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729 views71 pagesDick Smiths Fun Way Into Electronics Volume 1 (Dick Smith)
Uploaded by
Dimitrios XenitellisCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 71
°° ‘DICK 0600000008
ICK SMITH’S °
FUN WAY INTO =
ECTRONICS °
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‘in oe
about — the fit DICK SMITH’S
FUN WAY INTO
ELECTRONICS
Edited by Sam Voron & Ross Tester
Illustrated by Mike Middleton contents
Introduction .. tees
Getting started — and what you'll need.
What the components look like .
How to read component codes
Making a sucess of your projects.
Full list of the components we use
The projects:
4:A continuity indicator
2:A transistor tester.
3:A water indicator
4:A light/dark indicator
5:The flasher
6:An electronic siren.
7:A dog and cat commu
8:A decision maker ...
9:Morse code communicator
10:Music maker .
11:A sound effects generator. 36
12:A crystal set.. 38
13:A one transistor amplifier -40
14:A beer powered radi 242
15:A two transistor amplifier 46
16:The world’s simplest transmitter 48
17:A more powerful transmitter
18:A CB radio re
19:An amateur radio receiver
20:A radio booster amplifier.
About radio transmission and reception .
The technical terms we use in this book.
Cut-out project board overlays:
Projects 1, 2, 3, & 4
Projects 5, 6, 7, & 8.
Projects 9, 10, 11, & 12.
Projects 13, 14, 15, & 16.
Projects 17, 18, 19, & 20. Welcome to the wonderful world of electronics
Let me introduce you to my fun way into electronics.
When | was eight years old, | became interested in radio. | still remember the night | built
my first crystal set. Imagine the joy | experienced when it actually worked!
That night was the beginning of my career.
Not long afterwards, | started learning about radio and electronics, building projects as |
went. The method I used was simple: take a piece of wood, and lay the components out in
exactly the same pattern as the circuit, It might not have been the most technically correct
method, but it sure taught me a lot about electronics and the way components work in
circuits!
When | left school, | started my own electronics business. Now, along with many other
electronics enthusiasts who started in similar ways to myself, we have a multi-million dollar,
fully Australian owned electronics company.
| would not be in electronics if | did not love it as a hobby and have faith in its future. |
hope my book will help you become part of this future.
You will find that it uses exactly the same approach in constructing projects as | did many
years ago - simple breadboard wiring that is the same as the circuit diagram ~ with no
soldering required!
If you are wanting to learn about electronics as a hobby, or have electronics in mind as a
career, you'll find no better way of learning. ! am sure you will find this book gives you the
fun and enthusiasm that electronics gave me when I began, and still gives me today.
Have fun! Getting started...
This book is designed for the person who does not
know a thing about electronics but would like to learn.
Whether you are six or sixty, you will appreciate the
simple and easy construction methods and
descriptions. In no time at all you will be having fun
constructing entertaining and educational projects.
All ofthe projects in this book actually do something:
they work. While some of them, or their uses, might
appear trivial to some, what you have to remember is
that each project can be regarded as a ‘building block’.
All electronic circuits are really a number of these
‘building blocks’ strung together. For example later in
the book is a project called ‘A decision maker. You
might wonder what on earth a circuit like this could be
used for.
It may come as a surprise to learn that today’s
incredibly complex electronic computers contain
thousands of circuits developed from this one!
Of course, computers use very involved construction
techniques — but that is getting a little ahead of
ourselves.
In order to make construction extremely easy without
soldering (making it safe for even the youngest person)
we use a method called ‘bread-boarding’.
This involves some scaps of patticle board (or other
suitable board) 10cmx 12cm or slightly larger, and
some self-tapping screws and washers.
‘The electronic components and wire links which
actually make up the circuit are connected between
these screws according to a plan printed in the back of
this book. This plan shows the arrangement of
components we have found to be most satisfactory,
arranged according to a ‘grid’ of 1cm squares. Also
marked on the plan is the position of each of the
screws which hold the components in position.
‘The idea js to remove the overlay from the back of the
book and glue it onto your particle board. (While we
recommend particle board because of its availability
and cheapness, any material can be used as a
baseboard as long as it will not conduct electricity and
is fairly easy to screw into. Note you cannot use any
metallic material as the baseboard).
Once the plan is glued onto the baseboard, you can,
insert the screws in the positions shown and connect,
the components and wire links as shown by the plan
underneath.
The result: an instant electronic circuit!
To summarize, then, You will need:
‘A 10cm x 12cm baseboard (we used 12mm particle
board, but other board would be suitable)
Up to 28 self-tapping screws and washers to suit
(No. 4, 12mm long self-tappers and 4BA washers are
fine).
Hookup wire and tinned copper wire
‘Components as per individual parts lists, or see the full
components listing on page 13
Plus the following tools:
A small screwdriver and a pair of cutters or
combination cutter/pliers.
A pair of scissors to cut out the project overlays.
A sharp knife or single edged blade to scrape insulation
from some of the wire.
And finally, you must want to enjoy yourself
If you're unsure about the technical terms we use in
is book, you'll find them listed in a glossary on
pages 61 and 62.
This is a typical example of one of the projects in
this book. As you can see, all the component
values and positions have been shown on the
‘project overlay’ which is glued to the baseboard
before the circuit is assembled.
Screws and washers hold all of the
components and links, etc, in
position,
page 5 Components you will use in these projects...
COMPONENT WHAT IT DOES. WHAT IT CIRCUIT
LOOKS LIKE SYMBOL
BATTERY (and battery clip): Contains special chemicals which react
Type 216-9 volt transistor together to create a pushing force or
radio battery. voltage, which causes current to flow.
(Dick Smith Cat. No. $-3001)
Battery clip Cat. No. P6216) po,Prevent
\correct connection to the
battery we use a special clip which fits
‘one way only: the red lead is positive,
and the black lead negative.
‘Components which must be connected oJ
into circuit the correct way around are
said to be polarised.
CAPACITORS:
Capacitors store electric charges. The higher the capacity, the more electric charge the capacitor can store. Capacitanceis
measured in microfarads (uf) and picotarads (pF).
Capacitors are marked with both their capacitance value and a voltage rating. If this voltage rating is exceeded, the
capacitor can be seriously damaged. However, it is almost always permissible to use a capacitor with a higher voltage
rating than the one called for. For example if a circuit specified a 1uF 10 volt capacitor, you could use a 1uF 15 volt, 50 volt
gr even 1000 volt (if you could find one!) without any problems. You could not, however, use a TUF 9 volt or anything
lower.
