consequence of a late start in
second language learning. Phonological development seems to be the most dependent
area on age of acquisition, but vocabulary and grammar (both syntax or word order, and
morphology or word endings) are also affected. Phonology seems to be first, followed by
vocabulary (collocations) and grammar.

Decisions about when to start second language instruction in schools should be based
on realistic estimates of how long it takes to achieve them. Two or three hours a week
will not produce advanced second language speakers, no matter how early they start
learning the language. Older learners may be able to make better use of the limited time
they have. The knowledge they will acquire may be enough if the goal is to use the
language for everyday communication, to take exams, or read academic texts. If the
objective is to reach advanced proficiency or have native-like pronunciation, then an
early start is necessary, but not sufficient. We need more appropriate conditions for
learning. For example, more hours of instruction per week, more years of instruction,
better input, qualified and proficient language instructors, opportunities to learn outside
the classroom.

3.3. Cognitive individual diferences

3.3.1. Intelligence
Some research has shown that intelligence quotient (IQ) scores were a good predictor
of success in second language learning. Learners with a higher IQ were more
successful language learners than learners with a lower IQ.

The explanation for this pattern can be the way second language success is measured.
Learners with high IQ tend to be more analytical and may do better on metalinguistic
tests or reading tests. However, there is no evidence that high IQ helps with oral skills
such as conversational fluency. Therefore, the kind of ability measured by traditional IQ
tests is only a good predictor of second language learning when this learning involves
language analysis and rule learning. It is not a good predictor when instruction focuses
more on communication and interaction.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 36

It should be noted that intelligence is not a unitary concept. In the 1930s, Thurstone
distinguished seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency,
number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, and
reasoning. In the 1960s, Guilford proposed a model that included as many as 180
intelligence factors. Also in the 1960s, Cattell divided intelligence into fluid intelligence
and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to adapt to novel situations,
as measured by tests of reasoning ability about sequences of abstract shapes.
Crystallized intelligence consists of knowledge and skills acquired by experience and
education, and it is specific to certain domains, such as math or knowledge of history. In
the 1990s, Gardner proposed that individuals have ‘multiple intelligences’ including
abilities in music, interpersonal relations, and athletics, as well as the verbal intelligence
that is often associated with success at school.

Since there is no universally accepted theory of intelligence, it is difficult to

investigate whether it influences second language learning. Also, measures of
intelligence are mostly traditional tests largely biased toward analytical
abilities.

3.3.2. Language aptitude

Language aptitude is defined as a combination of cognitive and perceptual

abilities thought to predict success in language learning, both in the short-run
(rate of acquisition) and in the long-run (ultimate level of attainment).

Traditional measures of aptitude have focused on abilities that predict rate of acquisition
in the short-run, provided that motivation, opportunity to learn, and quality of instruction
are optimal. They include:

 the ability to identify and memorize new sounds,

 the ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences,
 the ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples, and
 the ability remember new words.

According to Carroll and Sapon, the creators of the first aptitude test:

“Knowing the individual’s level of ability, we may infer the level of effort and
motivation he must expend to learn successfully. A student with a somewhat
low aptitude score will need to work harder in an academic language course
than a student with a high aptitude test score. If the score is very low, the
student may not succeed in any event.”

Carroll and Sapon, p. 14

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 37

Show what you know
Are you curious to know your own language aptitude abilities?

Try to memorize the following pairs of words in 3 minutes. Then complete the test:

leka jugar

tinga encargar

gredelin lila

gnola canturrear

köping pueblo

tillgjord amanerado

käcka romper

löpa correr

dolsk insidioso

tjocklek gordura

fattigdom pobreza

körsbär cereza

Adapted form Muñoz, 2002, p. 19

1. Tjocklek
a. Jugar
b. Gordura
c. Pueblo
d. Pobreza

2. Käcka
a. Romper
b. Correr
c. Amanerado
d. Canturrear

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3. Gredelin
a. Insidioso
b. Amanerado
c. Lila
d. Cereza

4. Gnola
a. Canturrear
b. Romper
c. Cereza
d. Encargar

5. Löpa
a. Cereza
b. Lila
c. Jugar
d. Correr

6. Leka
a. Jugar
b. Amanerado
c. Pueblo
d. Insidioso

The words used in the activity are Swedish. However, in the original test Kurdish words
were used. In the original test, there are more words to memorize, 24 in total. This test is
called ‘paired associates’ and it is still used to measure explicit or rote memory ability.

The correct answers are: 1. b; 2. a; 3. c; 4. a; 5. d; 6. A

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Show what you know
Identify which of the four words that appear in italics in sentence B has the same
grammatical function as the word that appears in italics in sentence A.*

1.

a. El ejemplo ilustra la idea de convertir la escuela y sus actividades en un contexto

significativo.

b. Al final, aprendizaje lingüístico e integración social constituyen una unidad que se

opone a la asimilación.

2.

a. Ello nos obliga a todos a pensar de nuevo en las prioridades de los ciudadanos

b. El aspecto topológico remite a las propiedades del espacio físico de la interacción.

3.

a. El duque fue enviado ante Su Majestad para disculpar a su señor por aquel hecho
de grandes consecuencias.

b. Nunca perdonaron al joven ejecutivo que les abandonara para trabajar con la
competencia.

See the answers below.

1. “Idea” and “unidad” are both direct objects.

2. “Prioridades” and “propiedades” are both prepositional objects.

3. “Disculpar” and “trabajar” are both adverbials of purpose.

* Adapted from Muñoz, 2002, p. 19

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The original test is also longer. The goal is to measure analytical ability. However, as
you probably noticed, test-takers who have a better grammatical knowledge, because
they have studied grammar before, have an advantage on this test.

Early aptitude measures such as the activities you have just completed are good
measures of learning under certain language teaching methods such as grammar
translation or audiolingualism. These are the methods that were being used at the time
the first aptitude measures were created. With the adoption of more communicative
approaches to teaching, research has shown a need to re-conceptualize language
aptitude so that it includes abilities for implicit learning (i.e., learning by picking up
patterns from input). This type of learning is associated with intuitive or experiential
learning and it can, therefore, be more relevant to predict individual differences in
learning under communicative or task-based teaching approaches.

