PUBLICATIONS OF VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM Br. Balagopal TS. Prabhu & Or A Achyuthan. Contains the iinaples and procedures for dasignng stucturas followers Vaszuigya norms and acepted to modem siatons. Includes saver worted out Goss ara a systematic mead fr vaste by. Br. Balagppal. TS. Pekhu k Dr. A. Achyutha, & book for spetomate study of tho acientfe and tachnologcal basi o| asta Davelopesby oxansvoroaseore, tho ook ha bee testoctort se hrovgh distance oBsesten couree. The book ever the slabs on Vast etre Bronte Gil Ergreeeng Courses n Catt Usversty Pret. Ke. 200- Dene Raion RSS De Bolagopel TS. Prabhu, Anita hortagp of Thiscurandit onveone, Usetlto Sta -Kariopayy Kishan Nambudripadend Di A Achyutha (Ed)-Acalesten of 11 popore ontastional Indian Arhitostr precorod st various Seboraters This oe frst “Reacinge™ roprosoning across eooton ofthe areeaof studies curonty going one thio fld. Price Re 1207 . by Dr. Baagopal TS, Prati Tks 4 rovesren purses in Malayalay. 1 Goscrbes Ne phlosonry, ‘Meory and tocheiques ot Vasvsasts. Lucy exotars the bese ‘concepts aa well asthe practice mth the hep of 84 dsr. ies Re 207 Go be pubkshed sreriy) ful Iusirstedcommontary an sve ausnentalve 990k onthe Ser ana Academie Centre, "Saraswatham Kiliyanad, Calicut - 673 001, PU viciimirensinin. | | VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM i. | CALICUT FALE HO wvuinanow have S1-7WODTR é BALAGOPAL TS. PRABHU A.ACHYUTHANTASTOMTBYAPRRVERTA a J A TEXT BOOK OF VASTUVIDYA DR. A. ACHYUTHAN Exacutve Dat, Vasuvyapratithanam, Q . 1996 VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM ACADEMIC CENTRE, SARASWATHAM, KILIYANAD, CALICUT -673 001,English VASTUVIDYAPRAVESIKA A TEXT BOOK OF VASTUVIDYA Authors First Published Reprint Copies DIP typeset at Printed at Cover Design Price Publishers © Dr. Balagopal. 7S. Prabhu Dr. A. Achyuthan August 1996. October 1997 2000. ‘Académie Centre, ‘Vastuvidypratithnam, Calicut - 1 Geethanjali Oriset Prints, Feroke, Chandramohan. Paper back edition - Rs, 200/- Deluxe Library edition - Rs. 300/- Outside India - US $ 20. VASTUVIDYAPRATISTHANAM, SARASWATHAM, KILIYANAD, CALICUT - 673 001 Authors.PREFACE During my travelsin India and abroadin connection with my profession, Ihave noticed a deop intarast among engineers, architects and others to know about the traditional indian science of Vastuvidya. Though there is. ‘8 vast amount o literature available in Samskrt, English and other Indian languages, there is no single book that, Covers the subject matter spread inthe various classics. ‘This book is an attompt to present the vast subject in a systematic manner so that students and practitioners of architecture as wel as others interested in Vastuvicya wil bbe able tofollowit easily. Both the authors are engineers with long years of experience in teaching andnaturally the ‘approach is basically analytical Inorder to introduce the reader tothe evolutionary nature of Vastuvidya, the authors give the historical and archeological background. Then follows the analytical exposition based on the fundamental concepts. The principles. governing the construction of Fouses are ‘explained in detail along with information on materials, and techniques. An analysis of temps andthearesisfolowed by short descriptions of yana,sayana, sipaand cra. On the whole, the book forms a very good guide forthe study of Vastuvigya, Camp. Mezhathol, _ Karippayyur krishnan Nambudrpad, 11-07-26. (Chairman, Vastuvidydoratitnanam.CONTENTS GLIMPSES OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE - EARLY PERIOD. INFLUENCE OF OTHER CULTURES ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS IN KERALA DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM IN VASTUVIDYA SETTLEMENT PLANNING ACCORDING TO vastuviova RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE, SITE & LAYOUT RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE, PLAN-TYPES MATERIALS & TECHNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTION TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE OF THEATRES. supa PHONETIC REPRESENTATION OF Page 2 20 ” 129 130 v6 192 205 2aono ona 0103 oro 0201 202 203 02.04 020s 02.06 207 0208 209 20 on 022 O23 oor 0302 03.03 0308 0305 03.06 oxor 0401 x02 o403 oxo oxos 0406 LUST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Early Evolved Buildings arly Stuetual Systems ‘Symbolism of Form ‘Same Theme, Different Expresions ‘Mohan-j-daro, Location &Fort area Bathiag Poo, Mohan-jo-daro Vedic Constructions Budbise Architecture -Adoks school Bubist Cary Wall - Karle Cainajilata - Ajanta Budbist Vhdra Ajanta Evolution of Hinde Temples Hindu Temple, Northern Styles Hinda Temple, Pallava School Hinds Temple, Cola School Hindu Temple, Pandya Schoo! Hindu Temple, Clukya Schoo! ‘Quuub Minar Delhi ‘Tomb of Giasuéin, Tuglakabad Mughal Architecture Provinial style Christian Architestare Architecture of Colonial Petiod High Court Building, Chandigarh Prehistoric Vestiges of Keraba Primory Temple Forms of Kerala “Thre-tiered Vindna of Matathilappan [Nestorian Cathedral, Thrissur Mixjual Mosque, Caicut Buildings of Laure Baker0601 06.02 06.03 06.08 o7o1 702 703 o708 ofo1 oso 0803 oso sos 08.06 osor 808 08.09 wor 02 09.03 9.08 ov.0s roo oo 00s Hot no 03 Hoa hos Hog not aor Basie of Meaarng System Diferent Lengths