POLYESTER: Often called ‘greencaps’ because they
are usually green, these capacitors are
used mainly in audio circuits. They
range in value from a few microfarads
to around.001uF. They are not polarised.
Nei = =m)
es
DISC CERAMIC: These look like small discs ~ hence the
name. They range in value from 0.47uF or
so down to 1pF. You can often use a disc
ceramic when a polyesters called for, but
the reverse is not always the case. They
are not polarised.
ELECTROLYTICS: Electrolytics are polarised - they are (+ ene)
normally clearly marked so you can't
mix the connections up. They range in
value from around 0.5uF up to hundreds
of thousands of microfarads.
(end)
VARIABLE: As its name suggests, the capacitance
of this type can be varied by turning a
shaft. Ithas a capacitance range of from
60 to 160pF (other variable capacitors
may have different ranges).
We use only two of the three terminals
on the variable capacitor. These may
be labelled ‘A’ or ‘G'; ignore the third
terminal. It is used only for support in
our circuits; however it can be when all
three terminals are used that the variable
capacitor is polarised. Always connect
it. as shown.
® CRYSTAL EARPHONE:
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE:
DIODES:
The earphone converts tiny electric
currents into sound waves. This ear-
phone has a very high resistance. Normal
hifi headphones, which have a very
low impedance, will not work in these
circuits. The earphone is not polarised.
The earphone can be used ‘back-to-
front’ that is, converting sound waves
into electric currents. In this way, it is
being used as a microphone. Simply
speak into the part you would normally
place in your ear. Once again, itis not
polarised.
?
°
There are a number of different types of diode. We use three of these types. They have differences, of course, but they
have one basic feature in common: they let current flowin one direction only. Diodes are, therefore, polarised. You must
place them correctly in circuits, otherwise they may not work and could be damaged.
POWER DIODES:
Type IN4007 or similar
(Dick Smith Cat. No. Z-3202)
SIGNAL DIODES:
Type QA91 or similar
(Dick Smith Cat. No. Z-3040)
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:
2
(Dick Smith Cat.No. 2-4010)
FERRITE ROD AERIAL:
‘Small transistor radio type,
two coils.
(Dick Smith Cat. No. L-0520)
In this book we use power diodes for
‘one reason only: to protect the circuits
against inadvertent reversal of the bat-
tery. These diodes are unlikely to be
effected by reverse polarity: they simply
will not work!
Signal diodes are used in our circuits to
detect radio frequency currents. In
these circuits, once again they probably
wouldn’t be upset by wrong polarity:
indeed they would probably still work!
(We know this contradicts what we said
before about diodes having to be conn-
ected the correct way around!)
Called LEDs for short, these do get
upset with reverse polarity. When cor
ectly connected, they glow brightly.
Their polarity is shown in two ways: they
normally have a longer lead .for the
anode, and the cathode is often marked
bya slight flattening on the body of the
LED adjacent to it
The ferrite rod aerial concentrates radio
waves, in some cases eliminating the
need for a separate aerial.
Normally with two coils, typically they
are coloured red and pink, However, this,
need not always be the case. The wire in
these is very fine: care must be taken to
avoid breaking it
r
band
wv ¢
t 6
3
eats)
page 7+ HOOK - UP WIRE:
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (10):
Type ZN-414
(Bck‘Smith Cat. No. 2-6520)
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor
LED (Light E
itting Diode):
LOUDSPEAKER:
8 ohm type, 60mm diameter,
(Dick Smith Cat. No. C-2222)
LOUDSPEAKER AS
A MICROPHONE:
We use two different types of hook-up
wire, For ordinary links,we use tinned
copper wire (which can usually be saved
from the excess component leads you
will cut off); and insulated hook-up wire.
You need to remove about 5mm of
insulation from each end of the wire
before you can use it- this is an art that
will come with practice
Where wires connect to each other, we
mark the circuit with a dot. Here you use
ordinary tinned copper wire.
Where two wires cross but do not
connect, insulated hook-up wire must
be used for at least one of them. We
show this with a loop in the circuit
diagrams.
The integrated circuit we use contains
almostall the circuitry fora radio receiver.
Hundreds of components are packed
into the tiny package!
The IC is polarised - the accompanying
diagram shows how it must be
connected into the circuit. Take care
that you do not short out the leads to
each other or to the metal case.
See ‘resistors’
See
iodes’
Like the earphone the loudspeaker
changes current into sound waves.
Contrary to popular belief, a larger
speaker will give more volume than a
small speaker from the same source. If
you can afford a larger speaker the
results will be well worth the extra
expense.
The leads can be connected either way
in our projects.
You can use a loudspeaker as a
microphone by connecting an audio
transformer to it. The 8 ohm side of the
transformer (the two lead side)
connects to the speaker terminals,
while the outer two leads on the three
lead side are used to go to the input of
the amplifier, transmitter, ete.
wires joined
>
wires not joined
(use insulated wire
for atleast one)
/
pin 2 c naa
in 3
Etectve
equivalent
symbol MORSE KEY: ‘A Morse ‘key’ is simply a switch which
Economy model controls the current flowing to the
(Dick Smith Cat. No. D-7105) circuit. When: the key a pressed,
current flows ~ and the tone sounds.
The key can be adjusted to givea'pitch’
(the distance between the contacts)
and a ‘tension’ (the force needed to
press the key) that suits the operator
best.
The key is not polarised.
The key canbe used as an on/off switch
in any of the projects simply by inserting
itin series with the battery, in either the
negative or the positive side.
MICROPHONE: See either ‘crystal_microphone’ or
‘loudspeaker as a microphone’
POTENTIOMETER: See ‘resistors’
RESISTORS:
Are neither insulators nor conductors: they are somewhere in between, allowing some current to flow. The lower the
resistance, the more current can flow. Resistance is measured in ohms. Resistors are used to limit current to values which
can be used by the various components; too much current and the components may be damaged.
Resistors also have a ‘power rating: they must not be called upon to pass too much current or this power rating is
exceeded and the resistor may be damaged or destroyed. Our projects use % or % watt resistors, about the lowest rating
commonly available. However, like capacitor voltage ratings, it is in order to use higher rated components.
FIXED VALUE RESISTOR: Fixed value resistors are marked with a
Various values, “4 or ¥ watt. colour code.