© Dooder - Fotolia

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 Appropriate classroom activities for particular
students

In a Canadian language program for adult learners of French, students were placed
in an instructional program that was compatible with their aptitude profile.
Students who were high on analytical ability were assigned to teaching that focused
on grammatical structures, while learners strong in memory were placed in a class
where the teaching was organized around the functional use of the second language
in specific situations. The result was a high level of student and teacher satisfaction
when students were matched with compatible teaching environments. In addition,
some evidence indicated that matched students were able to attain significantly
higher levels of achievement than those who were unmatched.

Few schools may be able to offer choices to their students depending on their aptitude
profile. Even when a school cannot offer that choice, teachers may find that knowing
their students’ aptitude profile helps them in selecting appropriate classroom activities
for particular students.

3.3.3. Learning styles

Learning style is an individual’s natural and habitual, preferred way of learning,
processing, retaining information. There are people who say that they cannot learn
something until they have seen it. They are ‘visual’ learners. Others are ‘auditory’ and
learn best ‘by ear.’ For others, ‘kinaesthetic’ learners, physical action such as miming or
role-play seems to help. There are other types of learning styles. Individuals have been
described as field dependent or field independent, according to whether they separate
details from the general background or whether they see things more holistically.

It is difficult to determine whether learning styles reflect immutable differences or

whether they develop through experience and, therefore, can change. There is also a
diversity of taxonomies and classifications. A persistent criticism of this field has actually
been the number of different models proposed. The term style has become so vague
and imprecise that it is difficult to know what it refers to. However, the concept of
learning style remains appealing for educationalists because they do not label students
as good or bad; they just refer to personal preferences.

© artellia - Fotolia

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 The important message here is that we should be skeptical that a single
teaching method or textbook will suit the needs of all the learners.

Activity*

There many different learning styles. These are items measuring

different learning styles taxonomies. Decide whether you are more like the
statement on the left or the statement on the right (from 1 to 9) and try to
guess the type of learning style measured in each case.

a. When I work with new material in context, a. I don’t usually get much from the context
in stories or articles or at least sentences, I unless I pay close attention to what I’m doing.
often pick up new words, ideas, etc. that way, I certainly wouldn’t describe myself as
without planning in advance. You could say I someone who learns by osmosis. It usually
make a lot of use of a floodlight to learn. has to be out there in black and white.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

b. When working with new material with b. When there is a lot of information that
additional subject matter around it, I comes with what I need to learn, it’s hard to
comfortably find and use what is most tell what’s most important. It all seems to fall
important. I also like out-of-context material together sometimes, and it’s hard work to sort
like grammar rules. You could say I make a lot things out.
of use of a spotlight to learn.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

c. I like to reduce differences and look for c. I like to explore differences and disparities
similarities. I notice mostly how things are among things and tend to notice them quickly.
similar, and I level out differences.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

d. I tend to be most aware of and interested in d. I notice specifics and details quickly; I tend
the big picture; I notice the forest before the to be aware of the trees before the forest. I
trees; I start with the main points and work begin with the details to work up to the main
down to the details. points.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

e. I react quickly, often acting or speaking e. I tend to think about things before I do or
without thinking about it. say them.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

f. I understand best by assembling what I’m f. I understand best by disassembly of

learning into a whole, synthesizing learning into its component parts, analyzing
information. information.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

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 g. I tend to learn things through metaphors g. I like things that can be counted and that
and associations with other things. I often say what they mean directly. I take things at
learn through stories or example cases. face value.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

h. To learn, I like to interact with the world and h. I like to learn through concepts and ideas
learn through application of knowledge, and from formal renditions of knowledge like
especially when I can touch, see, or hear it. theories and models.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

i. I learn best when I can work out for myself i. I learn best when there is a sequence of
the best sequence to use, even if it’s different steps provided, so I can do things in order.
from the one in the book or lesson. Textbooks and lesson plans really help me.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

j. When I learn, I mostly start with examples or j. When I learn, I mostly start with rules and
my experience and make generalizations or generalizations and apply them to my
rules. experience to learn.

Most like this 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 Most like this

Answer key:
Field sensitivity-insensitivity refers to the
preference to consider materials in a situated
manner. Field-sensitive learners prefer to address
a. Field sensitivity – Field insensitivity
material as part of the context in contrast to their
field-insensitive counterparts, who make little or no
use of the context.

Field dependence-independence refers to the

b. Field independence – Field preference for selection and details (field-
dependence independent) vs. treating the whole context as the
same, more wholist (field-dependent).

A tendency to assimilate detail rapidly and lose

c. Leveling – Sharpening detail (levelers) or emphasize detail and small
differences (sharpeners).

A preference to process top-down (globally) or

d. Eled. Global – Particular
bottom-up (starting from the particular details).

Impulsive learners tend to respond rapidly, often

e. Impulsive – Reflective acting on gut, whereas reflective learners prefer to
think things through before they respond.

Synthetic learners like to use pieces to build new

wholes, whereas analytic students like to
f. Synthetic – Analytic
disassemble wholes into parts to understand their
componential structure.

Analogue learners prefer to use metaphors,

analogies, and conceptual links, whereas digital
g. Analogue – Digital
learners take a more surface approach, more literal
and logical.

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 Concrete learners prefer a relationship with direct
experience to the extent of sensory contact,
h. Concrete – Abstract whereas abstract learners may have more interest
in the system underlying language than in the
actual language of communication.

Random learners are non-linear, they follow their

own, idiosyncratic order of processing, whereas
i. Random – Sequential sequential learners prefer a step-by-step,
externally provided order (such as the units in a
syllabus).

Inductive learners start with the details and facts,

then form hypotheses, and test them; deductive
j. Inductive – Deductive
learners start out with rules and then apply them to
examples.