for Herta Octal Divisions of Haste Unis of Large Measorements Shapes of Vsumandale Proportions of Svalinga Eieny of Rectangles Yori the Architectural Formula for Orientation Sutras in Vstumandata Padavinysa in Navavarga Padavindaa in Astovorga Padovinsaran Daiovarga ‘Gehoveditan Viivakalpa Dividing the Khanda ito 9 Vike Vesrpuregsantatpa Strat and Mamas Method of Avoiding Marmavedha Determination of Cardinal Directions Regents of Eph Directions ‘Analysis of Ground slope Clasitcation of Ste by Shape Location of Tees Agrahiva type of Seements Grow of Setements Models f Settlement Planning Location of Residential Zones Dessable Position of Gateways for Houses Location of Bang Plt Large Stes Location of Bung Plt in Sal Sites Individual House in Row Howse Scheme Demarkation of Reston for Residences in Nstandate Four Silas and thei Ode of reference Expamion of Ekta n 76 76 % 2 %0 100 100 02 ia 108 08 108 106 108 116 6 us 19 20 126 128 130 140 140 1a 1a Ma, va Me20s 108 120s 12.06 07 1208 nor 1302 103 hos 1305 106 or 108 bo tor 402 M403 laos Mos 1406 M407 Hos 1409 Hao Iso1 Iso Is03 1601 Iso not 102 1801 Six types of Dwi Four types of Tila “Types of Cauiala Classification of Catusala 3s in Brhatsombita Expansion of Canuala slong the Axes Location of Functions in Cataiéala Verical Elements ofa Building Adhisthdna Fooms for Houses Details of Pillars Details of Connection of Wall Pate & Raters Section of Roof showing Aridhothara Foundation Dets Details of Door Details of Ceiling & Enablaure Details of Sabha Roof Position of Dietes in a Setlements Alpaprisida Shrine Square Garbhagrha in Cicular shrine Roof Construction through Corbeled. Dome Pancapratara Proportions The Proportionae System of Measurement in Templer Different Adhigghina Forms used in Temples Typical Kerala Temple with Sloping Root Ornamental Pillars wed in Temples ‘Temple as Puruse Srikara and ViavaTypes of Mandopa Details of Kattampalam “Trang, Square and Rectangolar forms of Theatres Different Categories of Sita Kirmisona & Simhisana Proportions im Pancatte Proportions in Navara Style of Maral Puntings in Kera 150 132 153 ba 156 6 168 68 166 166 168 168 m m 174 178 178 180 180 188 es 186 188 188 190 ro 196 108 206 28 28 226PROLOGUE Vastuviya_is the art of building evolved in India, through centuries of experimentation, theorisation and adaptation to man's everchanging needs. Its dynamic in character. transcends space and time. The wheel on the front cover ofthis book is symbolic of this concept. Classically Vastuvidya was taught as part of kajpa ‘and jyotsa. Kalpa covered the spatial and technological ‘aspects of the Vastu and jyotisa dealt withthe temporal ‘aspects. This book concentrates on the technological ‘aspects as the foundation course in the study of Vastuvidya. It compiles the information which lies scattered in several treatises covering the subject. This work is based on the programmed lessons offered toa selact group of motivated panicipants and on the feed back received from them. Itis divided inte four modules: 1. Historical background of architectural styles 2. Fundamental concopis of Vastuvidya 3. Elements of planning settlements and houses. 4. Basies of Prasadavastu and alied areas, AA giligont learner willbe able to cover the subject ‘matter in four monthe' time and willbe able to proceed to the design aspects in a logical sequence.MODULE 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLE1 INTRODUCTION 01.01 DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE Architecture isthe science and art of designing and constructing buildings. As a science it uses the systematic Knowledge regarding (i) the materials for constuction. (i) the techniques of building and (iit) the methods of ‘environmental contol. Asan at it utilizes the medium of ‘construction to express human aspirations and aesthetics through space, form and decoration. The word ‘architecture’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Architekton’ meaning the chief worker or the Master Builder. Indian literature refers tw the Master Builder as “sthapati’, meaning one who conceives and erects the building (vast). Architecture is hhence refered here as'Vastwvidya’, meaning the knowledge of building science. ‘The primary concern of architecture is ‘function’ Function relates othe suitability ofthe building for particular human activities. It depends onthe design and organisation ‘of space for accommodating the intended purpose. This functional space is clothed in the building envelope. The permanence and stability of the building envelope hence ‘become equally important in architecture. It is decided by ‘the strength and durability ofthe material and the way in which aoe en aVistuidyipravesite they are assembled. ‘The overall form of the building and its decoration decide its expression or aesthetic appearance “Aesthotc expression is again an integral part of architectural eation, According to Vetruvis, architecture is the wkimate synthesis of Unitas (adequacy of space), Firmitas (Fmness of structure) and Venustas (delightful appearance). According to Ruskin, all good architecture is the ‘expression of national ie and character and is produced by ‘prevalent and eager national taste or desire for beauty. The senius and character ofa nation is unmistakably stamped on. itsarchitecture. With the Greeks this was refined perfection, withthe Romans the grandeur of construction with the Gothic the passionate enquiry into new forms and with the Indians ‘the mystic spiritual content and unity with the envionment. 