Refer to the colour code on page 11 so
you will be able to identify each resistor
used in these projects. Resistors are not
polarised.
VARIABLE RESISTORS: Apotentiometeris merelya fixed value
or ‘potentiometers’ resistor with special sliding arm which
500k, linear or logarithmic. allows you to select as much of the
resistance value as you want by turning,
a control shaft. Potentiometers, there-
fore, have three terminals: one each
connected to the ends of the ‘resistor’
element itself, and one connected to
the sliding section.
Sometimes an extra pair of terminals is
provided on the rear of the case thisis
an on/off switch, also actuated by the
shaft.
Potentiometers are sometimes polarised:
check the circuit for connection details.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS: Obviously, this resistor is effected by
(Type ORP12 or similar, light, In its ‘dark state’ its resistance is
Dick Smith Cat. No. Z-4800) _very high ~ millions of ohms. in bright
light, this falls to just a few hundred
7 ohms. The resistance changes as the
Alternatively: Type DSE12 double light level changes; therefore
LDR (Dick ‘Cat No. 2-4802). fightlevel char
t No, Z-4802). ing’ light levels. It
Has three leads, use two outer leads (2) nou
and ignore the centre one.
handy
not
page 9= SPAGHETTI INSULATIO! Called ‘spaghetti’ because it is hollow
(Pack of various sizes: like spaghetti, this is an insulator which
Dick Smith Cat. No. W-4040) we use to slip over hook-up wire to give
the wire more rigidity when used as
‘probes’. Spaghetti insulation can also
be used over tinned copper wire to
insulate it if plastic covered wire is not
available,
TRANSFORMER: The transformer transfers signal from
(Audio matching type: one section of the circuit to another,
8 ohms to 1k centre tapped. while keeping the sections isolated from
Dick Smith Cat. No. M-0216) each other.
The transformer is polarised; working
outthe connections is easy because the
“8 ohm’ side has two leads, while the
‘1k’ side has three leads. We ignore the
centre lead on the three lead side.
‘TRANSISTORS:
Transistors come ina huge variety of types, shapes and sizes. We use only two of these (Iuckily!); unfortunately they
appear identical to each other so care must be taken!
Transistors are the modem day equivalent of the ‘valve’ or ‘tube’. Because they do not need to heat themselves up to
operate, they are more efficient.
‘There are three leads on a transistor; each one must be connected correctly for the transistor to operate. The three
leads are called the base, abbreviated on circuits as’B’, the collector, abbreviated to’C’ and the emitter, abbreviated
to‘. On some, but very few, transistors, there is a fourth lead, the shield (S), which is an electrostatic shield
internally connected to minimise noise. If you come across a transistor with a shield lead, simply leave it
disconnected unless the circuit specifically calls for its connection.
Transistors can act as very fast switches — by feeding in a certain amount of current to the base lead of the transistor,
another (larger) current is made to flow into the collector (and out of the emitter). If we follow certain rules
governing the operation of the transistor, we can feed in a varying current to the base, and obtain an enlarged replica
of this current flowing through the collector. Thus the transistor is am
‘Our projects cover both types of operation: we use the transistor first as a switch, then later as an amplifier. As we
mentioned, we use only two types of transistor, each having very similar characteristics but coming from two
different ‘families’ of transistor — NPN and PNP:
'NPN! TRANSISTOR: These must be connected the correct
S548 or similar way around, Each lead is marked on the
(Dick Smith Cat. No, 21308) Ye of transistor specified, Ifyou usea
ifferent transistor be carefull This tran-
sistor appears almost identical with the
other type specified - so be careful!
“PNP” TRANSISTOR: Same comments apply as the NPN type!
S558 or similar You can intantly recognise the type of
(Dick Smith Cat. No. Z-1348) _ transistor (NPN or PNP) by the fact that
the arrow on the emitter lead points
‘outwards onan NPN, inwards ona PNP.
The transistor may be drawn upside
down, back to front, any which way on
the circuit - but the arrows will still
point out for an NPN, in for PNP.
P<
r < Component marking codes
Resistor:
Resistors are often 50 small itis impractical to ty to print each one with its value. So
What they mean:
J Band one ~ 1st figure of value
Band two ~ 2nd figure of value
eae oT ae s /— Band three — number of zeros/multiplier
BROWN. Jae Ver, 4 Band Four— Tolerance (+ %) See below
RED 2 GREY 8 5
ORANGE 3. WHITE 2
YELLOW 4 Gol 20.1 Telarance bn cls Ra 2%: ot Str 1: Ne band 20%
GREEN 5 SILVER —x0.01
[Note how the bands are closer to one end
of the resistor than the other.
How to read them: nal a
msi rarivencmcie we 7 IN
etocy Tien csrcatenam' citar’) sao eames So au ra Se
Soar esout vaseroree beseruae
Pemevenats mache atid a cease a
po eens sores one ot eee oe a
Poa ph Coa crease Daoe weer S
Magutercesatan tee yar pee
ator 20000 sor Z2M, 20% tr 000s ot
Capacitors:
1st figure of value
2nd figure of value
number of zeros/multiplier
tolerance (£%) See below
‘Most capacitor will ove ther value printed on them, However, there are 2
fhumber of capacitor manufacturers who EC’ coda. The cose ie
‘numerical code, but works ina similar way tothe resistor colo code: two
fue otowed bya mulier. There en a single eter code showing
The codes marke out petared 2 ou mehave owe he appropiate “olarance code: M = 20%; K= 10%: J = 8%: C= +0.289F
A copacior may havea code 104K’. This decodes as follows 0.14, 10%,
‘The frst twa igures give ut 10, the third gure gies vs 000, and ths letter
10%. Therefore the capacitors 1]000009F. 10X. We nocmally express this a
TGF" oniyeapscrore with value below ODT UF are expressed in piotarade,
Maximum working voltage
“Thare may be further figure marked this would be the voltage rating ofthe
Some circuits show capacitor and resistor values 3s stright
aiple to sv 9 of gre ata ™ 100000010"
era een 1000 io units =1nanounit_ 1000 nanovnits = 1 miro unit
We fav ied oly mc Farts (uF and pe Fad (of in this book 1000 maroumts = mil uit 1000 mil nto? unt
rear se pabators use be atrevaton neo Fad In oyu should 1800 unin = lun 1009 Ke unt mopar
ge ite How to make your projects a success
If you've never built an electronic project before, there are a few things you should know in order to make
your projects a success. Follow these tips and they'll work ~ first time!
a
coMpoNeNTs
Q)
8)
(a)
6)
(6)
a)
‘As we mentioned previously, all components in
these projects are held in position by self-tapping
screws and washers. The accompanying diagram
shows how this is done. Components and
connecting wires should be securely fastened
underneath the washer, but do not over-tighten as
you may strip the hole in the base-board,
COMPONENT LEADS WRAPPED AROUND
SCREW, UNDERNEATH WASHER
wy
PROJECT OVERLAY GLUED
10 BASEBOARD
BASEBOARD
The reason you have to have the holes in the
correct position is that any inaccuracy could result
in two washers touching each other and ‘short
circuiting’. Some of the holes, especially those
‘1cm apart, do not allow any margin for error.