* Adapted from Dornyei, 2015, p.132

3.4. Affective individual diferences

3.4.1. Motivation
Motivation is a complex phenomenon. It has been defined in terms of a) learners’
communicative needs, and b) learners’ attitudes toward the second language
community.

If learners need to speak the second language in social situations or fulfil professional
ambitions, they will perceive the communicative value of the second language and will
be more motivated to learn it. Also, if learners have positive attitudes toward the
speakers of the language, they will want more contact with them.

Gardner and Lambert (1972) coined the terms ‘instrumental motivation’ and ‘integrative
motivation.’ Instrumental motivation is language learning for immediate or practical
goals. Integrative motivation is language learning for personal growth and cultural
enrichment. Both types of motivation have been found to be related to success in
second language learning. However, it is not easy to determine whether positive
attitudes produce successful learning or successful learning engenders positive
attitudes.

We can at least say that positive attitudes are associated with a willingness to
keep learning. It initiates and sustains the learning process.

In a teacher’s mind, motivated students are those who participate actively in class,
express interest, and study. Teachers can have an influence on students’ motivation by
providing content that is interesting and relevant to their age and ability, having learning
goals that are challenging yet manageable and clear, and by creating a supportive
atmosphere. There is research showing positive correlations between teachers’
motivational practices (e.g., arousing curiosity and attention, promoting autonomy, group
and pair work, tangible task products, effective praise, etc.) and learners’ level of
engagement (Guilloteaux & Dornyei, 2008).

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 © cacaroot – Fotolia

Teachers must also keep in mind that cultural and age differences will determine the
most appropriate ways for them to motivate students.

For example...

In a study with secondary school Japanese learners of English, Tomita (2011)

observed that the students were more willing to communicate during activities that
combined a focus on grammar and meaning, than in exclusively meaning-based
activities. Learners were not willing to invest in English communication unless they
were able to establish their identities as ‘learners’ by discussing language grammar.
In meaning-based activities they were reluctant to share their ideas and opinions.

3.4.2. Personality
Personality is one’s whole character and nature. A number of personality characteristics
have been proposed as affecting second language learning. It is often argued that an
extroverted person who is assertive and adventurous is well suited to language learning.
However, quiet observant learners can also be successful.

Another aspect of personality is inhibition. Inhibited students are less risk-taking and this
may affect language learning, especially in the case of adolescents. In a study, Guiora
(1972) showed that participants who drank small amounts of alcohol did better on
pronunciation tests than those who did not drink any. Alcohol is known for its ability to
reduce inhibition.

Another aspect is anxiety, or feelings of worry, nervousness, and stress. Students are
assumed to be ‘anxious’ if they strongly agree with statements such as ‘I become
nervous when I have to speak in the second language classroom.’ Because nervous
students focus on both the task at hand plus their reactions to it and performance, they
usually learn less quickly than relaxed students. Teachers have to remember, however,
that there is the possibility that anxiety can be temporary and context-specific. It can

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also change with age. It has also been argued that not all anxiety is bad and that a
certain amount of tension can have a positive effect and facilitate learning. Experiencing
the right amount of anxiety before an exam or oral presentation can provide the right
combination of motivation and focus to succeed.

Anxiety can have an effect on a learner’s willingness to communicate. Learners who are
willing to communicate have communicative competence and this depends on how
relaxed learners they are and how competent they feel about their second language
ability. These factors are directly influenced by previous contacts with native speakers.

Research does not show a clearly-defined relationship between one

personality trait and second language acquisition. Personality variables seem
to be more consistently related to conversational skills than to the acquisition
of grammatical accuracy or academic language.

The most important personality model is the Big Five. This model proposes five basic
personality dimensions:

Openness
Conscientiousness

High scorers are imaginative, curious, flexible, creative, moved by art, novelty seeking,
original, and untraditional; low scorers are conservative, conventional, down-to-earth,
unartistic, and practical.

Extraversion-Introversion

High scorers are systematic, meticulous, efficient, organized, reliable, responsible, hard-
working, persevering, and self-disciplined; low scorers are unreliable, aimless, careless,
disorganized, late, lazy, negligent, and weak-willed.

Agreeableness

High scorers are sociable, gregarious, active, assertive, passionate, and talkative; low
scorers are passive, quiet, reserved, withdrawn, sober, aloof, and restrained.

Neuroticism-Emotional

High scorers are friendly, good-natured, likable, kind, forgiving, trusting, cooperative,
modest, and generous; low scorers are cold, cynical, rude, unpleasant, critical,
antagonistic, suspicious, vengeful, irritable, and uncooperative.

Stability

High scorers are worrying, anxious, insecure, depressed, self-conscious, moody,

emotional, and unstable; low scorers are calm, relaxed, unemotional, hardy,
comfortable, content, even tempered, and self-satisfied.

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Within the Big Five, the two dimensions that are intuitively most closely related to
learning are Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness. Especially,
conscientiousness has proved to be the most consistent and strongest predictor of
academic achievement (Kappe & van der Flier, 2012).

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Summary
This unit has described some of the main individual differences that influence second
language learning.

Three types of individual differences have been reviewed: Biological (age), Cognitive
(intelligence, language aptitude, learning styles) and Affective (motivation and
personality). These differences contribute to make language learning such a complex
phenomenon with different learners reaching different degrees of success.

Learners differ from each other, but all learners have strengths. In order to enable the
most learners possible to learn as much as they can, language teachers should be
flexible and able to individualize instruction as much as possible. Language teachers
can help learners use differences to their advantage in the process of second language
learning.

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Quiz
Show what you know
Identify the following statements as True or False:

1. The Critical Period Hypothesis predicts that young second language learners will
be more successful than adult second language learners.
2. Some individual differences such as intelligence can influence learning under
traditional, grammar-oriented teaching approaches more than under
communicative approaches..
3. Instrumentally motivated learners like learning about the second language
culture.
4. Anxiety is not always detrimental for performance.
5. The best way to teach kinaesthetic’ learners is by means of songs and audio-
materials.