01.02 ORIGIN OF BUILDING ART Architecture had a siple origin in the primitive efforts ‘of mankind to secure protection against elements: the rock eaves, the huts of reeds and the tents of bark oF skin (fig. 01.01). Insctled life, the shelters came tobe built mare solidly in brick, stone and timber. Increasingly efforts were ‘devoted to the community needs such as fortifications, places of worship, tombs, granares, markets, ec. Modern times have presented need for factories, educational buildings, assembly halls, traffic terminals, commercial centers and new. forms of housing. Through the ages, the styles of construction ‘were moulded and adapted tothe changing needs of the society. Architecture thus remains asthe principal visible and material record of man's intellectual evolution to date, It forms the prerequisite for and symbol ofthe cultural development of a people ‘The early construction techniques were based or ‘rial and error’ methods. At any place, the construction was aVasteridydpraveiihaevolved depending on the properties ofthe available materials and the skill in modifying them. The trabeated construction using post and lintel was developed in regions where stone and timber were available. Arcuated construction using arches and vaults was evolved where the materials available were clay, brick and stone (fig 01.02). Composite construction was evolved where diferent materials were available for puting up building. Built forms so evolved were also shaped to suit the climate ofa egion, Distinet styles of constuction thus appeared indifferent parts ofthe world ‘The traditionally evolved construction showing distinct regional character is known as "Vernacular Architecture Itis functionally efficient and is appropriate to suit the materials, wopography, elimate and social and ‘cultural factors of the eegion, But any society is in a continuous process of development. Ethnic contacts, economic prosperity, vigorous polity and technological ‘growth are the main forces of socal development. The forces which produce dynamic social changes also bring forth innovations in architectre. The innovations influence the space design, construction methods and ornamentation. At any time two styles of architecture may this co-exist in a region. One isthe ‘ld’ evolved vernacular style, mainly adopted and conserved by the individuals in their humble constructions. Second is the ‘new’ innovative buildings, expressive ofthe power, aspirations and skills of the society at large, generally adopted for public buildings 01.03 FEATURES OF AN ARCHITECTURAL STYLE Architecture asa creative art has two distinct aspects = the interior and the exterior. The interior serves to fulfill complex human needs = personal and social. Most of these reeds are utilitarian, such as requirements of space forViseuridydprovesita ‘working, learning, praying, entertaining etc. Sometimes, the needs are symbolic a in the ease of temples and monument Where a feeling of reverence isto be evoked on the user by the interior. ‘The organisation of the interior space for satistying the function generates the architectural plan of & building. The exterior decides the aesthetics ofthe building. The characteristics of the exterior are the form and its details. “Many forms are beautiful by their geometric perfection. New forms are also generated by the combination of basic forms. The exterior forms also become symbole of social institutions by association. For example, dome is associated with the cosmic power, tower with the aspirations, spre with regious fervout, portals withthe clegance etc. (fig. 01.03). Often, as tn painting or sculpture, the exterior also becomes abstract in lorder to emphasise the aesthetic quality ofthe form itself in mmodemistc expression, Surface treatment further emphasises the form. ‘Truly, in architecture both these aspects, interior and exterior, have to be combined and closely related o each other and tothe environment. Often this relation was nat presented in the architecture of al periods. Closed form compositions ‘generally emphasised on decorative treatment ofthe exterior. (Open form architecture, on the other hand, was evolved out of coherent organisations of functional spaces. Here the separation of interior and exterior was less marked. The ‘organisation of space, the form and omamentation of exterior ‘materials and method of constructions, the structural system and above all the overall concept of the building thus form the salient features which distinguish one architectural style from another. (01,04 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, Architecture’ the most laborate, costly and enduring fone among the ereatve arts. It, therefore, Dourshesin stable eyand wealthy societies with a taste or desire for beauty. Such Civilizations must have also acquired mechanical techniques like ramp, pulley, lever, winches ete. and craft skill for processing, lifting and assembling heavy materials. The carliest conjunction of stability, wealth and impulse for building occured some S000 years ago in the ancient civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, Indus Valley, China and Mexico. ‘The art of building was taken up by ‘successive civilisations, 10 new heights. In the west the Greeks, the Persians andthe Romans were the carriers ofthe architectural edition, In the east, the Indians developed the building art in new directions and spread it far and wide. By the dawn of the Christian era, welldefined architectural styles were existing in ll parts ofthe world The great religions of the world have played a decisive role in the evolution of architecture. Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroasteianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam adopted for the places of worship distinct architectural styles ‘rooted inthe land of their origin. As the religions spread in ‘new areas, local feature of constracion and decorations were incorporated in these buildings. The modification of the central theme of a style by the vernacular features generated ferent schools of syle. (fig. 01.04). Patronage for architectural constructions was provided tall ines by the cults, for whom buildings were the glowing symbols of triumph, power and immortality. Money, materials and skills were, hence, lavished, on constructing monumental structures bythe royalty, ‘These architectural monuments viz, palaces, institutional buildings, assembly structures ete. in turn became the models forthe aristocracy and the layman in esigning and constructing their own places of residence. “Architectural ideas thus inflated from the royalty to the subject, from the rulers tothe citizens ey,VastuvidyapraredihaVistuvidyeprevefita, —————— Tn the modern era, the leadership in architectural construction fas been taken over by the industrial and commercial powers. Industrial revolution and urbanisation brought changes in the life ofthe people and generated new ‘need for buildings. Invention of steel and concrete opened up possibilities of erecting larger and taller structures in various forms. The history of architecture traces experiments and transitions in the method of construction as a sequence of development, We are concerned with the history a8 a means of wisdom, asa bass of sound judgement and thereby as an aid to design, Thus, the architecture of any region isthe result of evolutionary changes brought about during thousands of years But in almost all parts ofthe word, except the Indian sub- ‘continent, the evolution has not been a comiauous process In India, th continuity is maiaained though archeological remains, writen texts and transfer of techoology through encrations of silpins. The old science of building Vastvidy, remained living tradition tll about & century go, Though the now innovative technology was introduced by modem education in engineering and architecture, the search for identity takes us to the ‘ld cultural roots Fortunately, Véstidya has not yet become ating ofthe past, ‘ery much co-exist withthe present and is exible enough to be fsed with it Therein bes the importance of Indian Acchitectare aASSIGNMENTS Fl in the blanks 4) According to Vetruvius, architecture is the ultimate synthesis of i) + ii) and ii) +b) The important aspects ofthe nation stamped on all works of traditional Indian architecture are and ©) The dome symbolises cosmic power, the ower symbolises and the portal symbolises 2, Sketch the pr cements, 3. Sketch the following structural systems in traditional architecture: 4) post and lintel) corbelled arch) tru arch 4, Briel discuss the relevance of studying traditional system in modern times, particularly fr residential architecture itive efforts of man for security from2 GLIMPSES OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, EARLY PERIOD (02.01 INTRODUCTION A distinct architectural style had developed in the Indian sub-continent from the ancient imes, owing mainly to its geographical isolation. It salient features may be studied in different phases of evolution. Phase- I Ancient Period Phase-Il Budhist Period Phase -H Phase TV Phase -V Phase -VI ‘The irst3 phases belong othe carl period and the next three phases denote the influence of other cultures on Indian Architecture (02.02 PHASE- ‘) Indus Valley Constructions. (3000 BC-1S00BC) ‘The Indian Architecture had its begining from the ancient ies which flourished nthe Indus valley form 3000 BC. Most of the information concerning these cities comes from the ‘excavations of Mohan-jo-daro and Harappa. Mohan-jo-daro 2 : ANCIENT PERIOD1“was a iy carefully planoned in a grid system with the main streets in south-north and westeast directions dividing the city {nto rectangular blocks, The houses wer oriented he cardinal directions and conceived as self-contained units sith inet ‘courtyards. The city had a walled citadel forthe ruling clas, ‘hick contained complex buildings (fig. 02.01), The ground plan ofa granary structure 101mx 23 mshows many roams surounding ‘cour, Another is a bathing pool (12 mx 9mx2.5 m), surrounded by small cells (ig 02.02). “The style of construction in Indus valley cities was bare and ulitaran, Brick, sun-dried and burnt, was the common ‘material for walls Floors and roofings were inimber. Post, and line was the structural system, but corbeled arches were used for culverts and sewers. Vestiges of Indus valley ‘construction have heen waced