It is best to wind the component leads around the
screws in a clockwise direction, wherever
possible, as this will prevent the leads from being
forced out as you tighten the screw. A bit of
juggling may be required where a number of
component leads & links join under one screw.
Make sure the component leads are not pulled too
tight as the screw is tightened, as some
components may snap apart under tension. It is
always best to leave a small amount of ‘slack’ in
the lead, Also ensure that you do not have any of
the component itself under the washer, as the
components are easily damaged.
Be careful when you put the screws into the
baseboard. It helps if you first drill a small ‘pilot
hole’ to ensure the screws go in where you want
them to. For the No. 4 self-tapping screws we
recommend, the drill should be approximately
2.5mm (or 3/32” or No. 41).
If a drill is not available, an alternative method is
to start the hole with a hammer and a nail.
Don't bend the component leads too much, as
they may suffer metal fatigue and break off. Also,
don’t bend the leads too close to the component
itself - especially transistor leads.
If you cut off some of a component's leads to
make it fit better, you may cut off the way the
component's polarity is marked. This is especially
true of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) ~ the
negative (cathode or ’k’) lead is normally shorter
than the anode lead. If you do cut the leads of a
LED, remember which one was which!
(8)
(9)
(10)
a)
Itis always better to mount solid state
components (transistors, diodes, LEDs, integrated
Circuits, etc) last. Start construction with the wire
links, followed by resistors, capacitors, etc, and
last of all the solid state components. Always
check polarities of components as you mount,
them.
If you run out of wire for your wire links, always
remember that you can use the ends of
‘component leads as links. So if you cut, or ‘crop’
any component leads, keep the ‘croppings’ as
links for later use.
If you want to run a short insulated link over part
of one of your boards and have no insulated wire,
you can use ordinary tinned copper wire (such as
from a resistor cropping) and insulate it with
a plastic drinking straw ~ or anything similar that
will not conduct electricity. You can even use the
thicker type of plastic straws instead of the
spaghetti insulation we use to give our probes
ity.
Collect all the components in a dish, plate, etc,
before you start a project. You might find that a
block of styrene foam (similar to that used in
floats, etc) is a handy aid. Component leads can
be pushed into it to hold them ready for later use.
Regardless of what you might imagine about
electronic circuits, you don't always need the
component called for to get the circuit to work! For
example, if a circuit specifies a 1.2k resistor, and all
you have is a 1k or a 1.5k, try it~ it will probably
‘work! The reason for this is most circuits are
designed with a certain tolerance in mind -the
‘component doesn't always have to be ‘spot on’ in
value for it to work quite happily!
Even such things as transistors may often be
replaced with a similar type. So if you have a
different transistor to that specified in the circuits
in this book, try it: as long as it is of the same
‘family, (that is, NPN or PNP) it could well work.
O62, (12) Most electronics hobbyists have what is called a
“junk box’ in which goes not junk, but spare
components. So when a circuit comes along the
hobbyist can go through his junk box and find
‘components which might be close enough in
value to work.
(13) Connection of the wires to your loudspeaker
should be done carefully to avoid problems.
Remove about 4cm of insulation from the wire,
and twist the strands together in your fingers so
they form one solid conductor. Loop this through
the hole in the speaker terminal, and tie as secure
a knot as you can. Any remaining wire can be
twisted around the terminal. Repeat for the other
speaker terminal
Before you connect your battery check, and then
double check all your components and wiring, If
your project does not work, the chances are yo
have an incorrect component or connection. It is
fairly difficult to damage components in these
Circuits, so there is probably an error.
‘OFF ‘on’
(15)) A simple form of on/off switch can be made by
using the battery clip. Simply clip one side only (it
doesn’t matter which) of the battery into the
battery clip and twist the battery so that it
touches the other clip to turn ‘on’ or does not
touch it to turn ‘off. (See diagram).
We're ready to go!
Overleat, you'll find the first of our twenty easy-to-build
projects. Before you start construction, though, you may
care to assemble a complete kit of parts: so you'll be able
to make any project in the book whenever you like!
We have divided the projects into two groups: one to ten,
and eleven to twenty. The first group has relatively simple
and inexpensive components, while the latter group has
slightly more specialised components.
Even so, we imagine that no project in this book should
cost more than about $10.00 to build - and most will cost
alot less!
PROJECTS ONE THROUGH TEN:
Resistors: 1 x 47 ohm; 1 x 68 ohm; 2.x 100 ohm; 1 x 390
X1.5k:4 x2.2k; 2x 3.3k;1X3.9k; 1 x4,7k;
2x 10k; 2x 33k; 1x 47k; 2 x 100k
Light dependent resistor: 1 x ORP12
Capacitors: 2 x.01uF greencap; 2 x 0.1uF greencap; 1 x
0UF 16 volt electrolytic; 2 x 100uF 10 volt electrolytic
Transistors: 2 x 05548 (NPN); 1 x D558 (PNP)
Diodes: 1 x 1N4001
Light Emitting Diodes: 2 x TIL220R
Miscellaneous: 1 x 8 ohm speaker; 1 x 9V battery clip;
30cm lengths of insulated hook-up wire; 1 x 50cm length
of tinned copper wire; 28 x No. 4 12mm self-tapping
sctews; 28 x 4BA washers; 1 particle board 12cm x 10cm,
(Note: Morse key and battery are not included in above lst).
PROJECTS ELEVEN THROUGH TWENTY:
Resistors: 1 x 470k
Potentiometers: 1 x 500k
Semiconductors: 1 x OA91 signal diode; 1 x ZN414
integrated circuit.