See the answers below

1.The Critical Period Hypothesis predicts that young second language learners will be
more successful than adult second language learners. TRUE.

Young children who start learning a second language typically reach higher levels of
attainment in all language domains than adult learners.

2. Some individual differences such as intelligence can influence learning under

traditional, grammar-oriented teaching approaches more than under communicative
approaches. TRUE.

This is because grammar-oriented approaches rely on learners’ analytical abilities to

reflect on language.

3.Instrumentally motivated learners like learning about the second language culture.
FALSE.

Integratively motivated learners like learning about the culture, while instrumentally
motivated learners like learning the language for an instrumental purpose (e.g., job
promotion).

4.Anxiety is not always detrimental for performance. TRUE.

Some degree of anxiety can help peform better.

5.The best way to teach kinaesthetic’ learners is by means of songs and audio-
materials. FALSE.

Kinaesthetic learners need action and physical movement

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 50

4. Assessment and Evaluation

Aims of this unit

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Differentiate between various approaches to language assessment as well

as types of tests utilized in language courses

2. Choose and design appropriate tests that are targeted at assessing your
students’ language abilities and learning achievements

3. Provide students with accurate and useful feedback based on their

performance in activities, exams, and projects

4. Classify learners’ language production ability based on descriptors

established by the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)

4.1. Introduction
While a great deal of the energy and effort put into a teacher’s work manifests in the
form of the active teaching process inside the classroom, the foundation of this work lies
in prudent planning outside the classroom. The next two units will delve into the
teacher’s ‘behind-the-scenes’ work in the form of developing forms of classroom
assessment and lesson planning.

Much more than traditional test-taking, assessment can be broadly viewed as the
measurement of learners’ abilities to collect information on their proficiency level and
learning progress in order to make informed decisions on teaching and planning. Not
only does assessment give students vital feedback on their learning progress and
performance, but also it gives teachers an indication of how effective their teaching has
been, which in turn, leads them to make the necessary adjustments to become more
competent, well-rounded language instructors.

Assessment can be utilized for various ends such as determining students’ needs at the
start of a course, monitoring the development of students’ skills and diagnosing potential
learning issues throughout the duration of the course, and engaging students in their
own learning process. Just as teaching methodologies have vacilated throughout the
history of second language teaching, as we saw in unit 2, so have approaches to
second language assessment and evaluation. However, in this unit, we will focus on the
practical applications of language assessment that can be applied in the L2 classroom.

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4.2. Assessment and Testing
Language assessment can be defined as the methods and instruments used to measure
a student’s ability and learning achievement in order to make educational decisions from
the classroom level to the curriculum level, while a test is a singular form of assessment.

English exam on table with pencil © lamaip – Fotolia

4.2.1. Types of testing

Placement and diagnostic tests

Placement tests are used as a preliminary determination of a student’s appropriate level
within an educational program or institution, whereas diagnostic tests gauge a student’s
strengths and weaknesses in order to inform educators on how to develop the
curriculum to meet students’ needs. Large-scale, norm-referenced tests give students a
quantitative score based based on their performance in comparison to other test takers
typically in pursuit of acceptance to a higher education program of study.

Proficiency tests
Proficiency tests measure a students’ language abilities without regard to any particular
curriculum or program of study.

Progress and achievement-based tests

These tests measure whether or not students have attained student learning outcomes
and/or instructional aims and objectives within a particular course of study. They are
criterion-referenced tests in which students may pass, fail, or receive a grade indicating
their performance on a pass/fail spectrum.

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 Question for thought

Have you taken all of these types of tests? Recall the language tests
you’ve taken in the past and categorize them into one of these test types.

4.2.2. Traditional versus current approaches to

language testing
As theories of second language learning have evolved over the years, approaches to
assessment and testing have changed accordingly. While educators have traditionally
assessed students by indirectly measuring students’ underlying ability of a certain skill
(e.g. asking students to order pre-written sentences to form a coherent paragraph),
current approaches ask students to directly produce or perform those skills (e.g. write a
coherent paragraph that includes a main idea and supporting details).

Multiple choice exam paper with answers bubbled

in and a green pencil resting on the paper © nazif – Fotolia

Katz, in Celce-Murcia (2014, p.322, Figure 2), illustrates the differing traits between
traditional and current language testing approaches:

Traditional Testing Current Approaches to Testing

 Focus on language form

 Learner produces isolated bits of  Focus on communicative effect
language that can be scored as right  Integration of skill areas
or wrong  Includes process and product
 Oriented to product  Clear criteria to guide scoring
 Highly objective scoring  Open-ended answers
 Decontextualized test tasks focused  Attention to context
on the right answer

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 Question for thought

Clearly the current approaches to testing are those that are

promoted by most modern day pedagogists, but are there any educational
contexts in which traditional testing would be more appropriate? Identify
and explain.

4.3. Assessment and Learning

4.3.1. Summative versus Formative purposes for
assessment
 Summative assessments measure what students have learned as a result of
teaching over a period of time. (e.g. students are asked to write definitions
and give examples of key terms learned in lecture). Thus, they can be called
assessments of learning.
 Formative assessments are used to help students learn and improve their
language skills during the process of instruction (e.g. rubrics for a writing
assignment are shared with the students before writing so they can anticipate
how they will be evaluated, which consequently influences them to write
using certain techniques or with certain styles taught in class). Given that,
formative assessments can be called assessments for learning.

4.3.2. Types of language assessments

Selected-response format
Multiple-choice, true/false, matching, same/different, odd one out,
grammatical/ungrammatical.

Constructed-response format
Brief Constructed Response

Gap filling, short answer, cloze, label a diagram, sentence completion, error correction

Performance-Based Assessment

Essay, story/play/poem, portfolio, report,

Product-focused
video/audio recording, poster, project

Oral presentation, dramatic reading, role play,

Performance-focused
debate, interview, online chats

Process-focused Observation, reflection, journal, learning log

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 Mini-Task

Imagine that you want to verify and assess your students’ learning
and use of the present continuous tense (BE + ing). Choose 3 types of
language assessments (1 selected-response format, 1 brief constructed
response, 1 performance-based assessment) and write a few sample test
items/questions. Which format(s) do you think would most successfully
measure your students’ learning?

4.3.3. Feedback
Learners need to be corrected, or at least realize that they’ve made a mistake, in order
to fine-tune their performance while learning from errors throughout the natural
acquisition process. Many novice teachers tend to want to explicitly correct their
students every time a mistake is made. However, research on error correction feedback
suggests that this is not always the most effective way of addressing mistakes, and
further, this is frankly tiring for the teacher, perhaps embarrassing and demotivating for
the student, and impractical for the flow of class, especially in low to intermediate level
classes.

Feedback © geschmacksRaum – Fotolia

4.3.3.1. Oral feedback

In all of these techniques, the desired result is that students will realize they’ve made a
mistake and then reformulate and redeliver a correct response.

Repeating

Asking students to repeat what they’ve said often triggers the realization that they’ve made a mistake.

Student: “People is crazy”

Teacher: “Can you say that last sentence again?”

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 Echoing

When the teacher repeats exactly what a student has said, this recast often indicates that something in
the utterance is wrong. The teacher can highlight the error by emphasizing it with a doubtful intonation.
Student: “People is crazy.”

Teacher: “People is crazy?”

Direct notification

The teacher can simply tell the students that a mistake has been made, or more subtly, ask the class if
they agree with the given answer.

Teacher: “That’s not exactly right…”

or
Teacher: “Does anyone else have a different answer?”

Expression

Facial expressions or body gestures can be a quick and effective way to let students know something
wasn’t right.

Hinting

Using metalanguage, teachers can make a brief comment that leads the student to correct his/her own
mistake.

Student: “People is crazy.”

Teacher: “People is plural….

Reformulation

The teacher interrupts and utters the correct form, often in the form of a tag question in order to mitigate
a negative reaction from the student.

Student: “People is crazy.”

Teacher: “You mean, people are crazy, right?”
Student: “Right, people are crazy!”

Explicit correction and extra explanation

If students don’t respond to the previous techniques, the teacher may just have to pause and correct the
error directly while taking a minute or two to explain again the rules or process of formulating the correct
response.

Recording mistakes to be addressed at a later time

It can often be helpful not to correct mistakes in the moment. One technique is to record common errors
frequently made by students and then write them on the board for all the students to correct. This
technique provides anonymity for the person who made the mistake in order to avoid embarrassment,
but again, it gives students an opportunity to reflect and identify the mistake on their own.

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4.3.3.2. Written feedback

Learners’ Comments
Teachers often write global comments that indicate the students’ overall performance on
writing assignments. Praise and positive comments might best be written first followed
by constructive criticism, suggesting ways that the student could improve his/her work.

Correction codes/symbols
Instead of explicitly correcting mistakes on writing assignments, teachers and students
can use a shared code of symbols to revise writings. When an error is found, the
teacher marks it with a code to indicate the error type (e.g. # for number agreement,
TENSE for incorrect verb tense). Once students receive their marked paper, they can
correct their errors and turn them in again to confirm that they’ve understood and
rectified their mistakes.

Marks/Grades
 Be familiar with the educational institution’s grading system
 Develop measurable criteria for calculating grades
 Use grading rubrics, scoring guides or a systematized variety of written notes for
qualitative feedback to ensure a standard of quality

4.3.4. Portfolios and Self-Assessment

A portfolio can be defined as a collection of a variety of students’ work used to
showcase their abilities, progress, and achievements over the course of a term. A
portfolio also acts as a form of self-assessment as students can observe a tangible final
product of the effort they have put in, giving clear indications of progress as well as
boosting self-confidence.

Some materials appropriate for a language class portfolio are:

 Writings samples (including several drafts)

 Audio/video recordings of oral performances
 Tests
 Authentic assignments
 Projects
 Peer reviews
 Self-assessments

Self-assessment promotes learner autonomy, giving students a sense of

accomplishment as well as an idea of where they began a course and the progress that
they have made as they move on in their path of language learning. A few ways of
having students assess themselves are:

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  Involving students in the grading process. Teachers might ask students to
grade their own work first and then see how it compares with the teacher’s
mark. Discrepancies will most likely generate further critique form both sides
of the student’s work, which directly engages the student in his/her education
and creates an open teacher-student dialogue.
 Ask students to tick “Can do” statements from a chart that describes abilities
in the different skill areas of language learning at the end of a unit or term.
 Record of Achievement (ROA) - Students assess their own abilities,
indicating their strengths, weaknesses, progress, and where they see
themselves going from here on out. Teachers then collect and reply to the
students’ assessment and then add their own comments, providing a
complete critique.

Mini-Task

Find the ALTE “Can do” statement charts online, and assess your
own ability in one of your foreign languages.

4.3.5. Course and Instructor Feedback for the

Teacher
An often neglected technique for course improvement is students giving teachers
feedback at the end of the course. Teacher and course evaluation forms can be filled
out anonymously by students on the last day to give the teacher indications about what
did and did not work in terms of course content, methodology, assignments, evaluations,
classroom management, etc. This way, teachers can get authentic, truthful feedback
from the students themselves on how to improve the course for next time. Also, the
instructor can get perspective on what aspects of his/her teaching are well received by
students and what he/she might be able to improve on to become a more well-rounded
teacher.

Clipboard with green ticks checkmarks and pen. Checklist, complete tasks,
to-do list, survey, exam concepts - © Jane Kelly – Fotolia

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 58

Summary
The terms assessment and evaluation often conjure up in our mind images of pencil and
paper, fill-in-the-bubble or multiple choice, standardized tests. While these types of
asssessment do have their role in L2 instruction, effective language teachers have the
knowledge and ability to implement regular assessments in each and every class, via
the myriad of forms mentioned in this unit, as a way to provide concrete information on
the learning process for both students and teachers.

Instead of merely handing out a pre-written test at the end of learning units to then be
marked, quantified, and categorized, today’s language teachers put careful thought and
planning into developing assessments that align with student learning goals and the
educational institution’s instructional aims.

As the field advances, more emphasis is being placed on formative assessment so that
students and teachers can move forward in a cooperative effort to plan and monitor
learning aims and progress. This way, focus in placed on the abilities and skills that
students can perform while consistent and reliable feedback is provided in a multi-
layered delivery from teachers, peers, and students themselves.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 59

Quiz
Show what you know
Identify the following statements as True or False:

1. A test taken at the end of a unit which aims to measure student progress within a
particular course of study is an example of a placement test.
2. Summative assessments are assessments for learning that aid students in
anticipating how they are evaluated, and thus, become aware of how their
language skills have improved over the course of learning.
3. An assigment in which students are asked to write a screenplay and record a
short film to be viewed in class is considered a performance-based, product-
focused assessment.
4. A recast is a type of oral feedback in which the teacher echoes an utterance
made by a student in hopes that he/she notices and corrects an error that was
made.
5. Self-assessment and instructor feedback are two ways in which students can
reflect on what they have learned while providing valuable insight for both
themselves and the teacher on how to move forward and improve on their
course of language learning and teaching, respectively.

See the answers below.

1. A test taken at the end of a unit which aims to measure student progress within a
particular course of study is an example of a placement test. FALSE.

Placement tests assess level of knowledge of a language.

2. Summative assessments are assessments for learning that aid students in

anticipating how they are evaluated, and thus, become aware of how their language
skills have improved over the course of learning. FALSE.

Summative assessment evaluates student learning at the conclusion of a defined

instructional period so there is not time for the student to improve.

3. An assigment in which students are asked to write a screenplay and record a short
film to be viewed in class is considered a performance-based, product-focused
assessment. TRUE.

These are usually language projects carried out in teams.

4. A recast is a type of oral feedback in which the teacher echoes an utterance made by
a student in hopes that he/she notices and corrects an error that was made. TRUE.

Recasts are an implicit way of providing corrective feedback. They are not obtrusive and
allow communication to go on smoothly.

5. Self-assessment and instructor feedback are two ways in which students can reflect
on what they have learned while providing valuable insight for both themselves and the
teacher on how to move forward and improve on their course of language learning and
teaching, respectively. TRUE.

When used in combination, they are a powerful assessment tool.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 60

5. The lesson plan

Aims of this unit

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Understand why and to what extent a teacher should plan lessons based
on the multitude of factors that contribute to the students’ classroom
experience.

2. Effectively write and assess student learning outcomes at the course and
lesson level.

3. Write a detailed, formal lesson plan for a class you may potentially teach.

5.1. Introduction
Planning a lesson is the culmination of all of the factors of L2 learning and L2 instruction
that manifest according to the particular students and educational environment at hand
as the teacher prepares to lead a group of learners for the class period. At its core,
lesson planning is a thinking process. It involves considering second language
acquisition theory and how the teacher can apply principles founded in academic
research findings to an actual classroom. A teacher must decide what specific
techniques he/she will implement while keeping in mind the broader approach or method
from which they stem, which may be influenced by the language skills or topics being
addressed in the lesson as well as the audience, the educational context, and the
teacher’s personal philosophy of teaching.

Time to plan © ra2 studio – Fotolia

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Needless to say, lesson planning can be a complicated process that teachers’ real life
circumstances do not always provide the time to do properly. In these situations, some
teachers follow the notes provided in the teacher’s book while others write down a
vague checklist of language points or activities to progress through during the class
period. Scrivener (2005) even describes a "jungle path" lesson in which the teacher
enters the classroom without having prepared, and as a result must improvise from
moment to moment.

Obviously, none of these alternatives are ideal, and they are eventually bound to end in
disinterest, loss of attentiveness, or even unrest on behalf of the students, not to
mention an ineffective, worn down teacher. While a perfectly written and executed
lesson plan is rare, the thinking process that the teacher undergoes while planning is
worth the effort and will result in a satisfied group of learners who achieve the learning
goals set by themselves and their teacher.

5.2. What does planning do for the

instructor?

Time to plan © magele-picture - Fotolia

Decision making
While considering student needs and teaching objectives, lesson planning guides the
teacher towards the appropriate classroom application of:

 course content
 linguistic exposureand associated language skills
 timing and sequencing of instruction and activities
 selection and use of materials

Decision making - Road map

Planning a structured class gives the teacher a rough guide to check periodically,
especially if detours or shortcuts come up during the course of the lesson. Even for the
most spontaneous instructors, having this framework to fall back on gives confidence to
the teacher and direction for the students to follow.

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Log of activity/accomplishments
Logging what has been attempted and accomplished in the classroom throughout the
course acts as an important form of teacher self-assessment as well as for monitoring
course goals and educational standards. This log can also be useful when creating
assessment tools such as quizzes and exams.

Class management through planning

A well thought out lesson that takes students’ interests and learning needs into account
should keep students highly engaged and constantly ‘on the tip of their toes.’ Depending
on the personality dynamics of a particular group, teachers can plan lessons to either
“stir” or “settle” the class according to their typical behavior. For example, a group that is
largely hesitant to participate could be “stirred” or stimulated with an opening that
includes interactive speaking activities in which they must move around the room in
pairs or small groups. On the contrary, a loud and boisterous group might settle down
when presented with activities that require students to practice receptive language skills
to start the class such as reading, listening or writing.

5.3. Student needs

In order to determine how to approach small-scale planning (at the level of individual
lesson plans) to a large-scale blueprint of the entire course (in the form of a syllabus),
conducting a needs analysis is a means of assessing students’ language learning
needs.