over extensive areas of non western India. Later developments, however, were not a ‘continuation ofthe brick construction ofthe Indus valley ets, ‘but hey were of afresh origin from te simple structures of the vedic age b) Vedic Architecture (1500 BC- 2508C) ‘Most ofthe information regarding this pas is derived from the vedic literature and form the bass relies onthe later monuments. Vedic people were ofa pastoral and agricultural ‘lass. The early huts were circularin plan. Later the circular plan was elongated 10 rectangular or apsidal plans, with barrel roofs formed of bent bamboos and covered with grass. ‘The horse-shoe shape of the roof was later adopted by Buddhists in their eaitya windows. A cluster of huts formed «a grima (ig. 02.03). It was protected by fence with uprights tnd three horizontals pierced through he uprights. nieances were formed by placing a gateway of simular construction in advance ofthe fee. This frm of gateway (torana) became 4 symbol of protection during the Buddhist time isWésteridydpraveiihe Over the years, the vedic people had put up more enduring buildings and established cites. The best example of this was the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra. From the accounts of Megesthenis, itis seen that this city was surrounded by a stupendous timber palisade. One of the ‘quarters of the city contained the citadel and the royal apartments. The palace consisted of a series of halls with pillars of wood, carved and gilded. 02.03 PHASE-- I: BUDDIST PERIOD (250.C.-750AD) With the invasion of Alexander, the vedic style was gradually infuenced by Greco-Persian features. The rise of ‘Buddhism further brought about change in the socio-cultural values and their expression in construction. 1) Asokan Schoo! ‘The acceptance of Buddism as a state religion during ‘Asoka’ period and great efforts ofthe emperor o propagate the faith amongst the people gave rise to a new class of structures. The principal contributions of the Asokan Schoo! ‘were i) stipa (i) stambha and (ii) rock-cut chambers (ig. 02.04) ‘The stipas are circular monuments of brick, built around some relic of Buddha . They are crowned by symbolic elements of harmika and chatrayasti. A stupa is also surrounded by a palisade enclosing a path for eircambulaton. ‘The best example of Asokan stijpa is that at Sénci enlarged and brought to its present state by the Sunga kings. By the fist century, four glorious gateways (torana) were added to the Sdnci stipa. From this seed, snipas of various forms were put up later in regions where Buddism spread, ‘The greatest achievement of Asokan school is stambha, the symbolic stone pillar. A stambha consists of a poco picVastuvdyépravedike Plain unadorned shaft of eireular section, about 90cm in iameter and 9-12 m high.tising straight out of ground and tapering like the trunk ofa palm tre (fig. 02.04). At the top ofthis shaft isa bell capital and an abacus supporting figures of animals symbolizing 4 quarters of the universe: horse for the south, lon forthe north, bull forthe west and elephant for the east. In the Saranath pillar, all these four animals were carried in feief on the abacus which was surmounted by 4 lions. Supported over the heads of these animals was the wheel of law (dharmacakra). The capital and superstructure are formed of one piece connected to the shat by a copper bol Asoka schoo! also initiated the rock cut architecture. ‘The rock cut chambers situated near Gaya and Nagarjuna hills ace mote of less imitations of timber forms in rock. But in deuails, craftsman were evolving a characteristic style in stone work. Further, Greco-Persian motifs were being synthesized with the loal style a seen in the stambhas. b) His sana School During Kanipka‘s time, Buddhism was divided into Hinaydna and Mahayana sce, the influence of whichis manifested in the architectural style also. ‘The main structure ‘of Hinaydina school was caityasata, the prayer halls of Budhist monks (fg, 02.05.) The central theme ofthe halls a miniature stipa, hewn out of solid roek and decorated with graphic symbols, atthe apsidal end. The hall is divided into «broad nave and two aisles by colonnades, This has striking resemblance to the Greco-Roman basilicas of that period. ‘The roof ofthe halls finished ike a vault and the facade is treated with a large caitya window over the doorways, admitting light into interior. The eaitya hall at Karle 8 the ‘most famous among them. Inthe Mahdhdina phase, the catya hall retained its form, but they increasingly incorporated icons, eee eeVasturtdyipravetita sculptures, reliefs, and frescoes as in Ellora and Ajanta ig. 02.06). ©) Mahayina Schoo! ‘The important structures of Mahdydna school are vihdras (monasteries). Vikdras consisted of stpas and ‘quarters forthe monks (1g. 02.07). The stipas ofthis period Were erected on tall platforms and consisted of diminishing ‘drums one above the other, surmounted by many tiered umbrella, These stijpas may have inspired the Chinese, Japanese and Burmese to erect their mulistoreyed pagodas. ‘The monks’ quarters were a group of rooms around a central, ‘courtyard. The monasteries at Takgaéila and Nalanda later became centres of philosophical studies. Some vihdras were also rock-cut as in Aurangabad. In these vikdras, cells were carved out around a central all andthe innermost halls were used for installing the images of Budha. Tis formed a distinct feature of Mahayana school 02.04 PHASE - III: HINDU PERIOD (S00AD- 1500AD) 4) Evolutionary Period By the Sth century, all over India theistic Hinduism had become very widespread replacing Buddhism. Ia the north, this period coincides withthe golden rule of Gupas and, in peninsular India, withthe reign of Pallavas. Indian history saw the rise and fall of many dynasties during the 1000 years that followed. A large numberof cites flourished during this period allover India, Each had two foc - the palace and the temple. ‘The high level of palace architecture can be gauged only from the descriptions in literature and archeological remains at isolated locations. But temples have survived better as representative edifices of Hindu architecture Sa 9)Visteridygpreveiibe,Vaseuridyapravsithe, ———e ‘The hear of the temple isa shrine room (garbhagrha), connected 10 a porch (arthamandapa) for worshippers (Gig. 02.08) Later it became a vestibule (antharala) to the ‘pavilion (mandapa). The shrine room is generally surmounted by a tower, while lesser towers rise from other pars ofthe ‘building. The whole is set in a rectangular court yard yrhich ‘may contain secondary shrines and ancilary buildings. Spins {devoted theirenergies to create monuments of fantastic beauty ‘out ofthis simple layout. Heavy cornices, sturdy pillars and ‘stout towers gave the temple a feeling of strength and solidity This was counteracted by delicate carvings, statuaries and ‘other ornamentation. Every aspect of divine and human teistence was symbolized in these decorations, which often made the temple both austere and voluptuous, aspiring to reach heaven, but rooted in the earth Considering the size of the land, Indian temple architectute is remarkably uniform but authorities distinguish ‘wo chief styles, the northern or Aryan style and southern or Dravidian style. The Aryan style is characterised by a tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline, while the tower of Dravidian style is usually in the shape of a rectangular ‘truncated pyramid, b) Northern Style of Temple Architecture North Indian temple architecture is best lustrated by three schools, those of Orisa, central India and Gujarat. The finest Orissun temple is the Lingardja at Bubhneswar (fig. 02.09). Te is built as a series of four halls: a hall of offering, a dancing hall, an assembly hall and a sanctuary. ‘The sanctuary is crowned by a great rower (Sikhara) curving inwards terminated by an amalata disc and a finial kala) The other thee elements of the temple are also roofed with towers of smaller size, carrying th eye to the main sithara Orissan schools feature lavish exterior decoration but the SeenVaseusidytpraveiike —————m imeriors ar left unadorned. The abundance of sculpture can be seen bestin the Sun temple of Kondrak Khajuraho, near Thansi i the supreme example of the school which Rourshed in central India. The standard type of Khajuraho temple contains a sanctuary, an assembly hall and an entrance portico, conceived as if they are not structurally separate. ‘The characteristic tower is curved for its whole length and its upward thrust is accentuated by miniature fibharas emerging from the central tower. The effect ‘ofthe whole is one of organic and natural growth, suggestive ‘of a mountain range. In contrast with the Orissan temples, ‘Khajuraho displays sulptural omamentation both outside and inside, “The most important buildings ofthe Gujarat school ae the Jaina shrines of Mount Aba the sve of which snot ‘ery diferent from that of Khajuraho in thee treatment of Shara. Peehaps through he iafueace of Persians and Arabs, the celings are made in the form of corbelled dome and brackets from columns are made to meetin the ceate to give anarch-ke effect. The shrines of Gujarat school, mosty of marble, are covered with delicate and ornate carvings especially inthe interior. ©) Southern Style 1) Palleva Shoot Earliest temples of Dravidian style are those belonging to Pallava school (fig. 02-10). The apogee of Pallava school was reached inthe shore temples at Mamallapuram and the Kaildsanash temple at Kanchi. These monuments cary the remanants of Buddhist architecture. Their towers are lke truncated pyramids, surmounted by a solid cupola suggestive of Buddhist spa 25Vasturidyéprarcitha i) Cola Sehoot ‘The comparatively modest tower of Pallavas was replaced by a great pyramid rising from a tall base and. ‘crowned by a domed finial by Colas. The best example of Cola schools the Siva temple at Tanjvur, with atower nearly 60m high (Bg 02.11), This set the style of Dravidian sithara which ha continued with some varitation down othe present day, Emancipation of architecture from the carpentry techniques isevident here. The temples of Cola school contain elaborate pilared halls and beautiful decorations. ili) Pandyan School ‘The Pandyan school is characterised by the shifting ‘of the emphasis from the tower above the main shrine to the entrance gateways ofthe surrounding wall. (fig. 02-12) By the 12th century t became usual to fortify the temple with gateways surrounded by soaring towers (gopura), inthe form ‘of oblong pyramid. These were identical othe watch towers of palaces. This school also introduced more elaborat ‘omamentation and use of animal forms in pilasters and columns, ‘The best examples of this style are the Mindksi temple at Madurai and Rangandiha temple at Srirangam. iv) Calukya Schoot By 11th century, in Deccan, Clutyans and Hoysdlas had developed an elaborate styeof temple construction, Their temples were no longer built ona rectangular pan, but were ‘polygonal or stellar, raised on tall solid platforms ofthe same ‘shape as the building. The characteristics features of the Calukya and Hoyséla school are: 1. profuse carvings of animals and legendary motifs, 2. use of kitimukha as a decorative feature, 3, turned columns, and 4. fat dome-like fikhara 26SS teerityiprercince —Vastuvidytpraveiika ‘A profusion of ornamentation gives this style delicate prettines, despite its sold proportions. Famous temples of this school are those of Halebid and Belur (fg. 02.13), ¥) Vijayanagara School ‘The culmination of the stylistic development of Dravidian temple architecture is seen in the Vjayanagara school, Temple complex now contained new elements: a shrine forthe goddess, often nealyas large asthe mai shrine, pillared halls, mariage hall and shrines for other dities, The columns were so decorated that they became sculptures in their own ight. For brilliance of decorative imagination the Wjayanagara school was never sucpassed in Hindu India, Its finest production is the Vitla temple at Hampi ASSIGNMENTS 1, What are the characteristic features of ancient Indus valley constructions? 2. Whatare the principal contributions ofthe Asokan school of architecture? 3. What is the difference’ between Caitya and Viksra of Buddhist style? 4, Tabula the diferent schools of Draviian architecture, their main features and give examples of each. as3 INFLUENCE OF OTHER CULTURES ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 03.01 INTRODUCTION Alexander's invasion (323 BC) brought into India, Greek, Assyrian and Persian influences. The Mohamadan invasion in 13th century introduced Islami features and the colonization by the Europeans brought Gothic and Renaissance styles. Contemporary Indian architecture is shaped by the above influencing factors and modern architectural thoughts 03,02, PHASE- IV: INDO - ISLAMIC PERIOD (12-17 Century AD) 4) Imperial School ‘The Indo-Islamic architecture resulting from the contact withthe West Asia may be resolved into three main schools, viz, the imperial, the Mughal andthe provincial. In the development of the imperial syle, Delhi occupied the Prominent place. Beginning in the last_years of the12th century, fo a perio of over three centuries, five Mohamadan, ‘dynasties - Slave; Khilf, Tugluk, Sayyid and Lodi - held sway, Delhi as the focal point of their domination. Each has Jeft substantial evidences of architectural works. Two ofthese are most significant: the Qutub mosque of the slave period and the tomb of Gias-ud-din ofthe Tuplag perio, erSS teritysprarckite — Quib mosque gets distinction by two elements: () a vast arcade and (ji) the Qutub Minar (fig. 03.01). Working according tothe verbal instructions of their overlords, Indian craftsmen had fashioned the first arcade. They made it ingenuousy graceful with Hindu techniques: it was essentially a corbelled arch, shaped lke a Buddhist niche. Right up to 17th century, this corbelled arch co-existed in Islamic style ‘with the tre arch. The second element, Qutub mina, is unique ‘owing to its size and design. From a base of about 14 m iameterit tapers to 3 m atthe summit in four stages, each in 8 different pattern and in section, A fifth storey was Inter ‘Added, It was intended firs asa tower from which the faithful ‘could be summoned to prayer, but later regarded asa tower of vitory. It also became a forerunner of minars in the architectural scheme ofthe Islamic religious buildings. ‘The tomb of Gias-ud-din isthe fore-unner of the tomb architecture (fig. 03.02). Built on a square base of about 1 m sides, it rises to over 24 min height. A striking feature ofthis structure isthe pronounced batter ofthe outer walls, ‘Tall pointed archways are recessed atthe centre of each side ‘A true arch has been used here, but lintels are incorporated across the base of te arch, possibly owing to the insistence of workmen in maintaining their traditions. Three of the arch ‘ways contain doors, but the fourth one on the west is elosed to accommodate the mihrab i its interior. The interior ofthe tomb is a single chamber roofed with a solid dome of brick and cement core with marble sheathing supported on arches. ‘The dome later became the characteristic feature ofthe Islamic style, though it underwent a series of changes i its shape and supporting sytem. 