Capacitors:
1x 10pF disc ceramic; 2 x 0.001uF disc ceramic; 2 x
0.01UF disc ceramic; 1 x 0.047 uF disc ceramic; 1 x 0.1uF
disc ceramic; 1 x 0.047uF greencap; 2 x 10uF 16 volt
electrolytics; 1 x 60 to 160pF variable
Miscellaneous: 1 x Ferrite rod aerial; 1 x crystal earphone;
1 x audio matching transformer, 8 ohm to 1k ohm; 1 x
70cm length insulated hookup wire
The above components are very common and may be
obtained from virtually any electronics parts supplier.
However, in order to assist you make these projects
successfully and at minimum cost, Dick Smith Electronics
have assembled two ‘Fun Way Project Kits’ from each of
the above lists. The price of these kits is far below the cost
‘of buying the components individually. For more details,
refer to the inside front cover of this book.
page 13 project number one
A continuity indicator
This project is about as simple as one could imagine: just a couple of components and a battery!
‘Many components and electrical circuits can be checked for faults by using a circuit such as this.
As its name implies, thi ply a device for checking
that there is a continuous electrical circuit
between two points. While it is a simple
device in itself, its uses are many
you will need these components
Resistors: One 390 Ohm (orange - white - brown) Miscellaneous: One 9V battery & battery clip
Diodes: One light emitting diode (LED) Two lengths of hookup wire,
One protection diode (1N4001 or 25cm long
simitar).* Two lengths of ‘spaghetti’ insulation,
12cm long
* The protection diode included in ll bt one ofthese projects is purely 3 lengths of tinned copper wire
to prevent damage to components should the Datery be accidentally 8 self tapping screws & washers
reversed If you wish to save the cost of this diode, it can be replaced By Baseboard & project overlay
‘wie link But note there
battery connections. Be careful!
be no protection should you reverse the
for project No. 1.
putting it together
(1) Cut out the project overlay for project No. 1 at (4) cont.
the back of this book and glue it to your baseboard.
(2) Mount the wire links firs, followed by the resistor,
the protection diode (*) and finally the LED.
Developing this order of construction now will
help you later on if and when you begin to solder
them slightly stiffer, slip a length of spaghetti
insulation over the end of each wire so that just
the bared conductors are showing.
delicate components in more complex projects. (5) Connect the battery to the clip, If al is well, you
(3) Check that all your components are properly should see absolutely nothing happent
screwed down, and that the two components
which are polarity conscious (the diode and the (6) Now try touching the probes together. The LED
LED) are indeed ‘the correct way around. should light brightly. If so, your continuity
indicator is ready for use. If not, go over your
(4) The ‘probes’ are made by removing 1cm of work, checking each component is correct and is
insulation from each end of the two pieces of tightened down.
page 14
hookup wire, and connecting one end of each to
the points marked ‘probes’ on the board. To make ‘At right is a graphical representation of the way the
various components inter-connect with each other. As
you will note, this shows the ‘symbol’ for each
component, rather than the component itself
This is called a ‘circuit diagram’ or ‘schematic diagram’:
compare it with the pictorial diagram below.
Some later circuits may differ slightly in layout from the
pictorial drawing to comply with good circuit drafting
practice; this circuit, being so simple, is virtually
identical to the pictorial below.
how it works
The continuity indicator basically consists of a power
source (the battery) and an indicator (the LED). The
circuit between the battery and the LED is broken, and
probes are connected to each side of the ‘break’. The
circuit is completed via these probes. We can either
touch them together (‘short’ them) or connect them via
an external circuit or component that we wish to
check.
If the circuit is completed in this way, current flows
from the battery positive through the probes, the LED
Red battery
Black battery wire
You will find the continuity
indicator very handy for
circuit checking, especially
the connections between
screws and components.
If, however, you want to test
‘a component itself, it is
important to remember that
you must first remove the
component from the circuit,
otherwise you could get a
false result from the other
components in the circuit
which are connected to it.
You may find checking components
easier! you make one probe Black and
fone red-~then you will beable to check
olarised components properly. Fallow
the colours shown on the layout.
and back to the battery negative end. Because a LED
can easily be damaged if too much current is allowed
to flow through it, our circuit also includes a low-value
resistor to limit this current to a safe amount when the
probes are shorted.
The brightness of the LED indicates how much current
is flowing through it: with the probes shorted, it glows
very brightly; with some resistance between the
probes, less current flows and the LED glows less
brightly.
page 15 experiments with your continuity indicator
(1) Testing resistors:
Connect a 1.2k resistor
between the probe tips as
shown in figure 4. How bright
is the LED?
Now connect another 1.2k in
series with the first (see figure
5) - what happened to the LED
brightness?
Connect a third 1.2k in series
(fig. 6). What has happened
now?
The LED will keep getting
dimmer and dimmer as you
add more resistors to the
chain. This is because the
overall resistance increases
when you add resistors in
series. Two 1.2k in series
equals 2.4k. 3 equals 3.6k And
50 on.
Now something different:
Revert to the one resistor as
shown in figure 4. Add a
second 1.2k resistor in parallel
{as shown in figure 7. Notice
the LED?
Try a third 1.2k. And a fourth
(see figure 8)
Each time you add another
resistor, the LED will get
brighter (up to a point!)
because adding resistor:
parallel decreases resistance.
Two 1.2k resistors in parallel
equals 600 ohms. Three 400
ohms, four 300 ohms, and so
on,
Because the resistance gets
lower with each resistor added,
the more current can flow.
Thus the LED is brighter.
page 16
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
\
Try, if you like, connecting a
potentiometer (as used in later
projects) to the probes (one
probe to the centre lug on the
pot, the other probe to either
of the outside lugs). You
should be able to make the
LED as bright or as dim as you
want it to be.
Figure 9
Or try a light dependent
resistor. Once again you should
be able to vary the LED
brightness as you wish, by
changing the amount of light
falling on the LDR (more about
this device in project 41)
Figure 10
(2) Testing diodes:
You can test power diod biden poy aed
signal diodes or light emitting
diodes with the continuity
indicator. You should find that
connected to the probes one
way, they will light the LED,
but reverse the connections
and-the LED should not light Connected this way, the
up. [ED Should glow.
If you find that neither or both ~
~ Black lead
ways light the LED, the diode
Red lead
Black lead
Red teed Figure 11
under test is probably
damaged
Figure 12
(3) Testing capacitors:
It is rather more difficult to test
capacitors with a conti
indicator. Most electrolytic
capacitors can be checked,
however smaller types such as
greencaps and disc ceramics
can not easily be checked,
except to see if they are
internally shorted.
