Received: 13 August 2018 | Accepted: 4 April 2019

DOI: 10.1002/pan3.28

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The ‘desert experience’: Evaluating the cultural ecosystem

services of drylands through walking and focusing

Yael Teff‐Seker | Daniel E. Orenstein

Faculty of Architecture and Town

Planning, Technion Israel Institute of Abstract
Technology, Haifa, Israel 1. Assessment of cultural ecosystem services (CES), the non‐material benefits provided
Correspondence to humans by nature, is a particularly challenging activity within the complex field
Daniel E. Orenstein, Technion Israel Institute of ecosystem service (ES) evaluation. Assessing CES of drylands presents an even
of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
Email: [email protected] greater challenge for at least two reasons. First, assessments of dryland ES are few
and limited, particularly regarding CES. Second, CES evaluation methods, even
Funding information
Israel Science Foundation, Grant/Award qualitative ones, generally fail to provide a deep and holistic understanding of the
Number: 1835/16 dynamic relationship between nature experiences, culture and identity.
Handling Editor: Leah Gibbs 2. The current study uses a novel methodology to evaluate CES in a dryland ecosystem:
walking‐focusing interviews. In these interviews, participants are encouraged to
focus on various aspects of their physical, mental and cognitive experiences as
they walked in a natural desert landscape. The interview protocol enabled us to
capture a wealth of knowledge regarding people’s desert experiences.
3. Findings indicate that geological phenomena and other abiotic elements of desert
landscapes rank high among participants’ reported dryland CES, which inspire
complex and multi‐level experiences. Other prominent themes that emerged
included imagination, relaxation, wind and quiet. As deserts are low in primary
productivity and therefore display less conspicuous biological elements, the
protocol was found to be particularly effective for addressing both their living and
non‐living CES.
4. The methodology of walking‐focusing interviews is shown to be able to extract
information pertaining to people’s holistic experience of nature, which suggests
that it is a powerful methodology for CES assessments of landscapes in general.

KEYWORDS
cultural ecosystem services, drylands, focusing, nature experience, walking interviews

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234 | wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pan3
 People and Nature. 2019;1:234–248.
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TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 235

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N ecosystem. We first review the literature on CES and elaborate

on the specific characteristics of dryland or desert CES,1 and the
Despite its clarity and simplicity… the desert wears importance and challenges of their evaluation. We then present
at the same time, paradoxically, a veil of mystery. our methodology for assessing CES—‘walking‐focusing’ inter‐
Motionless and silent it evokes in us an elusive hint views. Next, the article will introduce the characteristics of the
of something unknown, unknowable, about to be re‐ case study area—the Negev desert, Israel. It will then present and
vealed. Since the desert does not act it seems to be discuss the results of the case study to identify and characterize
waiting – but waiting for what?  Edward Abbey, CES in deserts, based on a thematic analysis of 30 walking inter‐
Desert Solitaire, p. 241. views performed in a Negev nature reserve.

As the above quote elucidates, the desert, with its silence,

1.1 | Assessing cultural ecosystem services
clarity and simplicity, can provide valuable experiences to humans,
although these experiences may be difficult to assess or even un‐ While CES definitions differ widely, several categories of CES
derstand. Lane (1998) describes deserts as fierce landscapes, ar‐ have been noted consistently by large‐scale international assess‐
guing that it is not despite, but because of their profound vastness ments. The Millennium Assessment acknowledged the importance
and emptiness, that deserts provide solace as well as encourage of accounting for CES, which it defined as ‘the nonmaterial ben‐
contemplation. Within the ecosystem services (ES) framework— efits people obtain from ecosystems’ (MA, 2005:40). Millennium
one that conceives nature as providing crucial and beneficial ser‐ Assessment CES categories include cultural diversity, spiritual and
vices to humans—these aspects would be considered part of the religious values, knowledge systems, educational values, inspira‐
cultural ecosystem services that deserts provide to individuals tion, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place, culture and
and societies (Safriel et al., 2005; Sagie, Morris, Rofè, Orenstein, heritage values, recreation and tourism (MA, 2005:40). For the pur‐
& Groner, 2013). While there are several definitions for cultural poses of this study, alongside those of the MA, we integrate the CES
ecosystem services (hereafter CES), they all focus on ‘services’ or categories proposed by the UK National Ecosystem Assessment
benefits that nature can provide for humans that are intangible or (UKNEA, 2014), the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on
non‐material (elaborated in the next section). Today, in the wake Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2016), The Economics
of population growth and urbanization, drylands—areas character‐ of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB, 2017) and the Common
ized by scarcity of water—still offer a distinct refuge from urban International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES, 2018). A
life, which allows them to provide significant and often unique summary of the CES noted by each can be viewed in Table 1.
CES, but they themselves are also under increasing development
pressures (Orenstein, Jiang, & Hamburg, 2011).
Some forms of development can contribute to the degradation TA B L E 1 Categories of cultural ecosystem services according to
of desert landscapes and their unique CES—regions that are al‐ comprehensive conceptual and assessment frameworks
ready considered vulnerable ecologically, socially and economically MA (2005) • Spiritual and religious values
• Knowledge and educational
(Portnov & Safriel, 2004; Reyers et al., 2009). Moreover, The United
• Inspiration and aesthetic values
Nations’ 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), which • Social relations
played a significant role in raising scientific awareness regarding CES • Sense of place
and the need to address and evaluate them, specifically noted dry‐ • Cultural diversity, culture and heritage values
• Recreation and tourism
lands as being regions where the lack of knowledge pertaining to ES
UKNEA (2014) • Cultural values
was so great that it hindered decision‐making processes (MA, 2005).
• Shaping identities
This research addresses two distinct gaps in current knowledge • Well‐being, mental and physical health
regarding ES assessment: the first is the lack of methodological ap‐ • Obtaining skills and capabilities
proaches to adequately assess the significance and depth of CES IPBES (2016) • Spiritual services
for human well‐being (Blicharska et al., 2017; Hirons, Comberti, & • Recreation
Dunford, 2016; Milcu, Hanspach, Abson, & Fischer, 2013), and the • Tourism

second is the previously noted lack of research on dryland CES TEEB (2017) • Recreation
• Mental and physical health
specifically (although see, as exceptions, Dudley, MacKinnon, &
• Tourism
Stolton, 2014; O'Farrell et al., 2010, 2011; Orenstein & Groner,
• Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration
2014; Sagie et al., 2013; Quintas‐Soriano, Castro, Castro, & García‐ • Spiritual experience and sense of place
Llorente, 2016; Quintas‐Soriano, García‐Llorente, & Castro, 2018; CICES (2018) • Scientific investigation
Reyers et al., 2009). We introduce a novel methodology derived • Education and training
from the field of psychology for assessing CES in a way that ad‐ • Culture, heritage and aesthetic experiences
• Symbolic and religious meaning
equately captures the depth and significance of CES to human
• Entertainment
experiences of nature, and we apply this methodology to an arid
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236 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

From these lists of CES, the six following general categories can preferences and choices, short and long‐term health effects of ex‐
be extrapolated: posure to nature, etc. (Daniel et al., 2012; Fish et al., 2016). Other
indicators that produce quantitative data used for CES evaluation
1. Social and cultural identity can include condition and function indicators (e.g. number of trees
2. Spiritual values per km2), as well as intermediate services (e.g. number of scenic
3. Cognitive development roads) (Hernandez‐Morcillo, Plieninger, & Bieling, 2013). However, it
4. Recreation and tourism is argued that attempts to assess other CES using quantitative tools,
5. Aesthetic values such as spiritual or identity services, would be inadequate and would
6. Mental and physical well‐being supply very limited information as to the true value of such services
(Chan et al., 2012; Daniel et al., 2012; Milcu et al., 2013; Raymond
For the purpose of this study, we used these six CES categories in our et al., 2018).
thematic analysis of the interviews as the categories guiding the ana‐ In addition to quantitative assessment methods of CES, there
lytical process. We also use these categories to discuss whether other are also a growing number of qualitative methodologies intended to
methodologies, as well as the one proposed here, can provide a ‘voice’ provide different types of insights towards a better understanding
to adequately address all of the different facets of CES, including their of CES. These methodologies not only provide the opportunity to
complexity, depth and intensity. include elements in CES evaluation that are especially difficult to
quantify but also have the potential to help gain a deeper under‐
standing of the diverse aspects of CES. Qualitative methodologies
1.2 | Methodologies for CES assessment
employed to assess CES include methods such as open or semi‐open
There has been an explicit and ubiquitous call from scholars and interviews, questionnaires and group discussions (including focus
practitioners for strengthening the contribution of cultural services groups, deliberative valuation and workshops) (Barton et al., 2017;
to broader ES assessments and developing methodologies for con‐ Eizenberg, Orenstein, & Zimroni, 2017; Orenstein & Groner, 2014),
ducting them (Andersson, Tengö, McPhearson, & Kremer, 2015; as well as field observations and document analysis (Daniel et al.,
Chan et al., 2012; Felipe‐Lucia, Comín, & Escalera‐Reyes, 2015; Klain, 2012).
Satterfield, & Chan, 2014; Luck et al., 2012; Martín‐López, Gómez‐ Existing qualitative and quantitative methodologies can express
Baggethun, García‐Llorente, & Montes, 2014; Menzel & Teng, 2010). some part of these services, and can each produce data to assist sci‐
Some of these calls stem from the desire to de‐emphasize the over‐ entists, stakeholders, professionals and decision‐makers in gaining a
reliance on monetary indicators to value these services. Indeed, better understanding of CES values. However, an approach integrat‐
harsh criticisms of the monetization of nature in ES frameworks lead ing diverse types of methodologies is needed to provide a holistic
to questioning the ethical legitimacy of the entire enterprise of ES view of CES (Chan et al., 2012; Daniel et al., 2012). Raymond and col‐
assessment (Dempsey & Robertson, 2012; Kosoy & Corbera, 2010; leagues (2018) rightly argue that current methodologies for assess‐
Luck et al., 2012). Others have suggested that elevating the role of ing CES cannot adequately capture the coproduction of services, or
non‐monetary based assessments can, at least in part, correct this the complex human‐environment interactions that create, exploit,
situation and salvage the utility of the conceptual framework (Gee & modify, degrade and recreate cultural services. They assert that such
Burkhard, 2010; Hirons et al., 2016; Klain et al., 2014; Martín‐López assessments need to account for the dynamic, nonlinear, multi‐level
et al., 2014; Orenstein & Groner, 2014; Raymond, Giusti, & Barthel, relationships between individuals, cultures and ecosystems. They
2018). suggest a shift towards what they term ‘embodied scientific real‐
While biophysical and monetary evaluations are the main tools ism’, which sees these three elements as inseparable. 2 They propose
for other ES assessments, CES are more difficult to quantify, par‐ an embodied ecosystem approach, which acknowledges scientific
tially due to their highly subjective and complex nature (Chan et al., knowledge as well as local ecological and indigenous knowledge. It
2012; Fish, Church, & Winter, 2016). Examples of direct monetary thus brings a holistic set of relationships to the forefront of envi‐
valuations are actual expenditures for services and other related ronmental management. These include the mind (emotions, percep‐
costs (e.g. travel expenses), while indirect evaluations include, for tions), body (sensations, movement), culture (values, norms) and the
example, contingent valuation, revealed preference methods or physical environment. Finally, they suggest that CES assessment re‐
studies surveying willingness to pay for access to certain CES (Daniel quires openness to different meta‐theories of human‐environment/
et al., 2012; Fish et al., 2016). Such economic assessments have the nature relationships.
obvious advantage of being useful for cost‐benefit analysis used in As suggested by Milcu et al., (2013), new assessment methods
decision‐making processes. This is especially true for certain ser‐ should also consider diverse approaches that capture the vague
vices such as ecotourism and recreation, which are considered more and intangible nature of CES, as they may contribute to ‘the reso‐
suitable for monetary assessment than others (Chan et al., 2012; lution of real‐world problems in the management of human–nature
Daniel et al., 2012). interactions’ (Milcu et al., 2013:44). Methodologies that can address
Other quantitative assessment methodologies are available, these aspects of human experiences of nature, are not meant to re‐
such as those that assess visitor numbers to nature sites, participant place existing CES assessment methodology, but rather, they would
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 237

be complementary by addressing previously underemphasized CES In terms of CES, the perceived desolate nature of drylands, often
and by augmenting the meaning and dynamics of CES. Finally, CES sparsely populated and featuring wide uninhabited spaces and rela‐
researchers have recently called for interdisciplinary or transdisci‐ tively pristine environments, increases the attractiveness of deserts
plinary methodologies to fill these gaps, including methods and con‐ for residents and tourists (EMG, 2011; Safriel, 2009). Thus, rather
ceptual frameworks from the fields of psychology and ethnography than adopting a narrow approach to CES that sees only biological
(e.g. Fish et al., 2016; Hirons et al., 2016; Raymond et al., 2018). In elements of the landscape providing services, some researchers
the next section, we explain why these methodological consider‐ (e.g. Termorshuizen & Opdam, 2009; Westerink, Opdam, Rooij, &
ations can be especially critical for CES assessment in drylands. Steingröver, 2017) promote the broader, multifunctional approach of
‘landscape services’ that includes both eco‐physical and cultural/aes‐
thetic aspects of environments.
1.3 | CES in drylands: A special case
A shift in the conceptualization of ecosystem services from a more
Since drylands are characterized as being low in primary produc‐ restrictive definition focusing only on biological ecosystem compo‐
tivity, they are also often perceived as devoid of the CES that are nents to inclusion of non‐living components of the ecosystem allows
associated with greener landscapes. Landscape preference studies for a much more holistic assessment of the diverse benefits provided
indicate that most people prefer green, vegetated environments by dryland ecosystems. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
and the presence of water in the landscape (Falk & Balling, 2010; for example, defines ecosystems as ‘a dynamic complex of plant, ani‐
Ulrich, 1977; Zube, Sell, & Taylor, 1982). Deserts, on the other hand, mal and micro‐organism communities and their non‐living environment
rank relatively low in terms of natural landscape preference. Herzog interacting as a functional unit’ (CBD, 1992). The UKNEA (2014) and
and Barnes (1999) found that preference and tranquillity were both CICES (2018) also foster an approach that includes both the biotic and
rated lower for deserts than fields, forests and large waterscapes. the abiotic features of environments in the assessment of CES, includ‐
This claim is further supported by the work of Real and colleagues ing topographic and geomorphological attributes in their definition of
(2000), in which respondents preferred the presence of water and these services, for example, geodiversity (UKNEA, 2014).
green natural (non‐artificial) landscapes on both cognitive and psy‐ Inclusion of the concepts of ‘geodiversity’ and ‘geological heri‐
chological levels. Shalev (2016) found that visualization of deserts, tage’ is important to the assessment of CES in drylands. Ruban (2017)
in comparison to ‘green’ landscapes, reduced respondents’ perceived contends that while, ecologically, the geological environment is often
confidence in their ability to change negative habits and augmented considered a mere ‘container’, geodiversity and geological heritage
feelings of stress. However, they found that desert landscapes provide cultural services for individuals and societies and thus re‐
were less stressful and more attractive when compared to urban quires conservation. Generally, geodiversity can be understood as
landscapes. the various types of geological features on a given territory that lead
Safriel (2009) has noted that some dryland attributes perceived to people's admiration of the geological uniqueness, complexity and
as adversities may also be framed as positive services if other as‐ beauty. The creation of the UNESCO Global Geopark network par‐
pects of their potential are taken into consideration. For example, ticularly demonstrates the growing recognition of the cultural signifi‐
what some see as desert disadvantages, such as elevated levels of cance of geological heritage. Geodiversity, as a foundation of dryland
solar radiation and heat, can be turned into advantages, as they CES, can be a valuable resource, used for scientific investigations,
make deserts the perfect place for alternative energy production, education and tourism, which can all bring direct and indirect socio‐
algae farming and certain forms of aquaculture. These are part of economic benefits to local communities (Ruban, 2017). Geodiversity,
what Safriel terms ‘alternative livelihoods’, which display decreas‐ alongside other abiotic features, was also perceived as a valuable
ing dependence on the natural biological productivity of the area. dryland service in several studies in Israel's Negev desert (e.g. Finzi
Orenstein and Groner (2014) noted that two communities living in et al., 2018; Reichel & Urieli, 2003; Sagie et al., 2013).
the same ecosystem, but separated by a national border, displayed
markedly different capacities to turn disservices into services, de‐
pending on economic wherewithal and political and social organi‐ 2 | M ATE R I A L S A N D M E TH O DS
zation. Additionally, although often studied less than other ES, the
CES of drylands can have similar and even higher value than other
2.1 | Case study area
types of ES. In the case of drylands in southern Africa, for instance,
tourism was found to be an extremely significant ES (Egoh, Reyers, Approximately 52% of Israel's land area is considered dryland eco‐
Rouget, Bode, & Richardson, 2009; Reyers et al., 2009; Wangai, systems. As in other dryland regions around the world, Israel's
Burkhard, & Müller, 2016). CES were also found to be particularly drylands are characterized by a warm and dry climate, with large
important in Israeli and Jordanian Arava Desert (Sagie et al., 2013), temperature differences between day and night and between sea‐
and in current case study site—the Negev desert. These included sons (INEA, 2017). Land cover contains mostly sparse shrubs and
services such as tourism and eco‐tourism, recreation, education annuals and solitary trees, with higher productivity in riverbeds.
and scientific discovery, and religious sites (Orenstein et al., 2016; Annual precipitation is between 25 and 285 mm, with 75% of the
Teschner, Garb, & Tal, 2010). precipitation falling between December and February and high
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238 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

variance in total precipitation between years. Israel's drylands host characteristics in order to avoid a demographically homogenous
approximately 1,330 plant species, 100 species of mammals and rep‐ sampling. A conscious effort was made to interview people of
tiles, 300 species of birds and many invertebrates. Climate change different ages (ranging between 12 and 76), genders (12 male
has also affected dryland areas, which see more extreme events and 18 female) and ethnicities (Jewish and Bedouin; diversity
such as floods and droughts (INEA, 2017:36–40). of religious observance and non‐observant), and with various
The current study took place in the Har HaNegev region, using a backgrounds in terms of level of education (with and without
marked trail in a nature reserve called ‘Bor Hemet’. The trail begins formal higher education; diverse disciplinary backgrounds) and
about 20 km from Mitzpe Ramon (see Figure 1), a small town (popu‐ occupation (e.g. teacher, scientist, tour guide, graphic designer,
lation ~5,000) in the center of Israel's arid Negev Desert, and strad‐ engineer, student, pensioner, etc.). Participants were recruited
dling the northern edge of the hyper‐arid Ramon Crater (Finzi et al., using social networks, personal contacts and advertising through
2018). The crater itself is a natural geological phenomenon and a pop‐ a local research station. Importantly, not all the respondents had
ular nature reserve. There is also scattered Bedouin settlement and a positive predisposition towards desert landscapes. In fact, 10
single‐family farms in the vicinity of the town. Two of the main land of the 30 respondents explicitly stated that they disliked the
uses in the area are designated nature reserves and military training desert.
areas—the two overlapping intermittently (Gordon, 2013). Other uses As noted above, the objective of the methodology is to extract
include agriculture, mineral and building material extraction, tourism information from individuals regarding their personal experience of
and waste disposal (INEA, 2017; Orenstein et al., 2011). nature. Results do not purport to be statistically representative, but
The path length was approximately 3 km. It was selected based rather they give researchers insights into the authentic experiences
on the following criteria: (a) isolation from developed areas and of‐ and perceptions of individuals and their interactions with nature in
fering the opportunity for immersion in nature; (b) relatively easy drylands. This was also suitable for the two additional research ob‐
walking regarding length and topography, thereby accommodating jectives, which were to provide proof of concept for the methodol‐
for a variety of participants, and; (c) includes typical Negev desert ogy and to expand on the types of knowledge that can be extracted
landscape and associated plants and wildlife. Importantly, the walks using this methodology in drylands.
were conducted during in autumn, when the extremities of weather
would not be a dominant feature of the walks.
2.3 | Walking and focusing: A new methodology for
2.2 | Sample CES assessment

Our sample consisted of 30 individuals 3 intentionally drawn Walking interviews are useful for understanding dimensions of
from a variety of backgrounds and diverse in demographic participants’ spatial experience that might otherwise be difficult to

F I G U R E 1 Study site in the Negev

highlands. The aridity Index (AI) is based
on the ratio between precipitation and
evaporation. An arid climate is when
0.05 < AI < 0.2; and in a hyper‐arid climate
AI < 0.05. Map created using ArcGIS®
software by Esri. Copyright © Esri. All
rights reserved
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TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 239

elicit. They also have been found to encourage improved physical 2. Look around—what do you see? How does your body react to it?
immersion and mental wandering (Pierce & Lawhon, 2015). All three Why?
attributes can be useful in gaining more insight into the way cultural 3. Focus on something close—‘Zoom In’
services are experienced by individuals. Additionally, Anderson (2004) 4. Close your eyes and focus on other senses
claims that, for geographers, ‘conversations held whilst walking 5. Give a ‘personal name’ to your experience (Why did you choose
through a place have the potential to generate a collage of collaborative it?)
knowledge’ (Anderson, 2004:1), which included atmospheres,
emotions, reflections and beliefs, as well as catalysing access to We also adhered to the following general guidelines for administering
intellects, rationales and ideologies. Anderson also argues that these the interviews:
additional types of knowledge can go beyond external knowledge
(generated by what he calls ‘centers of power’). This could therefore • No further interviewer input, only follow‐up questions;
be seen as part of an effort to create more equitable and collaborative • Ask: Why? What else comes up? Can you describe (this) for me?
forms of knowledge (Mohan 1999 in Anderson, 2004:260). • No judgement, no leading, accept what comes;
Although walking interviews have become increasingly popu‐ • Circle back to the person's experience as it takes place here and
lar as an interview technique in the past two decades, Pierce and now.
Lawhon (2015) noted that the methodology itself is seldom stud‐
ied, and that most studies using walking interviews are conducted
in urban environments. These are mostly based on ‘go along’ inter‐
2.5 | Data analysis
views, in which the interviewer follows participants as they choose
their own path (Adams & Guy, 2007; Anderson, 2004; Kusenbach, Interviews took between 15 and 25 min embedded within the 2–3 hr
2003; Pierce & Lawhon, 2015). In the current study, researchers walks. They were recorded, transcribed and analysed using thematic
chose a single, pre‐determined path in a non‐urban area for all in‐ analysis, which is widely used in qualitative textual analysis to iden‐
terviews, in order to compare respondents’ impressions of natural tify patterns and themes relevant to a certain research question or
features in a given environment. field of inquiry (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir‐Cochrane,
In this study, we use a new methodology that combines walk‐ 2006). The process involves the following stages: (a) collecting the
ing interviews in natural landscapes and the technique of focusing. data (e.g. from interviews); (b) generating and assigning short de‐
Focusing was developed by Eugene Gendlin for therapeutic appli‐ scriptions or ‘codes’ to different sections in the text in order to or‐
cations, turning attention to the ‘felt sense’ the body provides, and ganize the information; (c) searching for reoccurring themes among
focusing on parts of one's experience often perceived, mistakenly, as the codes, and; (d) explaining the way in which these codes appear
irrelevant ‘background’. Focusing also emphasizes minimal content in themes or patterns (Aronson, 1994; Braun & Clarke, 2006). Code
or influence by the listener, so as not to influence the authentic ex‐ analysis can be performed using several approaches: It can be theory
perience of the speaker or ‘focusee’ (Gendlin, 2007). Walking‐focus‐ or model‐driven, or it can be bottom‐up (field‐based) or result from
ing interviews would thus provide insight into place‐based holistic prior research (Boyatzis, 1998; Cho & Lee, 2014). For the purposes
experiences, in addition to opinions and preferences. of this study, a theme was deemed as such if it was found in three
Eisenberg (2016, 2018) applied focusing and walking interviews in or more interviews. A theme was considered strong if it was ex‐
the framework of landscape architecture and landscape perceptions. pressed by 10 or more participants. We also measured the overall or
Following the same approach, we designed a walking‐focusing proto‐ total frequency of the themes, in order to give additional ‘weight’ to
col that allows a very free flow of ideas, in which the interviewer only themes that were, on average, mentioned more times by each par‐
asks participants to focus on different aspects of their desert experi‐ ticipant (see Figure 2, ‘total mentions’ axis).
ence, thereby expressing their perceived CES (see below). We used the six CES categories listed above as our theme‐groups
or meta‐themes: (a) social and cultural identity; (b) spiritual values;
(c) cognitive development (including knowledge, skills, education, re‐
2.4 | Interview methodology and protocol:
flection and inspiration); (d) recreation and tourism; (e) aesthetic val‐
Walking and focusing in nature
ues; and (f) mental and physical well‐being (See Appendix 1 for the
For the purposes of the current study, the following protocol was assignment of themes to CES categories). In the following section,
used, incorporating the basic conceptual framework to the steps we discuss the themes that relate to the aforementioned categories
recommended by Gendlin (2007) for the practice of focusing. We and additional insights obtained from the interview data.
asked participants to focus on different aspects of their experience
using several prompts and follow‐up questions, aimed to allow them
to do this as they walked. The protocol was as follows: 3 | R E S U LT S

1. First, focus on the physical experience of walking. What comes Participants described a variety of experiences, at times complex
up? and/or involving several types or levels—physical, emotional and
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240 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

F I G U R E 2 Strong themes mentioned

by participants in Negev interviews

cognitive. Interviews contained information addressing not only their of desert plants and animals, were found to be of particular interest
impressions of the ‘here and now’ but also mentioning past experi‐ to most interviewees. Perhaps not surprisingly, locals and scientists
ences, and including references to real or imagined personal, cultural had more knowledge about the desert and enjoyed displaying that
or professional worlds of content. Some of the codes and themes knowledge, often explaining or demonstrating how it added value
were difficult to attribute to just one of the six categories below, to their overall experience. One participant with a bachelor's degree
which suggests that the meta‐themes should not be considered as in biology said:
exclusive but rather as, at least occasionally, overlapping. The most
common two dryland CES categories found in the analysis were cog‐ As someone who learned about botany and also a
nitive development, and mental and physical well‐being. They were lot about desert plants, their ability to survive, their
followed closely by aesthetics and recreation, with factors in the two reemergence when they get wet, I mean they have
categories of social‐cultural‐identity services and spiritual services, this mechanism that keeps the seeds really well so
reported the least (See Figure 2). that they don’t sprout too early, so they actually have
several defensive layers and after a certain amount of
rain they’re ready to open up. There’s something half
3.1 | Cognitive services: imagination,
emotional about it. A type of suspiciousness that is
curiosity and knowledge
like being suspicious towards humans. And the idea
Imagination was found to be a strong theme, with references to of how, how a plant even survives in the desert is
possible past and future events (e.g. floods), comparing natural phe‐ something enchanting. Their meatiness, their ability
nomena or objects to man‐made constructions, seeing the desert to be exactly as they need to be. They’re not trying,
landscape as reminiscent of biblical or ancient civilizations or even they’re just a success of evolution. Other creatures
other planets. Another commonly imagined scenario was water and plants just died out. They’re just optimally suited
flowing in the riverbed, either calmly or as a flood, with participants to be where they are.
contemplating how that event would change the landscape in terms
of geo‐ and biodiversity. The frequent reference to water was in‐ Other cognitive connections and use of terminology to explain
teresting because at the time of the interview there was no water experiences stemming from one's professional or personal fields of
anywhere on the path. content were also found to be a common theme. A history teacher
Curiosity and scientific knowledge pertaining to geological pro‐ imagined historical events; artists and participants who worked
cesses, as well as to the biological mechanisms and characteristics with graphics spoke about colour schemes, angels and composition;
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 241

biologists focused more on biological phenomena; a water specialist her reaction to the visual aspect of the landscape in front of a respon‐
kept thinking about where the water flowed and how it impacted geo‐ dent whose family recently moved to the area, one participant said:
logical processes; and a camel herder mentioned where the camels
walked or where a good place would be to sit and make coffee along For me, the main experience is that my heart is ex‐
the way while the camels rested or stopped to drink. Exemplifying sev‐ panding, I have a lot of air. A feeling of space on the
eral CES themes, one participant, a landscape architecture student, one hand and a kind of awe on the other. I…the won‐
noted: ders of nature, the power of the stones, the boulders,
the contrast of colors…that “does it” for me. […] In my
These Atlantic terebinth [trees] really move me. I don’t fantasy I want to live in the desert. It causes me to
know, its…every tree like that…wow. You say to your‐ suddenly breath deeper, be calmer. Raise my eyes and
self, “How much? Which? What kind of conditions it observe. To downshift and take a slower pace. Put
survives! The stone, and you can really imagine, not my worries and thoughts aside and understand that
really, but like, what did the water do here? How much everything is small compared to the power of nature.
power! I mean, up to there [looks at the depth of the
crevices], up to that height, and the crevices, and it
brings tears to my eyes. It’s the most beautiful thing
3.3 | Mental and physical well‐being: Clean air,
there is.
energy and relaxation
Main themes of mental well‐being related to relaxation, de‐stress‐
ing and a sense of peacefulness. While physical well‐being was ad‐
3.2 | Aesthetic values: Geodiversity, shapes and
dressed frequently by all participants, it should be noted that the
colour combinations
methodology itself prompts, or at least encourages, them to do so.
Aesthetic value was related to many of the experiences articulated This is because focusing is designed in a way that urges focusers to
by the participants, with strong themes relating to the positive aes‐ repeatedly address the physical or sensory aspect of their experi‐
thetic value of the geodiversity, with particular references to col‐ ence, the body's ‘felt sense’, and only then to continue to consider
our schemes and shapes. Trees, flowers and green plants were also the other aspects of that experience (Gendlin, 2007). Nonetheless,
considered as aesthetically pleasing but received less attention than the themes themselves within this category can still be assessed
geodiversity when not prompted by the interviewer. (If interview‐ and can still give insight into what type of services drylands offer
ees chose to focus only on non‐living objects, the interviewer would to people. Participants alluded most often to the quiet, the clean air
then ask them to focus on something living that they experienced). (that facilitated breathing), the touch and the sound of the wind and
Negative services or aesthetic disservices were experienced per‐ the pleasant autumn weather as contributing to their physical enjoy‐
taining to dry (‘dead‐looking’) plants, and at times to the general ment; this, in addition to their enjoyment from the physical activity
landscape that was considered ‘lifeless’. These sentiments were of walking in nature, as previously mentioned.
most often expressed by people who claimed not to like the desert, Another strong theme was feeling energized, and another was a
and often called it a ‘boring’ landscape. However, it was also the case sudden urge to do various physical activities inspired by the partic‐
for some ‘desert lovers’, especially local residents, who expressed ipants’ experience: run, climb the mountains, play on the rock for‐
concern for desert organisms due to the particularly small amount of mations, lay on the ground and look at the sky or sleep, fly, walk
rain that had fallen that year in the area. Both groups expressed aes‐ barefoot or explore one of the caves. One participant said:
thetic pleasure to see green vegetation and flowers, as well as animal
scat, some noting that it was a sign that the desert was still ‘alive’. I feel so unmotivated all the time. Like I lack any desire
In terms of geodiversity, natural caves and other areas providing [to do anything]. And suddenly, I don’t know, hiking
shelter from sun and rain were mentioned often by participants as [here] gave me a sense of inner peace. It fills me with
aesthetically pleasing. Stone structures, especially those perceived energy […], adrenalin and a desire to do something
as reminiscent of human‐made constructions, were also found to be […]. It’s like I imagine myself, while I’m walking, going
appealing by several respondents. Larger geological objects, such as home and turning the music up to full volume and
the mountains were also considered as aesthetically pleasing. Most jumping on the bed. Those kind of energies, these fun
notably, geodiversity, including the crater, the mountains, the caves energies, like an electric current through my body.
and crevices, rock formations and other geological phenomena, as
well as their colours and assorted layers and shapes, provided some Themes of physical and mental well‐being, including relaxation and
of the most extreme, at times even emotional or spiritual, reactions peacefulness, were expressed by all types of participants, including by
from interviewees. some of those who claimed to not like the desert. However, the latter
The following statement is a good example of how aesthetic expe‐ also frequently explained that they were not enjoying this experience as
riences can relate to other levels or categories of CES. When depicting much as they would have in a greener natural area, as they are not ‘desert
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
242 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

people’ but rather ‘love green places’ and ‘nature’. This dichotomous per‐ activity as well as cultural significance for many people (see Lane,
ception—of people who are either ‘green lovers’ or ‘desert lovers’—was 1998 for a comprehensive analysis). However, in the current study,
exclusive to this group, as was the perception of ‘nature’ as not including references to a specific deity or to prayer were relatively rare,
the desert and pertaining only to (more) vegetated natural areas. They and interestingly were not even made by the few religious par‐
also perceived the desert as ‘boring’, ‘lonely’ and at times ‘dangerous’ to ticipants. A more common reference was made to the ‘wonders of
a much larger extent than ‘desert lovers’. Despite having this preexist‐ creation’, mostly in relation to intricate and remarkable biological
ing perception, participants claimed to generally enjoy the experience and geological processes, as well as for the pleasing aesthetic at‐
and often characterized it as slightly boring but still ‘fun’ (often using the tributes of the landscapes. However, these were not necessarily
specific word for ‘fun’ in Hebrew—‘Kef’—to describe how they feel). A directly linked to a deity, but rather to ‘creation’, ‘nature's forces’,
main ‘mitigating factor’ for them was the opportunity to socialize with ‘the universe’ or ‘the desert’ (as a powerful force of nature).
friends and family and the opportunity to get away from the pressures Biblical references appeared several times, particularly those that
and worries of everyday life, as well as more physical aspects such as the characterized the relatively undisturbed landscape as ‘biblical’ or
quietness of the desert, the clean air, the physical exercise, the pleasant reminiscent of biblical times. Such references may be particularly
breeze and feeling the warmth of the sun on one's skin. emphasized due to the significance of the location, considered the
‘Holy Land’ of three prominent monotheistic religions, with the
desert having an important place in the narratives of these faiths.
3.4 | Social and cultural identity: Home,
If we broaden the definition of spiritual ES to mean anything that
friends and belonging
pertains to the perception of one's spirit or soul, or even to the notion
In terms of identity, locals, both Jewish and Bedouin, tended to of mindfulness, then it is possible that other services mentioned by
use the term ‘home’, but a few other participants, who had spent participants can be relevant to this category. For instance, two strong
much time in the desert in previous years, also said that they felt themes were ‘disconnecting from everyday life’ and ‘gaining new per‐
like they were ‘coming home’. The same group said that the land‐ spective’. These aspects of contemplation and gaining insight on the
scape felt ‘familiar’, and four participants used the same anthropo‐ non‐material aspects of life and the world might also be considered
morphizing notion regarding plants, claiming, as one of them puts as spiritual services. As one interviewee put it: ‘For a little while I
it, that ‘when I see plants that I know, it feels a little like friends come out of the ‘me’, the individual that sits in front of the computer’.
that I get to see again’. The relatively common theme of feeling Another said: ‘I think [being in the desert] will just help me clear my
‘connected to the desert’ can also indicate a relationship between head of everything, to connect to my…inside, to my heart. […] I see
identity and place. Locals (both Bedouin and Jewish), in contrast myself emptying out all of the bad energy that I have and all the bad
to tourists, tended to stray off the official (marked) trail. They also thoughts and just connect to…to my soul and feel this inner peace’.
tended to smell and taste plants, touch objects such as rocks and
even handle dry animal scat, more often than non‐locals. One 3.6 | Recreation and tourism: Walking, social
participant picked leaves off the bushes to taste them as he went gathering and unusual experiences
along the trail and turned over rocks to see whether there were
All but two of the interviewees stressed their enjoyment from walk‐
small animals hiding under them. Another demonstrated how he
ing in the desert on the chosen path, and many related to walking in
crushes the leaves of a bush to create a type of soap and pro‐
nature in general, or even just walking as an activity that made them
ceeded to clean his hands with the excreted liquid.
feel good. However, the fact that the interviews were constructed
Social benefits were mentioned mostly in terms of enjoying the
in a way that included this activity—walking in a desert nature re‐
company of friends and family in nature, although often with little
serve—reference to this activity would not be indicative of any gen‐
or no relation to the specific landscape or ecosystem. Interestingly,
eral trend. References to other recreational activities or to other
these social benefits were more frequently emphasized by people
types of tourism in the interviews were scarce.
who characterized themselves as ‘not liking the desert’. One inter‐
One might argue that broader definitions of recreation and tour‐
viewee admitted: ‘Let's say it this way: if it weren't for my friends, I
ism ES could potentially include any positive experiences that would
wouldn't have come to the desert’, while another stated that ‘with
draw visitors to the desert and would thereby include most—if not
all due respect, when I go home I won't remember the view, but I
all—of the other five CES categories listed above. If people have pos‐
will remember the stories my friends told me’. She later added that
itive experiences in the desert, even if they are considered to have
while she found the landscape somewhat boring, it had provided a
cultural, cognitive, emotional, physical or even spiritual value—they
wonderful backdrop for that specific social gathering.
may be considered to underlie the recreational draw of the desert,
and as such, be very relevant aspects of tourism.
3.5 | Spiritual values: God, biblical landscapes and a
new perspective 3.7 | The holistic nature experience
The desert has been noted by historians, anthropologists and The ability to gain insight to the authentic, complex, multi‐layered
theologists as a special location in terms of religious and spiritual holistic experience of participants was found to be another distinct
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 243

advantage of the walking‐while‐focusing methodology. The follow‐ 4.1 | Dryland CES: Diverse, integrated holistic
ing observation by one of the participants is a good example for the interaction with the ecosystem
type of complexity of the experience that can be elicited and under‐
The six CES categories, as derived from multiple sources, provide a
stood using this method:
useful tool for thematic analysis and for organizing and listing the
various CES that drylands can provide for people, as we did in the
[I’m enjoying] everything, the company, the weather,
previous section. However, the analysis also indicated that many ex‐
everything. […] I find it hard to zero in on one spe‐
periences, or at least their accounts, did not fit neatly into one cat‐
cific thing, but I think that the combination between
egory or another. While we previously acknowledged the potential
this ravine, the blue sky and the temperature, and the
relevance of other cultural services to the category of tourism and
fact that the trail is not too difficult […]. Right now, I
recreation, it is not the only case where the lines between CES cat‐
can focus much more on this slalom that this ravine is
egories can be blurry or where potential overlap may exist. Despite
creating, with the contrast of the blue sky, and I can
the initial effort to delineate them, we therefore suggest that these
address the beauty of this place, it’s not something
be perceived less as exclusive categories, and more as different em‐
specific. I won’t talk to you, not about this bush, parts
phases of the various aspects of CES.
of which I can see are blooming and the question is
Likewise, we found that the benefits provided by dryland eco‐
how, from what water? Because there is no water
systems are derived from the holistic experience in nature, and only
here. I mean there was, you can see by its color. But
rarely from a particular biotic feature of the ecosystem. Furthermore,
it’s everything, the sum of it.
abiotic features of the environment (geology, climate) prove to be a
significant source of CES, individually and through interaction with
This is an example of the complex mixture of social, aesthetic (in‐
other landscape features. Interviews contained many references to
cluding shapes, colours and composition), cognitive (contemplation
geophysical aspects, but also to other properties such as tempera‐
of natural processes and heightened awareness to details), physical
ture, the wind and the sun, the colour of the sky and the shape and
(temperature) and recreation (enjoying physical activity) services ex‐
even colour of the clouds. Other aspects may include the cleanliness
periences by one person, at one moment, all at once. It is also indic‐
of the air and the quiet of the desert—two of the strongest themes,
ative of the complexity of this type of experience, and in that sense,
alongside geodiversity, mentioned by interviewees as positive dry‐
resembles other accounts voiced by participants that included mul‐
land CES (as shown in Figure 3).
tiple levels or categories of CES simultaneously.
Additionally, some biotic elements mentioned by interviewees,
namely snakes, scorpions, onagers (wild asses) and camels, were not
observed during the interview but were nonetheless mentioned as
4 | D I S CU S S I O N
something they associate with the desert, recollect seeing in the
past, or may be seen as a possible threat. However, these still have
[...] It seems to me that the strangeness and marvel of
‘existence value’, in that the mere knowledge or perception of the
existence are emphasized here, in the desert, by the
existence of such species in a certain environment (especially ‘char‐
comparative sparsity of the flora and fauna. Life not
ismatic species’) is part of the CES of specific environments. This is
crowded upon life as in other places, but scattered
the case even if they fall under the category of ‘nonuse values’ that is
abroad in sparseness and simplicity, with a generous
even if stakeholders do not enjoy or experience them first hand (Fish
gift of space for every herb and bush and tree, each
et al., 2016; Hirons et al., 2016).
stem of grass, so that the living organism stands out
Including the abiotic components of environments in ES valua‐
bold and brave and vivid against the lifeless sun and
tion is supported by several scholars and large‐scale ES assessment
barren rock.
initiatives such as CICES (2018) and UKNEA (2014). More specifi‐
Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire, pp. 30–31
cally, the approach of landscape services (Termorshuizen & Opdam,
2009; Westerink et al., 2017), is closest to the one supported by
We begin the last section, our conclusions, with a quote from
the findings of the current study. It advocates seeing the landscape
the same book as that which appears in the beginning of this article
patterns and processes as the objects of service assessment, rather
(Abbey, 1968). This time, the author relates how the ‘sparseness’ and
than the ecosystem or its biodiversity, which can provide additional
‘simplicity’ of the desert lends more prominence to the objects it does
layers of relevant information to the assessment of services provided
host, living and non‐living. In the current case study, findings indicate
by environments. This term can also, as the rationale behind land‐
that the focusing interviews allowed participants to take advantage of
scape services terminology maintains, unify scientists of different
this feature and better notice the cultural services provided by dry‐
disciplines, as well as stakeholders, planners and decision‐makers, in
lands—aesthetic, spiritual, social, cognitive, recreational, physical and
creating an interdisciplinary knowledge base suitable for collabora‐
mental—and how they interact and influence each other until it is diffi‐
tive landscape planning and policy.
cult to tell where one ends and the other begins.
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
244 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

F I G U R E 3 Number of mentions
of particular CES themes for drylands
relative to their spatial scale (number in
the circle represents the total number of
participants among the 30 respondents
who mentioned this them)

‘bored’, and that they would therefore not want to spend more than
4.2 | Disservices of drylands
a day in this environment. Interestingly, desert enthusiasts men‐
While most participants reported having an overall pleasant experi‐ tioned almost no disservices, although some expressed concern for
ence, some mentioned less positive aspects of their interaction with plants and animals due to the visible effects of the long drought (e.g.
the landscape. Most often, this came from those who characterized scarcity of green plants).
themselves as people who ‘do not like the desert’. Although this was These insights can contribute to the understanding of desert CES,
not a criterion for participant selection, self‐defined desert‐averse as they demonstrate the existence of (at least) two seemingly distinct
participants constituted a third of the interviewees, which provided groups that have different perceptions of these services. The same
additional insights as to dryland CES for different types of stake‐ phenomena (quiet, remoteness, low plant life visibility) can be seen
holders or visitors. The group was characterized by themes such as as positive by one person and negative by another. Protecting the
seeing the desert as ‘lifeless’ and ‘depressing’. A few even exclaimed natural authentic characteristics of dryland landscapes would thus
that they do not like the desert because they like ‘nature’, essentially be considered highly desirable by desert enthusiasts, while desert‐
defining the desert as ‘non‐nature’, as they only considered non‐arid averse visitors might prefer the trend of ‘greening the desert’, com‐
landscapes to be ‘nature’. monly implemented in the area (cf. Orenstein, Porat, & Tsalyuk, 2018).
Further insights can be gained by what this group did consider
as services the desert provided for them: opportunities to spend
4.3 | Walking‐while‐focusing:
quality time with friends and family, a place that enables them to
Methodological advantages
enjoy the physical activity and challenge of walking, and a place
where they can get away from the urban environment and the stress The novel methodology proposed here, of walking interviews combined
of everyday life. They did, however, often see geodiversity as aes‐ with focusing, has proven to be uniquely suited for accessing information
thetically pleasing and interesting aspect of the landscape. Finally, that pertains to holistic experiences of participants regarding the CES
while some desert‐averse participants said they enjoyed the quiet of drylands. This is noteworthy because while other qualitative and
and secluded nature of the desert, reported by ‘desert enthusiasts’ quantitative methodologies can and do often provide data regarding
as a strong positive theme, others said it made them feel ‘lonely’ and attitudes or opinions pertaining to separate aspects of the landscape,
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN People and Nature | 245

the immediate, authentic and holistic experience, with its intricate and obtained by this methodology can therefore be used to understand
illusive nature, is more difficult to capture. The proposed method fills entire experiences, as well as specific attitudes and preferences.
a noted conceptual and methodological gap in CES evaluation efforts As the principles of focusing purposefully limit the content orig‐
declared in the theoretical literature on CES. Specifically, it can ‘widen inating from the listener/interviewer, it arguably also has the poten‐
the extent of people, values and CES considered in ES evaluations’ tial to produce purer (i.e. more authentic) information in this context.
(Hirons et al., 2016:23) and connect ‘environmental places and cultural We suggest that due to the richness and depth of the data obtained
practices that link together biophysical entities and processes with through this method, it would also be useful as a highly qualitative,
wider human well‐being’ (Fish et al., 2016:8). preliminary step to determining what types of cultural ecosystem
Findings also indicate that focusing supported the existing bene‐ services are most relevant for assessment—services that may other‐
fits of walking interviews, such as making respondents more inclined wise go unnoticed by traditional methods of evaluation. This leads
to speak freely and openly about their experiences, encouraging us to another scientific opportunity provided by this method, using a
place‐based information and receiving rich data pertaining to sen‐ mixed‐methods approach: walking‐focusing interviews could be the
sory experiences. It also helped them stay focused on the ‘here and basis of hypothesis building, with these hypotheses later tested by
now’, which is particularly compatible with the place‐specific data quantitative tools (e.g. surveys).
that can be obtained by walking interviews. The aspect of sensory Walking‐focusing interviews can provide insights that can also
experiences, impossible to replicate in other settings, is a particular be used for other applications, such as planning, policy or manage‐
strength of walking interviews, which are amplified by the emphasis ment. If we take the example of sound, noting that quiet or lack of
that focusing puts on physical sensations. Additionally, the very act urban noise are a strong theme in terms of their importance to visi‐
of walking and focusing seemed to increase the participants’ affin‐ tors’ experience, then tourism and spatial planners could include this
ity to desert ecosystems and augment the positive aspects of their consideration when they think of building or paving a road next to a
nature experience. Future endeavours, academic or others, could nature reserve—even if these do not enter the nature reserve itself.
therefore attempt to use this method not only as a tool to extract Eco‐tourism in the area can be marketed in a way that addresses
information from stakeholders but also as a way to connect people the quiet of the desert as a significant advantage, with tourism and
to nature. marketing focusing on getting away from the noise, as well as other
While potentially useful for the assessment of all landscapes, stressful elements, of urban life. In terms of policy, park manage‐
natural and urban, the study also demonstrates particular effective‐ ment could limit car entrance and parking to an area that has minimal
ness and suitability of focusing as an interview technique for dryland influence on the natural soundscape and limit certain activities (e.g.
CES assessment. Several participants noted that they had noticed playing music) inside the park.
aspects of the landscape that they would not have noticed were they
not prompted to focus. Interestingly, one interviewee said the fol‐
4.4 | Limitations and future research
lowing, without being familiar with the technique of ‘focusing’, and
without any (explicit) reference to the interview methodology: It should be acknowledged that the walking‐while‐focusing inter‐
view methodology is inherently demanding in terms of resources of
I feel like when we walk in the desert it demands time, money and complexity, in comparison to other methodologies.
something extra from us. Let’s say, if you look around, This is true not only for the interviews themselves but also for the
a lot of people might say to you “oh, it’s boring, the recruitment and analysis phases as well. This limits the number of
same color, everything”. But if you really look, you see interviews performed and factored into the analysis, although the
so many shades and even in the vegetation […] and I sample size is well within range of most (in depth) interview‐based
really love that connecting to the scenery demands studies. Participant recruiting opportunities are also limited due to
my active participation […] it requires some work on the need for participants to dedicate several hours of their day to
my part in order to connect to it. That it isn’t handed the research. Although the interviews themselves are 15–25 min,
to me like ‘fast food’ but that it requires some work on the entire walk took upwards of 2 hours, with non‐locals having to
my part to create this connectedness. devote the entire day to it due to travel time and distance.
Additionally, interviewers purposefully limited the number of
Focusing in drylands invites participants to notice the details of background questions so as not to influence the participants’ expe‐
what is, for some, a monotonous landscape, devoid of life, with bi‐ rience too much, including only questions of age, place of birth and
otic features that are difficult to distinguish from one another. It can place of residence. However, it might be possible, in future studies,
therefore provide a meaningful and needed contribution to desert to include more background questions after the interview is com‐
CES evaluation. For these and other landscapes and ecosystems, fo‐ pleted, especially if the sample size is larger and correlation be‐
cusing can thus aid both scientists and the participants themselves to tween background data and nature experiences or preferences can
better understand the broader, holistic experience of their surround‐ be tested. It could also be advantageous to test this methodology
ings, including biotic and abiotic aspects of which they were not fully in other types of ecosystems or landscapes, as well as interview‐
aware before. The variety and the highly individual nature of the data ing people from different cultures and backgrounds, and who speak
 25758314, 2019, 2, Downloaded from https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.28 by Cochrane Germany, Wiley Online Library on [14/06/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
246 | People and Nature TEFF‐SEKER and ORENSTEIN

different languages. Another aspect to examine would be the differ‐ (e.g. a rock would be perceived as a potential hiding place by a gecko but
ences and similarities in themes if the method were implemented in a potential weapon by a human).
3
more urban and less urban (more ‘natural’) areas, or whether there In a comprehensive meta‐analysis of qualitative sample sizes in social
studies by Sim and colleagues (2018), the authors note that recom‐
might be similar or other benefits when the method is applied in
mended, as well as actual, sample size varies widely between qualita‐
other natural landscapes. tive studies. They note recommendations of anywhere between 4 and
30 cases per case‐study and 5 to 35 for grounded theory studies. Many
researchers object to a pre‐determined sample‐size, with ‘informational
C O N FL I C T O F I N T E R E S T
redundancy’ being the rule of thumb for determining sample size posteri‐
ori, so that researchers can cease adding participants when they feel that
Nothing to declare. they have reached informational saturation.

AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S
REFERENCES
This research is supported by a grant from the Israel Science
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