1) Mughal School Islamic architecture attained its grandest form under the patronage ofthe Mughal dynasty. Humayun's tomb (1564) See=nVastesidyap forms an outstanding landmark in its development. This ‘monument presents an Indian interpretation of a Persian conception. The building stands ina park-like enclosure on a lofty terrace (6.6 m high) of arched alcoves opening t0 Small rooms. The tomb structure is of red sand stone, 47m square in plan, with charmfered angles. Its roofed with marble dome with a cluster of pillared kiosks around. The blending of red sandstone with white marble is an admirable feature ofthis structure Important Mughal monuments of Akbur's period are at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. Agra fortis distinguished by its ‘magnificent palace of double-storeyed rooms around central ‘courtyards, Fatehpur Sikri is the dream city of Akbar, with buildings of typical Indo-saracenic design. Among these, Panch mahal, Bulund darvaza and tomb of Salim Chisti (ig. 03.03) attract special attention, on account oftheir form, layout and carved decoration. These features are also seen in “Akbar's tomb at Sikandra built by Jehangir. This is an imposing structure of ive teraces all treated with decorative elements and pllared kiosks. Istamie architecture during Shah Jahan's period is marked by extensive use of marble and the introduction of ‘cusped arches. These two features gave new sensibility 0 ‘the building art and decoration. The most famous buildings ‘of this phase are the Juma Masjid at Delhi and the Taj Mabal at Agra Built on a lofty plinth, Juma Masjid has a vast congregational courtyard (about 98 m wide) surrounded by arched eloisters on the three sides (efer fig. 01.04), On the western side stands the sanctuary buildings 60 m wide and 27-m deep. Its exterior presents a wide central archway fanked by an arcade of five engraved arches. The wings terminate in tall minarets of four stages. Thre large bulbous ‘domes of white marble create a lasting impression ——————=— is———— tittorisyiprerciita ‘Taj Matal (fig 03.03) testifies to the rich experience cof master builders summoned from India and abroad. Tas Tocated on the banks of Yamuna in the midst ofa garden, so planned as to prepare the spectator for the exquisite appearance of the central structure. The mausoleum rises almost abruptly from a high marble terrace, defined by the minarets. The arrangement in the interior consists of an ‘ctogonal central hall and subsidiary chambers inthe angles. Its elevation is divided into two parts of approximately equal ‘eight - a two-storeyed prism and a magnificent dome, The reat bulbous dome rises to 56m. Subsidiary domes rise at ‘the four comers. The charm of Ta is produced by its beautiful setting inthe well-laid-out garden, the perfect proportion of its form and the quality ofthe fine marble which tends itself to delicate treatment and embelishments with Moral forms. © Provincial Style While Muslim architecture was developing at Delhi and Agra, distinct provincial styles were being shaped inthe ‘outlying portions of the empire, merging the local methods with the Islamic features. In Bengal, Western India and Deccan, these provincial styles flourished. In Deccan, the best examples of the stylistic development are seen in Gulbarga and Bijapur. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga has two special characteristics - the broad square arches of the cloister and the courtyard covered by small domes carried fon arched bays. The prominent feature of Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur (fig 03.04) is the dome, ingeniously supported on pendants formed by intersecting arches rising from pilasters Some ofthe later examples of provinial styles are the Udaipur Palace in Rajasthan, the golden temple in Punjab, the city gates in Hyderabad, palace in Mysore, Rani Saras tomb in ‘Ahmedabad and Shersha's tomb at Sasram, In each ofthese teases, one can discern the influence of a variety of earlier styles and Islamic features. iVéstuvidyspraveiike, Islamic Architecture intoduced arcuated forms and domes in Indi, It infused open planning and garden layout, ‘with geometric design of building. Desiga theories of Islamic architectures have not been studied in detail yet it appears ‘that thee are many features common to the traditional design system of India andthe practices in West Asia. (0303, PHASE - V: COLONIAL PERIOD From 16th century, several European powers - Portugese, Dutch, French and English - established their colonies in India. Buildings withthe style prevalent in each fof these countries had been introduced in large numbers. ‘These buildings include residences, convents, cathedrals, warehouses and fortresses, Examples of these early constructions are still seen in Kerala and Goa (fig. 03.08). Projecting balconies and porticoes ate the characteristic features of the new residential architecture. Various church forms with butesss, bell towers, poimted and circular arches, trusses, stained glass work, etc are the main featutes of religious buildings. ‘The second phase of European style manifested itsell inthe work of British engineers during the 18th and 19th ‘centuries. ‘This syle copied. the Gothic and classical motifs prevalent in London, Examples of this ate seen in Caleutta, Bombay and Madras. Classical facades, pilared porticos, vaulted halls and arcades distiguish these works of royal engineers. At the beginning of 20th century, some attempts ‘were made to orientale the constuction of public building bby amalgamating Indian features with European styles, two examples of which are the Prince of Wales Museum in Bombay, the Victoria Memorial and High Court Building in Calcutta (fig. 03.06) ‘The building of New Delhi afforded an opportunity {or laying the foundations of a modern schoo! of I —— OOarchitecture. Edward Lutyens tied 10 synthesis the various styles of Indian aehitectre with the contemporary style in