Connect a 100uF electrolytic always connect the black
capacitor across the probes as test lead to the negative
shown in figure 13 (note the endo, the electrolytic
polarity!). As the capacitor i
‘energy builds up (‘charges’) the
LED will glow. This shows
current is flowing from the
battery into the capacitor. As
the capacitor charges, the
current becomes less and less,
and the LED brightness
Figure 13, decreases. When the capacitor (5) Testing the ferrite rod and transformer:
is fully charged, current ceases
and the LED fades out.
Depending on the capacitor, You will notice on the ferrite
the LED glow might last for a rod aerial there are two coils.
few seconds, or fiash very Normally they are composed
briefly. of different coloured wire (for
example, one may be red wire
and the other pink wire) but in
any case, you can recognise
Try a 10uF electrolytic. Being a them easily because one coil is
smaller capacitance it takes a much wider than the other.
shorter time to reach its fully Connecting the probes to two
charged state. So the flash is wires from the same coil
briefer. should light the LED. Figure 16
If you miss the flash, you can
see it again by discharging the If not, there could be a break
capacitor. Short its leads in the very fine wire of the coil;
together, and try again. But or it could mean that the very
watch for it this time! thin coat of insulation on the
: wire is preventing contact with
igure 14 the probes. This must be very
i c carefully scraped off with a
you connect a greencap, disc shar bade
capacitor, etc across the
probes, the LED flash will be so
brief you probably won't see it
atall. If you do see a long flash,
or the LED stays on, the If you connect the probes to
Capacitor fs almost certainly one wire from one coil and one
eel wire from another coil, the Li ep
should not light.
Before we finish with
capacitors, you may be Likewise, the transformer can
interested to know that be checked. You will note
connecting capacitors in series there are two leads on one
does not increase capacitance, side and three on the other.
but actually decreases it! Connection between the two
Capacitors behave exactly leads, or any two of the three,
opposite to resistors: In series should light the LED. If it
the total capacitance decreases, doesn't, your transformer may
and in parallel the total be faulty. gure 18
capacitance will increase. 5 ae
(4) Testing loudspeakers and earphones: Again, the LED should not light
if one of the two leads and one
of the three leads are
connected to the probes.
When the probes are
connected to a speaker or
earphone, a ‘click’ sound will
be heard, indicating they are
probably functioning properly.
However, the LED will only
light when the speaker is
connected, as the earphone =
has a very high resistance. Pate 15, project number two
A transistor tester
Here's @ project that will not only show you how transi
transistors you'll use in the projects in this book.
tors work, it will also let you check any of the
White the basic circuit hes
on described to suit NPN
transistors (see ‘transistors’ in the section on
‘components at the start of this book); the
circuit is very easily modified to check
PNP transistors.
you will need these components
Resistors: ‘One 390 ohms (orange white - brown)
One 10k ohms (own - block - orange)
Diodes: Two light emitting diodes (LEDs)
One protection diode (1N4001 or
similar).
Transistors: (One NPN type DS548 or similar
One PNP type DS558 or similar
putting it together
(1) Cut out the project overlay for project No. 2 at
the back of this book and glue it to your
baseboard.
(2). Mount the wire links first, followed by the
resistors, the protection diode, the LEDs and
finally the transistor.
(3) We need only the NPN transistor (DS548 or
similar) at the moment. Leave the other transistor
until later.
(4) Connect the battery to the clip. Both LEDs should
be lit.
(5) You should notice that the LED connected to the
transistor’s collector is glowing much more
brightly than the LED connected to the base. If so,
proceed on. If not, check your wiring and
polarities of LEDs, etc.
page 18
Miscellaneous: One 9 volt battery and battery clip
3 lengths of tinned copper wire
11 self-tapping screws with washers
Baseboard & project overlay No. 2
Thisisthecireut
for checking.
"NPN transistors
The checks are 4
shown on the
next page.
The PNP circuit:
notice the f=
erences?
The diode, LEDs,
transistor’ and
battery” are all
‘tured around:
B) nie ‘The board layout ‘below shows
the components connected for
the NPNversion. Fallow the inst
ructions inthe text for PNP tran.
how it works
The transistor is connected as an amplifier with a LED
connected to both the base and collector to show
where, and how much, current is flowing in the circ
‘As explained in the section on components, a small
current flowing through the base of a transistor causes
a much larger current to flow through the collector.
In our circuit, current flows from the battery positive
terminal through the protection diode, 10k resistor and
LED, through the base/emitter of the transistor and
back to the negative battery terminal.
This causes a larger current to flow, via the LED and
390 ohm resistor, through the collector/emitter of the
transistor.
‘The LEDs monitor this current - and because the
current through the base is much smaller than the
Check 1: The LEDS should both
slow, but the one connected to
the collector should glow more
brightly than the other {this is 2
small section ofthe board above.
Allother components shown on
the board should be in place!)
current through the collector, the base LED glows less
brightly than does the collector LED.
‘The fact that these LEDs do glow at different brightness
levels is one of the two tests we can make to check the
transistor. The different brightness levels indicate that
the transistor is amplifying.
The second test simply involves disconnecting the wire
link from between the base and the LED to check that
the transistor is not ‘leaking’. When you disconnect the
wire link, obviously no current can flow into the base,
so the transistor should turn off. Then both LEDs
should therefore go out. If either LED remains lit, either
the transistor is faulty or you have done something
wrong.
Only if the transistor passes both tests can it be classed
as satisfactory.
Remove this wire link
Check two: remove the wire link
shown. Both LEDs should go out.
Ithey do not, you eltherhave 3
faulty ansistor ora witing eror.
page 19 project number three
A water indicator
‘Are your plants thirsty? Because they cannot speak to
you , use electronics to communicate with them. This
simple circuit monitors the amount of water in the soil.
Or you can check whether it is raining outside without
going outside and getting wet!
A simple modification shows the basis behind the so-
called ‘lie detector’.
you will need these components
Resistors: One 390 ohms (orange - white - brown) Miscellaneous: One 9 volt battery and battery clip,
One 100k ohms (orown - back - yellow) 4 lengths of tinned copper wire.
Diodes One protection diode (1N4001 or 2 x 25cm lengths of insulated hook-
similar) up wire.