Needs analysis © BillionPhotos.com - Fotolia

A thorough needs analysis will look at the tasks and activities learners will
use English for, the knowledge of how language and skills are used in the
target situations, the learners’ wants, their previous learning experiences, as
well as an identification of the learners’ current skills and language use.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 63

Conducting a needs analysis provides teachers and curriculum designers with the
following vital information for planning purposes:

 A demographic profile of students’ language and cultural backgrounds

 An idea of students’ proficiency level, including formal and communicative
knowledge of the target language
 To determine students’ prior, current, and future uses of the language
 To determine what language skills are necessary to enable students to
accomplish their goals inside and outside of the classroom
 To understand students’ attitudes and motivations for language learning

A needs analysis can include a written questionnaire eliciting the students’ own opinions
on this information as well as formal written and oral assessments to ascertain a more
accurate representation of students’ abilities. Considering this valuable information when
planning aids the teacher in deciding how to deliver the lessons in terms of situations for
language use, grammar topics, lexis, tasks and activities, etc. according to our own
particular students’ needs.

Question for thought

Consider this needs analysis questionnaire designed for a task-

based conversation course. Would this type of analysis be appropriate for
teenagers learning English in ESO (Escuela Secundaria Obligatoria)? How
might you modify the questionnaire in order to elicit these particular
students’ needs, and thus, be able to appropriately plan the course and
lessons?

5.4. Student learning outcomes versus

lesson aims/objectives
Lesson aims and objectives are often expressed in the form of a checklist from the
teacher’s point of view. They are the teacher’s to-do list in an effort to cover the
standards of the educational system in which he/she is working.

Consider the following objective checklist.

Lesson objectives, ESL intermediate class, October 12th 2018

 Review house chore vocabulary

 Teach present continuous tense (be + verb + ING, e.g. I am

sweeping the floor.)

 Mingle around the room and have short conversations on at-home

and family life

 Introduce weather vocabulary

 Watch video of local weather report

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 64

 Divide students into small groups to write a weather report for their home
country

As we can see, the above statements are a mix of the teacher’s pedagogic goals and
steps for implementing activities during the lesson. While these statements are helpful
for the teacher to imagine how he/she will execute the lesson, they do not consider the
students’ perspective nor do they provide opportunities for assessment of what the
students should be able to do by the end of the lesson.

Student learning outcomes can be thought of as user-friendly statements

that describe what students will be able to do at the end of a period of time,
most often being at the end of the lesson, term, or course.

These outcomes should be able to be observed, measured, and assessed by the

teacher by the end of the period. While objectives/aims are typically considered from a
teacher-centered perspective, developing student learning outcomes places the
emphasis on what the student will be able to do, making for a student-centered
approach.

Sometimes these outcomes are set by the educational institution, although they often
are phrased in the form of objectives/aims or standards. With this in mind, the
responsibility of writing effective, observable, measurable student learning outcomes
that can be assessed often falls on the shoulder of the teacher. Compare the following
student learning outcomes to the aims/objectives just mentioned.

At the end of the lesson, students will be able to use the present
continuous tense to:

 Talk about common chores and duties done at home.

 Discuss domestic-related topics and life events such as falling in

love, marriage, having a baby, growing up, parenting, divorce, and
growing old.

 Describe and report the weather

Achievement of learning outcomes will be assessed by:

 A short, written oral, information gap quiz in which students must

match a domestic scenario to its appropriate house chore.

 Individual and whole class oral elicitation of classmates’ favorite

responses to questions in domestic-related topic discussion.

 A written (and optional recorded oral) report of current weather

conditions in various world cities.

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By comparing these two seemingly subtle differences in approaching lesson planning,
we can see how the system of student learning outcomes not only makes for a more
student-centered class, but also it creates a practical framework for teachers to set
appropriate goals, assessable for their students. To sum up...

... student learning outcomes should:

 state in clear terms what it is that students should be able to do at

the end of the course [or lesson] that they couldn’t do at the
beginning

 focus on student products, artifacts, or performances, rather than

on instructional techniques or course content.

 are student-centered rather than instructor-centered.

 explicitly communicate course expectations to your students.

Mini-Task

Visit Indiana University’s Center for Innovative Teaching and

Learning’s webpage on developing learning outcomes:

Use this resource to help you write student learning outcomes for your
lesson plan on Assignment 3 of this module.

5.5. Formal Planning

Lesson planning is not just a pre-class procedure, but rather, it should be looked at as a
three-stage holistic process in order for the teacher to develop an efficient system that
consistently adapts to students’ needs and interests, their successful or unsuccessful
achievement of learning outcomes, available materials, and requirements of the
educational context.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 66

 Decision-making before, during, and after class © contrastwerkstatt – Fotolia

5.5.1. Before class

Identify where the class is in terms of the global
course curriculum and familiarize oneself with the
potential materials for the particular lesson
(textbook chapter(s), activities, tasks, worksheets,
Step 1 web resources, multimedia video/audio, authentic
print materials, realia, etc.). Some materials may
be provided by the educational institution while
others must be searched for and tracked down by
the instructor.

Determine student learning outcomes and lesson

Step 2
aims, and determine how they will be assessed.

Contextualize the lesson according to how it can

be linked to previous and future lessons. Pay
special attention to how the content of the lesson
Step 3
relates to students’ lives outside of the classroom.
How will students apply the knowledge and skills
learned in class to ‘real life’ situations?

Match these components to the timing of the class

period. It may be helpful to use a lesson plan template
in order to consider all possible factors (for an example,
see Assignment 3 of this module). The following are
aspects you might consider while planning the delivery
of the lesson:
 Duration of each activity
 Supplementary activities if there is extra time
 Activities that could be shortened, omitted, or
continued in the next lesson if time expires
 Sequencing of activities - opening and closing,
Step 4 pacing of each activity and transition from one
activity to the next
 Details of activities - What will the teacher and
students do for each activity? Consider
teacher and student talk time,
individual/pair/group work, classroom
arrangement, use of materials, teacher giving
clear instructions, evaluation student
performance - Do students having a tangible
task to complete? How will students prove
they’ve learned to accomplish the intended
aim of the activity?

