Section 3.

5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   411

Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs

The current generation of

college students grew up
What am I playing interactive online
supposed to learn? games and many continue
After studying this section, you to play in school. Hundreds
should be able to: of colleges have formed
organized gaming teams,
❶ Find the domains of many as campus clubs.
rational functions.
Enter the Oculus Rift,
❷ Use arrow notation. revolutionizing the way
❸ Identify vertical people experience gaming.
asymptotes. The Oculus Rift is a virtual
❹ Identify horizontal reality headset that enables
asymptotes. users to experience video games as immersive three-dimensional environments.
Basically, it puts the gamer inside the game.
❺ Use transformations to
The cost of manufacturing Oculus Rift headsets can be modeled by rational
graph rational functions.
functions. In this section, you will see that high production levels of the Oculus Rift
❻ Graph rational functions. can keep the price of this amazing invention low, perhaps making this the device that
❼ Identify slant asymptotes. brings home virtual reality to reality.
❽ Solve applied problems
involving rational Rational Functions
functions. Rational functions are quotients of polynomial functions. This means that rational
functions can be expressed as
p(x)
f(x) = ,
q(x)
❶ Find the domains of rational
where p and q are polynomial functions and q(x) ≠ 0. The domain of a rational
functions.
function is the set of all real numbers except the x@values that make the denominator
zero. For example, the domain of the rational function
6JKUKUp x 
x2 + 7x + 9
f (x) = 6JKUKUq x 
x(x − 2)(x + 5)
is the set of all real numbers except 0, 2, and -5.

Example 1 Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

Find the domain of each rational function:
x2 - 9 x x + 3
a. f(x) = b. g(x) = 2
c. h(x) = .
x - 3 x - 9 x2 + 9

Solution
Rational functions contain division. Because division by 0 is undefined, we must
exclude from the domain of each function values of x that cause the polynomial
function in the denominator to be 0.
x2 - 9
a. The denominator of f(x) = is 0 if x = 3. Thus, x cannot equal 3.
x - 3
The domain of f consists of all real numbers except 3. We can express the
domain in set-builder or interval notation:
Domain of f = {x x ≠ 3}
Domain of f = ( - ∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
412  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Great Question! x
b. The denominator of g(x) = 2
is 0 if x = -3 or x = 3. Thus, the
Other than observing the x - 9
denominator, is there a procedure domain of g consists of all real numbers except -3 and 3. We can express
I can use to find the domain of a the domain in set-builder or interval notation:
rational function?
Domain of g = {x x ≠ -3, x ≠ 3}
Yes. Because the domain of a Domain of g = ( - ∞, -3) ∪ ( -3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
rational function is the set of all
real numbers except those for x + 3
which the denominator is 0, you c. No real numbers cause the denominator of h(x) = 2 to equal 0. The
domain of h consists of all real numbers. x + 9
can identify such numbers by
setting the denominator equal to
Domain of h = ( - ∞, ∞) l l l
0 and solving for x. Exclude the
resulting real values of x from the
domain.
Check Point 1 Find the domain of each rational function:
x 2 - 25 x x + 5
a. f(x) = b. g(x) = 2
c. h(x) = .
x - 5 x - 25 x 2 + 25

The most basic rational function is the reciprocal function, defined by

1
❷ Use arrow notation. f(x) = . The denominator of the reciprocal function is zero when x = 0, so the
x
domain of f is the set of all real numbers except 0.
Let’s look at the behavior of f near the excluded value 0. We start by evaluating
f(x) to the left of 0.
y
x approaches 0 from the left.
x
x -1 - 0.5 - 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.001
1
f(x) = -1 -2 -10 -100 -1000
x

Mathematically, we say that “x approaches 0 from the left.” From the table and the
accompanying graph, it appears that as x approaches 0 from the left, the function
values, f(x), decrease without bound. We say that “f(x) approaches negative infinity.”
We use a special arrow notation to describe this situation symbolically:
#UxCRRTQCEJGUHTQOVJGNGHV
As x S 0−, f (x) S –∞. f x CRRTQCEJGUPGICVKXGKPƂPKV[
VJCVKUVJGITCRJHCNNU 

Observe that the minus ( -) superscript on the 0 (x S 0-) is read “from the left.”
Next, we evaluate f(x) to the right of 0.
y
x approaches 0 from the right.