‘One light emitting diode (LED) 2.x 12cm lengths spaghetti insulation,
sai dill 11 selftapping screws with washer,
Te nase area os Baseboard and project overlay No. 3
putting it together
(1) Cut out the project overlay for project No. 3 at
the back of this book and glue it to your
baseboard.
(2) Mount the wire links first, followed by the two
resistors, protection diode, LED and finally the
transistor. Be very careful you get the diode, LED gece
and transistor in the correct way around.
(3) Make up a pair of probe leads 25cm long from
the hookup wire and spaghetti insulation (see
project 1 for more detailed instructions)
(4) Check your project thoroughly, then connect the
battery to the clip. To check the water indicator
out, lick your fingers, then hold the end of a
probe in each hand. The LED should come on.
(5) _ If you short the probes together the LED should Figure 1
light brightly.
page 20 how it works
In this circuit, the transistor is acting as a switch. In dry
soil, the resistance between the probes is very high;
hence the transistor receives little or no base current
and it can not turn on. In moist soil, the resistance is
very much lower, and the transistor receives enough
base current to enable it to turn on, lighting the LED.
Pure water by itself does not conduct electricity.
However, the water which comes from our taps, and
even the rain which falls, contains impurities which do
allow the water to conduct electricity. (That is why it is
so important to take care with electricity around pools,
laundries, bathrooms, etc etc).
In our case, the probes are placed into damp soil
which is able to conduct electricity fairly easily. Once
the soil dries out the resistance increases again and the
LED goes out.
Figure 2
The water indicator layout is very
simple: just make sure you get the
transistor the correct way around!
you cannot get your circuit 10 work
it is easy 0 check the LED out by
temporarily removing the transistor
and placing a wire ink between the
‘emiter and collector (€ & )
terminals the LED glows, itis ok
what to do next
If you like, you can make a stronger set of probes from
stiff wire (Such as an unbent coathanger) and a block
of wood. This makes the water indicator much easier to
use ~ just poke the probes into the soil. Make sure that
you have a good connection between the probes and
the connecting wires.
Another use for the water indicator is as a rain alarm.
You can place the probe ends in a plastic bucket
outside and your LED will come on when it starts to
rain. (You'll need to make some fairly long leads to
teach outside so make sure they don’t get in the way!)
This water indicator will also show the amount of
resistance your skin has. If you remove the 100k
resistor, the circuit becomes much more responsive to
high resistance. Press your fingers on the probes and
see if the LED comes on. If your fingers are dry, it
probably won't. But if your fingers are moist (as they
would be if you are sweating) the LED should be on. If
you connect one probe to each hand, you have made
yourself an elementary form of lie detector.
Lie detectors work on the principle that people under
emotional stress are more likely to perspire. Therefore,
anyone who is telling a lie is likely to have lower skin
resistance than if they were not telling a lie.
page 2s project number four
A light/dark indicator
In this project, we introduce you to a circuit which has very wide application in our
daily lives: a light detection circuit.
Our light detector is, of course, very simple —but you can see variations of this
circuit in such things as street light switches, lift door protectors, safe alarms, etc.
Combine this project with the water indicator described in Project 3 and you have
the basis of your own electronic weather station: you'll be able to tell if it is wet or
dry as well as light or dark — all electronically!
you will need these components
Resistors: One 390 ohm forange- white - brown) Transistors: One NPN type DS548 or similar
One 33k ohm. (orange - ange - orgs) small signal type
One 1.2k ohm (brown - red - r8) Miscellaneous: One 9 volt battery and battery clip
One light dependent resistor (LDR) 5 lengths of tinned copper wire,
: aes 12 selt-tapping screws with washers
Diodes: One preneetion de (14001 of Baseboard & project overlay No 4
One Light Emitting Diode (LED).
putting it together
(1) Cut out the project overlay No. 4 at the back of
this book and glue it to your baseboard.
Connect the wires and components as shown in
the clrult dlagram (Fg. 1) and the layout dlagram
Fig, 2
(2) Mount the semiconductors (transistor, diode and
LED) last, and make sure you have connected
them the correct way around and that the leads
are not touching one another.
(3) Connect the battery to the clip. If all is well,
nothing should happen!
(4) Now cover the light dependent resistor (LOR)
with your finger. The LED should now be glowing
brightly. Take your finger away and the LED
should go out. (You may find that you have to
shield the LDR more effectively from light for -
correct operation)Try a handkerchief or similar. Figure
page 22 Figure2
how it works
In this circuit, the transistor acts as a switch, turning
the LED on and off in accordance with the amount of
light falling on the LDR.
If we consider, first of all, the ‘dark’ state of the LDR
(that is, when the LOR has a very high resistance)
Current flows from the positive supply via the 33k and
1.2k resistors to the base of the transistor. This turns
the transistor on, and the LED lights.
If the LDR js in bright light, its resistance falls to a very
low level. Most of the current which would have
flowed to the transistor is diverted directly to the
negative supply. Hence there is no base current to turn
the transistor on and the LED stays out.
Electricity behaves a lot like water: it will always try to
find the easiest path between two points. When the
LDR is dark, the base/emitter junction of the transistor
is the easiest path, With the LOR in light, its resistance
is very low and it becomes the easiest path.
Another very simple circuit ~ the only points to
watch out for are that the transistor i installed
correctly (and that the transistor is of the correct
type; remember the DS548 and OS558 appear
almost identica), The text below tells you how to
Teverse the operation of this circuit: making the
LED light up in light and go out in darkness.
what to do next
Itis very easy to make this circuit operate in reverse —
that is, make the LED light up when the LOR is light,
instead of going out as it does at the moment.
All you need do is swap the LDR and the 33k resistor.
If everything is ok now, you should find that the LED
lights up if the LOR is lit.
Operation is simply a reverse of the previous circuit:
when the LDR is dark, it does not allow enough current
to flow to the transistor to turn it on. In light, enough
current can flow.
You can ‘remotely mount the LDR*(that is, away from
the layout board) by connecting it via two insulated
wires. In this way, you can monitor the amount of light
outside without having to go over to the window and
open the curtains to have a look!
Another use would be as a waming: for example, with
the LOR mounted inside the toilet you could tell if
someone was in there : when it was occupied (and the
light was switched on) the LED would go out. If no-one
was in there and the light was switched out, the LED
would be on saying ‘all is clear!
page 23 project number five
The flasher
You've probably seen those flashing lights on
level crossings ~ or on emergency service
vehicles. Guess what makes them work?