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 Mini-Task

Consider Figures 1, 2, and 3 on pages 366-367 in Celce-Murcia (2014),

which illustrate ways of opening a lesson, closing a lesson, and providing
variety, respectively. Use at least one techniques from each figure when
writing your lesson plan for Assignment 3 of this module.

5.5.2. During class

Lessons inevitably do not go 100% to plan. That is, situations arise in the spontaneity of
the classroom experience that alter the teacher’s vision of how the lesson should be
executed.

Examples of events that cause derivations from the plan include:

 Students did not do their homework.

 The level of a task or assignment is not appropriate (too basic or too
advanced) for the learners
 Students recently covered the material in another class.
 Discussion topics don’t appeal to students or activities end up creating
silence rather than bubbly conversation.
 Activity timing is not as anticipated. Students either finish an activity too
early, leaving dead space to fill, or they take longer than expected, leading to
an abrupt stoppage, and consequently, an incomplete task.
 Classroom technology (e.g. computers, projector, whiteboard, internet, etc.)
breaks down.

In response to these seemingly unpredictable mishaps, teachers must be prepared to

have alternative activities to substitute those gone wrong from the original plan. With
that in mind, real life time constraints sometimes prevent us from having a Plan B, and
so, experienced teachers develop over time a ‘bag of tricks’ or impromptu activities that
he/she can implement when there is downtime to fill.

Occasionally, a special moment may occur in class in which a sensitive teacher notices
that students either are especially engaged in the material or they become completely
lost. In both cases, the teacher may decide to take a moment to stop the class and
reflect on the issue at hand. In the case that students are noticeably interested, the
teacher might exploit this magic moment in which the entire class is engaged and
extend the activity. On the other hand, if students seem distraught when it comes to
carrying out activities or tasks, it may be a good opportunity to pause for a moment and
bring the class together to regroup and directly address students’ questions and doubts.

It is important to note that any modifications such as postponing, omitting,

shortening or extending of activities should be noted on the lesson plan as
a record for after class decision making so that next time the lesson is taught,
the instructor can anticipate potential deviations from the plan or modify it
accordingly.

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5.5.3. After class
The final part of the process is to review the lesson to assess the efficacy of your plan
and learn from students’ reactions to the lesson.

Some questions the teacher may consider are:

 How did the students react to each part of the lesson? Were they engaged or
unenthused?
 Were there any students who found the activities too easy or were any left
behind because they were too challenged?
 How did the pace of the lesson suit the students’ attention span and ability to
achieve student outcomes?
 What did students learn to do that they were unable to do before class?
 Did the students engage in meaningful communication in the target
language?

Reviewing how the lesson went not only helps teachers identify how their
students are learning and progressing, but it also acts as a form of self-
assessment as a teacher.

© Antonioguillem - Fotolia

A teacher who follows up on his/her performance will learn from classroom events,
which will only work towards shaping a more experienced and knowledgeable instructor
who is ready to deal with spur of the moment changes in the classroom at a moment’s
notice.

Finally, apart from the teacher fine-tuning his/her own personal teaching, the educational
program will also benefit as curriculum planning will take into account the successes and
failures of past lessons.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 69

Summary
Lesson planning involves our overall understanding of second language learning and
teaching and takes into account many factors, especially the student body and the
educational institution’s learning goals.

By planning, teachers ensure that they are achieving curricular goals, making sound
decisions based on grounded principles of learning and teaching, creating opportunity
for post-class reflection and assessment, and perhaps most importantly for the novice
teacher, that they are entering the classroom with the confidence necessary to
successfully transmit the knowledge and skills that their students are seeking to attain.

As teachers become more experienced, they will inevitably adapt their lesson planning
style to their personal teaching philosophy along with the aforementioned factors, but as
long as they are engaging in the thinking process of planning before each lesson, they
are on track to successfuly facilitating the connection between objectives, student
learning outcomes and activities and tasks in the classroom.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 70

Quiz
Show what you know
Identify the following statements as True or False:

1. A well thought out lesson not only prepares the teacher to execute a coherent
plan of instruction, but also it acts as a classroom management tool that keeps
students engaged while minimizing behavior issues.
2. A needs analysis is a tool used by teachers and administrators to aid in the
development of the curriculum and/or course, taking into account factors such as
students’ language proficiency, educational and cultural demographics, and
motivations for learning the language.
3. Student learning outcomes are a list of objectives, tasks, and activities that
teachers wish to implement within a class period.
4. Lesson planning is a process that includes organization and reflection on behalf
of the teacher before, during, and even after the class is finished.
5. Students’ first language and cultural background as well as level of proficiency in
the target language are dispensable factors of language learning and do not
need to be considered when planning a lesson.

See the answers below.

1. A well thought out lesson not only prepares the teacher to execute a coherent plan of
instruction, but also it acts as a classroom management tool that keeps students
engaged while minimizing behavior issues. TRUE.

Lesson plans are key in language teaching.

2. A needs analysis is a tool used by teachers and administrators to aid in the

development of the curriculum and/or course, taking into account factors such as
students’ language proficiency, educational and cultural demographics, and motivations
for learning the language. TRUE.

All teachers pay attention to their learners’ needs but they usually do it informally. A
needs analysis can also be done formally, for example via a survey administered to all
the students.

3. Student learning outcomes are a list of objectives, tasks, and activities that teachers
wish to implement within a class period. FALSE.

Student learning outcomes are the goals the students expect to achieve by taking a
course.

4. Lesson planning is a process that includes organization and reflection on behalf of the
teacher before, during, and even after the class is finished. TRUE.

It is a crucial component of language teaching that can be used and improved course
after course.

5. Students’ first language and cultural background as well as level of proficiency in the
target language are dispensable factors of language learning and do not need to be
considered when planning a lesson. FALSE.

These are all individual differences that will have an impact on the design of the lesson.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) PID_00249293 page 71

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