x 0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5 1

1 x
f(x) = 1000 100 10 2 1
x

Mathematically, we say that “x approaches 0 from the right.” From the table and the
accompanying graph, it appears that as x approaches 0 from the right, the function
values, f(x), increase without bound. We say that “f(x) approaches infinity.” We again
use a special arrow notation to describe this situation symbolically:
#UxCRRTQCEJGUHTQOVJGTKIJV
As x S 0+, f(x) S ∞. f x CRRTQCEJGUKPƂPKV[
VJCVKUVJGITCRJTKUGU 

Observe that the plus ( +) superscript on the 0 (x S 0+) is read “from the right.”
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   413

1
Now let’s see what happens to the function values of f(x) = as x gets
x
farther away from the origin. The following tables suggest what happens to f(x) as
x increases or decreases without bound.

x increases without bound: x decreases without bound:

y
x 1 10 100 1000 x -1 - 10 -100 -1000
1 1
f(x) = 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 f(x) = -1 - 0.1 -0.01 -0.001
x x
x

It appears that as x increases or decreases without bound, the function values, f(x),
are getting progressively closer to 0.
1
Figure 3.29 f(x) approaches 0 as x Figure 3.29 illustrates the end behavior of f(x) = as x increases or decreases
increases or decreases without bound. x
without bound. The graph shows that the function values, f(x), are approaching 0.
This means that as x increases or decreases without bound, the graph of f is
approaching the horizontal line y = 0 (that is, the x@axis). We use arrow notation to
describe this situation:
As x S ∞, f(x) S 0 and as x S –∞, f(x) S 0.

#UxCRRTQCEJGUKPƂPKV[ #UxCRRTQCEJGUPGICVKXGKPƂPKV[
VJCVKUKPETGCUGUYKVJQWVDQWPF  VJCVKUFGETGCUGUYKVJQWVDQWPF 
f x CRRTQCEJGU f x CRRTQCEJGU

Thus, as x approaches infinity (x S ∞) or as x approaches negative infinity (x S - ∞),

y
the function values are approaching zero: f(x) S 0.
5 1
4 The graph of the reciprocal function f(x) = is shown in Figure 3.30. Unlike the
x
3 graph of a polynomial function, the graph of the reciprocal function has a break and
2
is composed of two branches. Observe that the graph is symmetric with respect to
1
x the origin.
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 Great Question!
–3
–4 1
What is the relationship between x and when x is far from 0? What happens if x is
–5 x
close to 0?

Figure 3.30 The graph of the 1 1

If x is far from 0, then is close to 0. By contrast, if x is close to 0, then is far from 0.
1 x x
reciprocal function f(x) =
x

Blitzer Bonus  The Reciprocal Function as a Knuckle Tattoo

“I got the tattoo because I like the idea of math not being well
behaved. That sounds lame and I really don’t mean that in some kind
of anarchy-type way. I just think that it’s kind of nice that something
as perfectly functional as math can kink up around the edges.”

Kink up around the edges? On the next page, we’ll describe the
graphic behavior of the reciprocal function using asymptotes rather
than kink. Asymptotes are lines that graphs approach but never
touch. Asymptote comes from the Greek word asymptotos, meaning
“not meeting.”
414  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

The arrow notation used throughout our discussion of the reciprocal function is
summarized in the following box:

Arrow Notation
Symbol Meaning
xSa + x approaches a from the right.
x S a- x approaches a from the left.
xS ∞ x approaches infinity; that is, x increases without bound.
xS -∞ x approaches negative infinity; that is, x decreases without bound.

1
Another basic rational function is f(x) = . The graph of this even function,
x2
with y@axis symmetry and positive function values, is shown in Figure 3.31. Like the
reciprocal function, the graph has a break and is composed of two distinct branches.
y

4
#UxS−f x S∞ #UxS+f x S∞
(WPEVKQPXCNWGUKPETGCUG 3 (WPEVKQPXCNWGUKPETGCUG
YKVJQWVDQWPF YKVJQWVDQWPF
2

x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
#UxS–∞ FGETGCUGU #UxS∞ KPETGCUGU
YKVJQWVDQWPF  YKVJQWVDQWPF  1
f x S f x S Figure 3.31 The graph of f(x) =
x2

❸ Identify vertical asymptotes. Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

1
Look again at the graph of f(x) = in Figure 3.31. The curve approaches, but does
x2
not touch, the y@axis. The y@axis, or x = 0, is said to be a vertical asymptote of the
graph. A rational function may have no vertical asymptotes, one vertical asymptote,
or several vertical asymptotes. The graph of a rational function never intersects a
vertical asymptote. We will use dashed lines to show asymptotes.

Definition of a Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x) increases
or decreases without bound as x approaches a.
y y y y

f
x=a x=a
f
x x x x
a a a a
f
f
x=a x=a

As x S a+, f (x) S ∞. As x S a−, f (x) S ∞. As x S a+, f (x) S –∞. As x S a−, f (x) S –∞.

Thus, as x approaches a from either the left or the right, f(x) S ∞ or f(x) S - ∞.
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   415

If the graph of a rational function has vertical asymptotes, they can be located
using the following theorem:

Locating Vertical Asymptotes

p(x)
If f(x) = is a rational function in which p(x) and q(x) have no common
q(x)
factors and a is a zero of q(x), the denominator, then x = a is a vertical asymptote
of the graph of f.

Example 2 Finding the Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function

Find the vertical asymptotes, if any, of the graph of each rational function:
x x + 3 x + 3
a. f(x) = 2 b. g(x) = 2 c. h(x) = 2 .
x - 9 x - 9 x + 9
y Solution
5 Factoring is usually helpful in identifying zeros of denominators and any common
4 factors in the numerators and denominators.
3
2 x x
1 a. f (x) = =
2
x −9 (x + 3)(x − 3)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
6JKUHCEVQTKU 6JKUHCEVQTKU
–2 KHx=– KHx=
–3
–4
–5
There are no common factors in the numerator and the denominator. The
zeros of the denominator are -3 and 3. Thus, the lines x = -3 and x = 3
8GTVKECN 8GTVKECN are the vertical asymptotes for the graph of f. [See Figure 3.32(a).]
CU[ORVQVGx=– CU[ORVQVGx= b. We will use factoring to see if there are common factors.
Figure 3.32(a) The graph of x+3 (x + 3) 1
x g(x) = = = , provided x ≠ –3
f(x) = 2 has two vertical 2
x −9 (x + 3)(x − 3) x−3
x - 9
asymptotes.
6JGTGKUCEQOOQPHCEVQT 6JKUFGPQOKPCVQT
x+UQUKORNKH[ KUKHx=
y

5 The only zero of the denominator of g(x) y

4 in simplified form is 3. Thus, the line x = 3 0.5
3 is the only vertical asymptote of the graph 0.4
2
1
of g. [See Figure 3.32(b).] 0.3
0.2
x c. We cannot factor the denominator of h(x) 0.1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
over the real numbers. x
6JGTGKUC –2 –5 –4 –3 –2 –0.1 1 2 3 4 5
JQNGKPVJGITCRJ –3 x+3 –0.2
EQTTGURQPFKPI –4 h(x) =
VQx=– –5 x2 + 9 –0.3
–0.4
0QTGCNPWODGTUOCMGVJKUFGPQOKPCVQT –0.5
8GTVKECN
CU[ORVQVGx=
The denominator has no real zeros. Thus, Figure 3.32(c) The graph of
x + 3
Figure 3.32(b) The graph of the graph of h has no vertical asymptotes. h(x) = 2 has no vertical
x + 3 x + 9
g(x) = 2 has one vertical [See Figure 3.32(c).] asymptotes. l l l
x - 9
asymptote.
Check Point 2 Find the vertical asymptotes, if any, of the graph of each
rational function:
x x - 1 x - 1
a. f(x) = 2 b. g(x) = c. h(x) = .
x - 1 x2 - 1 x2 + 1
416  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Technology
When using a graphing utility to graph a rational function, if the numerator or the denominator
contains more than one term, be sure to enclose the polynomials in parentheses. The graph of the
rational function
x
f(x) = 2 ,
x - 9

drawn by hand in Figure 3.32(a) on the previous page, is graphed on the right in a [−5, 5, 1] by
[−4, 4, 1] viewing rectangle. On some calculators, it may be necessary to press the right arrow key to
exit the exponent after entering the exponent 2.
Some graphing utilities incorrectly connect the pieces of the graph, resulting in nearly vertical lines appearing on the screen.
If your graphing utility does this, we recommend that you use  DOT  mode. Consult your owner’s manual.

Great Question! A value where the denominator of a rational function is zero does not necessarily
Do I have to factor to identify result in a vertical asymptote. There is a hole corresponding to x = a, and not a
a rational function’s possible vertical asymptote, in the graph of a rational function under the following conditions:
vertical asymptotes or holes? The value a causes the denominator to be zero, but there is a reduced form of the
Yes. It is essential to factor the
function’s equation in which a does not cause the denominator to be zero. Look back
numerator and the denominator at Figure 3.32(b) on the previous page.
of the rational function. Consider, as another example, the function
x2 - 4
f(x) = .
x - 2
y
Because the denominator is zero when x = 2, the function’s domain is all real
5
4
numbers except 2. However, there is a reduced form of the equation in which 2 does
x– 3 not cause the denominator to be zero:
f x =
x– *QNGEQTTGURQPFKPI
2
1 VQx= x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f(x) = = = x + 2, x ≠ 2.
x x−2 x−2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 &GPQOKPCVQTKU +PVJKUTGFWEGFHQTOFQGUPQV
–3 \GTQCVx= TGUWNVKPC\GTQFGPQOKPCVQT
–4
–5 Figure 3.33 shows that the graph has a hole corresponding to x = 2. A graphing
utility may not show this feature of the graph.
Figure 3.33 A graph with a hole
corresponding to the denominator’s zero Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Figure 3.30, repeated in the margin, shows the graph of the reciprocal function
1
❹ Identify horizontal asymptotes. f(x) = . As x S ∞ and as x S - ∞, the function values are approaching 0: f(x) S 0.
x
The line y = 0 (that is, the x@axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the graph. Many, but
not all, rational functions have horizontal asymptotes.

y
Definition of a Horizontal Asymptote
5
4 The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x)
3 approaches b as x increases or decreases without bound.
2
1 y y y
x y=b y=b
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 f
–3 f
f
–4
x y=b x
–5
x
1
Figure 3.30 The graph of f(x) =
x
(repeated) As x S ∞, f(x) S b. As x S ∞, f (x) S b. As x S ∞, f (x) S b.
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   417

Recall that a rational function may have several vertical asymptotes. By contrast,
it can have at most one horizontal asymptote. Although a graph can never intersect
a vertical asymptote, it may cross its horizontal asymptote.
If the graph of a rational function has a horizontal asymptote, it can be located
Great Question! using the following theorem:
Do I have to factor to identify
a rational function’s possible
horizontal asymptote? Locating Horizontal Asymptotes
No. Unlike identifying possible Let f be the rational function given by
vertical asymptotes or holes, we do
not use factoring to determine a anx n + an - 1x n - 1 + g + a1x + a0
possible horizontal asymptote. f(x) = , an ≠ 0, bm ≠ 0.
bmx m + bm - 1x m - 1 + g + b1x + b0

The degree of the numerator is n. The degree of the denominator is m.

y 1. If n 6 m, the x@axis, or y = 0, is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
an
x 2. If n = m, the line y = is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
f x = bm
1 x+
3. If n 7 m, the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.
y=
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
Example 3 Finding the Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function
–1
Find the horizontal asymptote, if there is one, of the graph of each rational function:

4x 4x 2 4x 3
a. f(x) = 2
b. g(x) = c. h(x) = .
Figure 3.34(a) The horizontal 2x + 1 2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1
asymptote of the graph is y = 0.

y Solution
x
g x = 4x
y= x+ a. f(x) = 2
2x + 1
2
The degree of the numerator, 1, is less than the degree of the denominator, 2.
Thus, the graph of f has the x@axis as a horizontal asymptote.
1
[See Figure 3.34(a).] The equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

x 4x 2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 b. g(x) =
2x 2 + 1
The degree of the numerator, 2, is equal to the degree of the denominator, 2.
Figure 3.34(b) The horizontal The leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator, 4 and 2, are
asymptote of the graph is y = 2. used to obtain the equation of the horizontal asymptote. The equation of
the horizontal asymptote is y = 42 or y = 2. [See Figure 3.34(b).]
y
4x 3
5 c. h(x) =
4 2x 2 + 1
3 The degree of the numerator, 3, is greater than the degree of the
2 x
h x =
1 x+ denominator, 2. Thus, the graph of h has no horizontal asymptote.
x [See Figure 3.34(c).] l l l
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3 Check Point 3 Find the horizontal asymptote, if there is one, of the graph of
–4
each rational function:
–5
9x 2 9x 9x 3
a. f(x) = b. g(x) = c. h(x) = .
Figure 3.34(c) The graph has no 3x 2 + 1 2
3x + 1 3x 2 + 1
horizontal asymptote.
418  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

❺ Use transformations to graph Using Transformations to Graph Rational Functions

rational functions. 1 1
Table 3.2 shows the graphs of two rational functions, f(x) = and f(x) = 2 . The
x x
dashed green lines indicate the asymptotes.

Table 3.2 Graphs of Common Rational Functions

1 1
f(x) = f(x) =
x x2
y y

x= Q 12 , 2R x=
2 4 1
Q– 12 , 4R Q 2, 4R
(1, 1)
1 Q2,
1
R 3
y= 1
Q–2, – 2 R 2
x 2
–2 –1 1 2
y= (–1, 1) (1, 1)
–1 1
(–1, –1) 1 1
Q–2, 4
R Q2, 4 R
–2 x
Q– 12 , –2R –2 –1 1 2
x= y= y=
• Odd function: f(–x) = –f(x) • Even function: f(–x) = f(x)
• Origin symmetry • y-axis symmetry

Some rational functions can be graphed using transformations (horizontal

shifting, stretching or shrinking, reflecting, vertical shifting) of these two common
graphs.

Example 4 Using Transformations to Graph a Rational Function

1 1
Use the graph of f(x) = to graph g(x) = + 1.
x2 (x - 2)2

Solution

  
$GIKPYKVJf x =  6JGITCRJQHy= 6JGITCRJQHg x = +
x x− 
x− 
9GoXGKFGPVKƂGFVYQ UJQYKPIVYQRQKPVUCPF UJQYKPIVYQRQKPVUCPFVJG
RQKPVUCPFVJGCU[ORVQVGU VJGCU[ORVQVGU CU[ORVQVGU
 
)TCRJy=  )TCRJg x = +
y x−  y x−  y
5JKHVWPKVUVQVJGTKIJV 5JKHVWPKVWR
x= #FFVQGCEJ x= #FFVQGCEJ x=
4 4 4
xEQQTFKPCVG yEQQTFKPCVG
3 3 3
(1, 2) (3, 2)
2 2 2
(–1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1) (3, 1)
1 1 1

x x y= x
–2 –1 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
y= y= y= y=
l l l

1 1
Check Point 4 Use the graph of f(x) = to graph g(x) = - 1.
x x + 2
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   419

❻ Graph rational functions. Graphing Rational Functions

1 1
Rational functions that are not transformations of f(x) = or f(x) = 2 can be
x x
graphed using the following procedure:

Strategy for Graphing a Rational Function

The following strategy can be used to graph
p(x)
f(x) = ,
q(x)
where p and q are polynomial functions with no common factors.
1. Determine whether the graph of f has symmetry.
f( -x) = f(x): y@axis symmetry
f( -x) = -f(x): origin symmetry
2. Find the y@intercept (if there is one) by evaluating f(0).
3. Find the x@intercepts (if there are any) by solving the equation p(x) = 0.
4. Find any vertical asymptote(s) by solving the equation q(x) = 0.
5. Find the horizontal asymptote (if there is one) using the rule for
determining the horizontal asymptote of a rational function.
6. Plot at least one point between and beyond each x@intercept and vertical
asymptote.
7. Use the information obtained previously to graph the function between and
beyond the vertical asymptotes.

Example 5 Graphing a Rational Function

2x - 1
Graph: f(x) = .
x - 1

Solution
Step 1 Determine symmetry.

2( -x) - 1 -2x - 1 2x + 1
f( -x) = = =
-x - 1 -x - 1 x + 1
Because f( -x) does not equal either f(x) or -f(x), the graph has neither y@axis
symmetry nor origin symmetry.
Step 2 Find the y@intercept. Evaluate f(0).

2#0 - 1 -1
f(0) = = = 1
0 - 1 -1

The y@intercept is 1, so the graph passes through (0, 1).

Step 3 Find x@intercept(s). This is done by solving p(x) = 0, where p(x) is the
numerator of f(x).
2x - 1 = 0 Set the numerator equal to 0.
2x = 1 Add 1 to both sides.
1
x = Divide both sides by 2.
2

The x@intercept is 12, so the graph passes through 1 12, 0 2 .

420  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Step 4 Find the vertical asymptote(s). Solve q(x) = 0, where q(x) is the
denominator of f(x), thereby finding zeros of the denominator. (Note that the
2x - 1
numerator and denominator of f(x) = have no common factors.)
x - 1
x - 1 = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
x = 1 Add 1 to both sides.
The equation of the vertical asymptote is x = 1.
Step 5 Find the horizontal asymptote. Because the numerator and denominator
2x - 1
of f(x) = have the same degree, 1, the leading coefficients of the numerator
x - 1
and denominator, 2 and 1, respectively, are used to obtain the equation of the
horizontal asymptote. The equation is
2
y = = 2.
1
The equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 2.
Step 6 Plot points between and beyond each x@intercept and vertical
asymptote. With an x@intercept at 12 and a vertical asymptote at x = 1, we evaluate
3
the function at -2, -1, , 2, and 4.
4

3
x -2 -1 2 4
4
2x − 1 5 3 7
f(x) = -2 3
x − 1 3 2 3

Figure 3.35 shows these points, the y@intercept, the x@intercept, and the asymptotes.
2x - 1
Step 7 Graph the function. The graph of f(x) = is shown in Figure 3.36.
x - 1
y y
Technology
2x - 1 7 7
The graph of y = , 6 8GTVKECN 6
x - 1 *QTK\QPVCN CU[ORVQVGx=
obtained using a [ - 6, 6, 1] by 5 5
CU[ORVQVGy= 4 y= 4
[ - 6, 6, 1] viewing rectangle,
3 3
verifies that our hand-drawn
2 2
graph in Figure 3.36 is correct. 1 yKPVGTEGRV 1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
xKPVGTEGRV –2 –2
–3 –3 x=

Figure 3.35 Preparing to graph the Figure 3.36 The graph of

2x - 1 2x - 1
rational function f(x) = f(x) =  l l l
x - 1 x - 1
3x - 3
Check Point 5 Graph: f(x) = .
x - 2

Example 6 Graphing a Rational Function

3x 2
Graph: f(x) = 2
.
x - 4
Solution
3( -x)2 3x 2
Step 1 Determine symmetry. f( -x) = 2
= 2
= f(x): The graph
( -x) - 4 x - 4
of f is symmetric with respect to the y@axis.
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   421

3 # 02 0
Step 2 Find the y@intercept. f(0) = 2 = = 0: The y@intercept is 0, so
0 - 4 -4
the graph passes through the origin.
Step 3 Find the x@intercept(s). 3x 2 = 0, so x = 0: The x@intercept is 0, verifying
that the graph passes through the origin.
Step 4 Find the vertical asymptote(s). Set q(x) = 0. (Note that the numerator
3x 2
and denominator of f(x) = 2 have no common factors.)
x - 4
x2 - 4 = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
x2 = 4 Add 4 to both sides.
x = {2 Use the square root property.
The vertical asymptotes are x = -2 and x = 2.
Step 5 Find the horizontal asymptote. Because the numerator and denominator
3x 2
of f(x) = 2 have the same degree, 2, their leading coefficients, 3 and 1, are
x - 4
used to determine the equation of the horizontal asymptote. The equation is
y = 31 = 3.
Step 6 Plot points between and beyond each x@intercept and vertical asymptote.
With an x@intercept at 0 and vertical asymptotes at x = -2 and x = 2, we evaluate
the function at -3, -1, 1, 3, and 4.
Great Question!
Do I have to evaluate f(x) at all x - 3 -1 1 3 4
five of the values shown in the 2
3x 27 27
table for Step 6? f(x) = -1 -1 4
x2 − 4 5 5
No. Because the graph has y@axis
symmetry, it is not necessary to
evaluate the even function at - 3 27 27
Figure 3.37 shows the points a -3, b , ( -1, -1), (1, -1), a3, b , and (4, 4), the
and again at 3. 5 5
27 y@intercept, the x@intercept, and the asymptotes.
f( -3) = f(3) = 5
3x 2
This also applies to evaluation at Step 7 Graph the function. The graph of f(x) = 2 is shown in Figure 3.38.
- 1 and 1. The y@axis symmetry is now obvious. x - 4

y y
Technology
7 7
3x 2 6 6
The graph of y = 2 , *QTK\QPVCN
x - 4 5 5
generated by a graphing utility, CU[ORVQVGy=
4 4
verifies that our hand-drawn 3 3
graph is correct. xKPVGTEGRVCPF 2 2
yKPVGTEGRV y=
1 1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5
8GTVKECN –2 8GTVKECN –2
–3 x=– –3 x=
CU[ORVQVGx=– CU[ORVQVGx=

Figure 3.37 Preparing to graph Figure 3.38 The graph of

3x 2 3x 2
f(x) = 2 f(x) = 2  l l l

[–6, 6, 1] by [–6, 6, 1] x - 4 x - 4

2x 2
Check Point 6 Graph: f(x) = .
x2 - 9

Example 7 illustrates that not every rational function has vertical and horizontal
asymptotes.
422  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Example 7 Graphing a Rational Function

x4
Graph: f(x) = 2
.
x + 1
Solution 4
( -x) x4
Step 1 Determine symmetry. f( -x) = = = f(x)
( -x)2 + 1 x2 + 1
The graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y@axis.
04 0
Step 2 Find the y@intercept. f(0) = 2
= = 0: The y@intercept is 0.
0 + 1 1
Step 3 Find the x@intercept(s). x 4 = 0, so x = 0: The x@intercept is 0.
Step 4 Find the vertical asymptote(s). Set q(x) = 0.
x2 + 1 = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
2
x = -1 Subtract 1 from both sides.
Although this equation has imaginary roots (x = {i), there are no real roots. Thus,
the graph of f has no vertical asymptotes.
Step 5 Find the horizontal asymptote. Because the degree of the numerator, 4,
is greater than the degree of the denominator, 2, there is no horizontal asymptote.
y Step 6 Plot points between and beyond each x@intercept and vertical asymptote.
8 With an x@intercept at 0 and no vertical asymptotes, let’s look at function values at
7 -2, -1, 1, and 2. You can evaluate the function at 1 and 2. Use y@axis symmetry to
6 obtain function values at -1 and -2:
5
4 f( -1) = f(1) and f( -2) = f(2).
3
2 x -2 -1 1 2
1
x x4 16 1 1 16
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 f(x) = 2
x + 1 5 2 2 5
–2
Step 7 Graph the function. Figure 3.39 shows the graph of f using the points
Figure 3.39 The graph of obtained from the table and y@axis symmetry. Notice that as x approaches infinity
x4
f(x) = 2 or negative infinity (x S ∞ or x S - ∞), the function values, f(x), are getting larger
x + 1
without bound [ f(x) S ∞]. l l l

x4
Check Point 7 Graph: f(x) = 2
.
x + 2
❼ Identify slant asymptotes. Slant Asymptotes
Examine the graph of
x2 + 1
f(x) = ,
y x - 1
shown in Figure 3.40. Note that the degree of the numerator, 2, is greater than the
7
6 degree of the denominator, 1. Thus, the graph of this function has no horizontal
5 asymptote. However, the graph has a slant asymptote, y = x + 1.
4 The graph of a rational function has a slant asymptote if the degree of the
3 5NCPVCU[ORVQVG
y=x+
numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. The equation of the
2
slant asymptote can be found by division. For example, to find the slant asymptote
1
x x2 + 1
–4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 for the graph of f(x) = , divide x - 1 into x 2 + 1:
x - 1
–2 8GTVKECNCU[ORVQVG 2
x= 1x + 1 +
–3 x − 1
1 1 0 1 x − 1) x2 + 0x + 1 .
Figure 3.40 The graph of 1 1
x2 + 1 4GOCKPFGT
f(x) = with a slant asymptote 1 1 2
x - 1
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   423

Observe that

x2 + 1 2
f (x) = =x+1+ .
x−1 x−1

6JGGSWCVKQPQHVJGUNCPVCU[ORVQVGKUy=x+

2
As  x S ∞, the value of is approximately 0. Thus, when  x is large, the
x - 1
function is very close to y = x + 1 + 0. This means that as x S ∞ or as x S - ∞,
the graph of f gets closer and closer to the line whose equation is y = x + 1.
As shown in Figure 3.40, the line y = x + 1 is a slant asymptote of the graph.
p(x)
In general, if f(x) = , p and q have no common factors, and the degree of p is
q(x)
one greater than the degree of q, find the slant asymptote by dividing q(x) into p(x).
The division will take the form

p(x) remainder
= mx + b + .
q(x) q(x)
5NCPVCU[ORVQVG
y=mx+b

The equation of the slant asymptote is obtained by dropping the term with the
remainder. Thus, the equation of the slant asymptote is y = mx + b.

Example 8 Finding the Slant Asymptote of a Rational Function

x 2 - 4x - 5
Find the slant asymptote of f(x) = .
x - 3
Solution
Because the degree of the numerator, 2, is exactly one more than the degree of
5NCPVCU[ORVQVG the denominator, 1, and x - 3 is not a factor of x 2 - 4x - 5, the graph of f has
y y=x– a slant asymptote. To find the equation of the slant asymptote, divide x - 3 into
7 x 2 - 4x - 5:
6
5 3 1 –4 –5
4 3 –3
3 4GOCKPFGT
2 1 –1 –8
1
x
–2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 &TQRVJGTGOCKPFGT
1x − 1 − VGTOCPF[QW NNJCXG
–2 x − 3 VJGGSWCVKQPQH
–3 x − 3) x2 − 4x − 5 . VJGUNCPVCU[ORVQVG

8GTVKECNCU[ORVQVG
x=
The equation of the slant asymptote is y = x - 1. Using our strategy for graphing
Figure 3.41 The graph of x 2 - 4x - 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 rational functions, the graph of f(x) = is shown in Figure 3.41. l l l
f(x) = x - 3
x - 3

2x 2 - 5x + 7
Check Point 8 Find the slant asymptote of f(x) = .
x - 2
424  Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

❽ Solve applied problems Applications

involving rational functions. There are numerous examples of asymptotic behavior in functions that model
real-world phenomena. Let’s consider an example from the business world. The cost
function, C, for a business is the sum of its fixed and variable costs:

C(x) = (fixed cost) + cx.

%QUVRGTWPKVVKOGUVJG
PWODGTQHWPKVURTQFWEGFx

The average cost per unit for a company to produce x units is the sum of its
fixed and variable costs divided by the number of units produced. The average cost
function is a rational function that is denoted by C. Thus,

%QUVQHRTQFWEKPIxWPKVU
ƂZGFRNWUXCTKCDNGEQUVU

(fixed cost) + cx
C(x) = .
x
0WODGTQHWPKVURTQFWEGF

Example 9 Putting the Video-Game Player Inside the Game

We return to the Oculus Rift, described in the section opener, a virtual reality
headset that enables users to experience video games as immersive three-
dimensional environments. Suppose the company that manufactures this invention
has a fixed monthly cost of $600,000 and that it costs $50 to produce each headset.
a. Write the cost function, C, of producing x headsets.
b. Write the average cost function, C, of producing x headsets.
c. Find and interpret C(1000), C(10,000), and C(100,000).
d. What is the horizontal asymptote for the graph of the average cost
function, C? Describe what this represents for the company.

Solution
a. The cost function, C, is the sum of the fixed cost and the variable costs.

C(x) = 600,000 + 50x

(KZGFEQUVKU 8CTKCDNGEQUVHQT
 GCEJJGCFUGV

b. The average cost function, C, is the sum of fixed and variable costs divided
by the number of headsets produced.
600,000 + 50x 50x + 600,000
C(x) = or C(x) =
x x
c. We evaluate
50x + 600,000
C(x) =
x
at 1000, 10,000, and 100,000, interpreting the results.
50(1000) + 600,000
C (1000) = = 650
1000
The average cost per headset of producing 1000 headsets per month is $650.
 Section 3.5 Rational Functions and Their Graphs   425

50(10,000) + 600,000
C (10,000) = = 110
10,000
The average cost per headset of producing 10,000 headsets per month
is $110.
50(100,000) + 600,000
C (100,000) = = 56
100,000
The average cost per headset of producing 100,000 headsets per month
y is $56. Notice that with higher production levels, the cost of producing
each headset decreases.
$200 d. We developed the average cost function
$175 50x + 600,000
Average Cost per Headset

C(x) =
$150 x
for the Company

$125 x+ in which the degree of the numerator, 1, is equal to the degree
C x =
x
$100 of the denominator, 1. The leading coefficients of the numerator
and denominator, 50 and 1, are used to obtain the equation
$75
of the horizontal asymptote. The equation of the horizontal
$50 asymptote is
$25 y= 50
y = or y = 50.
x 1
8000 16,000 24,000 32,000 40,000 48,000 The horizontal asymptote is shown in Figure 3.42. This means
Number of Headsets that the more headsets produced each month, the closer
Produced per Month
the average cost per headset for the company comes to
Figure 3.42 $50. The least possible cost per headset is approaching $50.
Competitively low prices take place with high production levels, posing a
major problem for small businesses. l l l

Check Point 9 A company is planning to manufacture wheelchairs that are

light, fast, and beautiful. The fixed monthly cost will be $500,000 and it will cost
$400 to produce each radically innovative chair.
a. Write the cost function, C, of producing x wheelchairs.
b. Write the average cost function, C, of producing x wheelchairs.
c. Find and interpret C(1000), C(10,000), and C(100,000).
d. What is the horizontal asymptote for the graph of the average cost
function, C? Describe what this represents for the company.

Achieving Success
Be sure to use the Chapter Test Prep on YouTube for each chapter test. The Chapter Test
Prep videos provide step-by-step solutions to every exercise in the test and let you review any
exercises you miss.
Are you using any of the other textbook supplements for help and additional study? These
include:
• The Student Solutions Manual. This contains fully worked solutions to the odd-numbered
section exercises plus all Check Points, Concept and Vocabulary Checks, Review/Preview
Exercises, Mid-Chapter Check Points, Chapter Reviews, Chapter Tests, and Cumulative
Reviews.
• Objective Videos. These interactive videos highlight important concepts from each
objective of the text.
• MyMathLab is a text-specific online course. Math XL is an online homework, tutorial,
and assessment system. Ask your instructor whether these are available to you.