That's right: a circuit just like this one!
You can make a number of flashing light
circuits, simply by varying a few components.
you will need these components
Resistors: One 390 ohms tore - wate - trown) Miscellaneous: One 9 volt battery and battery clip
Two 10k ohms (orewn - back - orrge) Five lengths of tinned copper wire
Capacitors: Two 100uF 10 volt electrolytic type ‘One 3cm length insulated hookup
Diodes: One protection diode (1N4001 or wire
similar) 17 self-tapping screws with washers
Two light emitting diodes (LEDs) Baseboard and project overlay No. 5
Transistors: Two NPN type DS548 or similar
small signal type
putting it together
(1) Cut out the overlay for project number five at the
back of this book and glue it to your baseboard.
As before, drill (or punch) holes where indicated
on the overlay to suit the self tapping screws and
insert screws with washers,
(2) Connect the circuit as shown in the overlay and
drawings. Where one wire crosses another, use
‘one piece of plastic insulated hook-up wire to
stop the wires short-circuiting (or touching one
anothen.
(3) Mount the semiconductors (diode, LEDs and
transistors) last. Check the polarity of these
components, and the electrolytic capacitors. Also
check that the leads of the transistors are not
touching each other.
(4) Connect the battery to the clip. You should find
the two LEDs are flashing alternately at quite a
fast rate - almost too fast for your eyes to follow.
(5) If your LEDs do not flash, something may be Figure
incorrectly connected. Check your wiring once
more.
page 24 Figure 2
how it works
In project one we showed how electrolytic capacitors
can be charged and discharged. This circuit makes use
of charging and discharging currents to turn transistors
on and off alternately
When power is applied, each capacitor begins to
charge. Because no two components are identical, one
will charge faster than its partner. This charging causes
Current to flow through the base of the opposite
transistor (ie, the transistor connected to the
capacitor’s negative side). When this transistor turns
on, it prevents the capacitor attached to its collector
from charging. However, when the opposite capacitor
is fully charged, current stops flowing and the transistor
turns off. This allows the other capacitor to discharge
through the 10k resistor, ready to start the cycle all
over again,
This cycle repeats itself many, many times per second.
And, as we have shown in earlier projects, each time
the transistor turns on, the LED between its collector
and the positive supply lights up.
The time it takes for each charge/discharge cycle is
dependent on the amount of capacitance and
resistance in the circuit. The charge/discharge time is
called the ‘time constant.
This circuit is a litle tricky~ there are
‘anumber of points to watch. The
capacitors must be connected the
‘correct way around (+ to the
collector of the transistor in both
‘ases) and the cross-over between
the transistors. Apart from these,
‘plain sailing
what to do next
There is a large variety of experiments you can try with
this project. Providing you leave the protection diode,
390 ohm resistor, both LEDs and both transistors
where they are (and remember the polarity of the
electrolytic capacitors) you can alter any of the
‘component values to see what effects you can obtain.
For instance, you can slow the flashing rate down by
increasing the capacitor or resistor values. Conversely,
speeding it up is achieved by smaller values. You can
make each leg of the circuit unequal by using different
values, thus obtaining an unequal flashing time. Or you
can make the speed variable by putting a 500k
potentiometer in series with one of the resistors.
As you can see, there is a lot you can experiment with
in this circuit. With a little playing around with values,
you should be able to find components which make
the LEDs flash once each second - and you'll have
made a digital timer!
The type of circuit used in this project is usually called
a“multivibrator’.
cmc ia A a a ce project number six
An electronic siren
If there is one sound that is recognised almost
universally it would be the wailing of a siren. Police use
them, other emergency services use them, burglar
alarms use them, people stop and start work to them,
air raid warnings use them. ..
{An electronic version of the old mechanical siren is very
easy to make. Here's how:
you will need these components
One 47 ohms tvellow - vote: black)
‘One 68 ohms teive grey black
‘One 33k ohms (ornae - ornge- range)
One 47k ohms elow - volt - orange)
‘One 0.1uF polyester (‘greencap’)
‘One 100uF 10 volt electrolytic
‘One protection diode (1N4001 or
similar)
One light emitting diode (LED)
Resistors:
putting it together
(1) Cut out the overlay for project No. 6 at the back
of this book, and glue it to your baseboard. As
usual, drill holes for all self-tapping screws and
insert them with washers into the holes.
(2) Insert the wire links, resistors and electrolytic
capacitors, followed by the diodes, LED and
transistors, Be careful in identifying the transistors
in this project: they may look identical but they
most certainly are not!
(3) This is the first project to use a loudspeaker. Be
careful in attaching the wires to it- see the
section on how to make your projects a success at
the start of this book.
(4) There are two sets of ‘probes’ used in this project
to make it operate. These can simply be lengths
of approximately 12cm of insulated hookup wi
with Tom of insulation removed from each end.
(5) Connect the battery to the clip, and connect the
‘siren probes’ to each other. Make sure the ‘stop
probes are disconnected from each other and are
not able to touch any other part of the circuit. Your
siren should now be operating.
page 26
‘One NPN type DS548 or similar
One PNP type DS558 or similar
One 9 volt battery and battery clip
lengths of plastic insulated
hookup wire, approx. 12cm long
~ Six lengths tinned copper wire
21 self-tapping screws with washers
Baseboard and project overlay No. 6
Transistors:
Miscellaneous:
Figure 1 Figure 2
how it works
This is another circuit which makes use of the charging
and discharging currents in a capacitor ~ indeed, two
capacitors,
The sound you hear coming from the speaker is
basically caused by the rapid switching between the
transistors caused by the charging and discharging of
the 0.1uF capacitor. The varying pitch of the siren is
caused by the charging and discharging of the 100uF
electrolytic capacitor.
Whereas in the last project only one transistor could
be on at any given time, in this circuit both transistors
are turned on and off in near unison. The 0.1 UF
capacitor (called a ‘feedback’ capacitor it feeds some
of the ‘output’ signal back to the ‘input’) charges and
discharges rapidly.
The 100uF capacitor charges and
slowly ~ and then only when the ‘siren probes’ are
connected. As it charges, the pitch rises. When the
probes are disconnected, it slowly discharges, and the
pitch falls.
If the ‘stop probes’ are connected, the electro!
capacitor is instantly discharged, and the oscillations
{the name given to the rapid sound fluctuations) stop
immediately.
harges very
This i the first project to use a loudspeaker:
