GIS-Based On-Road Vehicular Emission Inventory for

Lucknow, India
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Dhirendra Singh 1; Sheo Prasad Shukla 2; Mukesh Sharma 3; Sailesh N. Behera 4; Devendra Mohan 5;
Narendra Bahadur Singh 6; and Govind Pandey 7

Abstract: Megacities in India (population more than 10 million) have taken actions to control air-pollution emissions. However, the second-
level cities (population between one and 10 million) have not drawn an action plan, and people face serious air pollution in these cities. For
one such city, Lucknow, a geographic information system (GIS)-based methodology for emission inventory of on-road vehicles has been
developed. The pollutants include: sulfur dioxide (SO2 ); oxides of nitrogen (NOx ); carbon monoxide (CO); particulate matter (PM); 1,3
butadiene; formaldehyde; acetaldehyde; total aldehydes; and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Video recording was done
at nine road intersections of varying land-use patterns to assess traffic count and vehicle kilometer travel. Parking lot surveys were carried
out for assessing engine type, vehicle age, etc. and to arrive at a suitable net emission factor for each vehicle category. The 2-wheelers (2-Ws)
and 4-wheelers (4-Ws) dominate the total traffic with an 83% share and are main sources of NOx (46%) and CO (77%). The heavy duty
vehicles (HDVs: buses and trucks), although they account for only 2% of the vehicle fleet, emit disproportionately high emissions (23% of
SO2 , 36% of NOx , and 28% of PM). Spatial cell (2 × 2 km)-wise emission inventory of pollutants indicates that the city center has the highest
pollutant emissions resulting from a large number of vehicles, mostly 2-Ws, 3-Ws, and passenger cars. The inventory information can be used
for short-term and long-term planning to reduce emissions. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000244. © 2014 American Society of
Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Emissions estimation; Lucknow; India; Vehicular emission inventory; Traffic; Air pollution.

Introduction as vehicles spend more time on-road. Vehicular emission in terms

of mass is the major contributor (over 50%) among the various
Air pollution has emerged as a major challenge, particularly in sources in urban areas: Delhi (64%) and Mumbai (52%) (Gupta
urban areas. The problem becomes more complex due to the multi- 2006). A study by Sood (2012) and a national report on source
plicity and complexity of the air polluting source mix (e.g., indus- apportionment (CPCB 2011), clearly indicate a large vehicular
tries, automobiles, generators, domestic fuel burning, road side emission load: 60–70% of carbon monoxide (CO), 30–50% of
dusts, construction activities, etc.). Indian cities have experienced oxides of nitrogen (NOx ), and 20–30% of suspended particulate
a phenomenal growth in terms of population, industry, and ve- matter in many cities (Delhi, Kanpur, Chennai, etc.). In addition,
hicles. The burgeoning population coupled with rapid growth in all vehicular emissions occur at ground level and therefore will
terms of vehicles, construction, and energy consumption has re- have a much greater impact on air quality than elevated sources.
sulted in serious environmental concerns in Indian cities. At the Megacities (population more than 10 million) like Delhi have
urban level, air quality is severely affected by vehicular emissions taken actions in nearly all sectors to control air pollution over
(Sharma and Khare 2001; Shukla and Sharma 2008). Traffic con- the past two decades—relocation of polluting industries, introduc-
gestion increases emissions from on-road vehicles (Litman 2013), tion of improved emission norms for vehicles, phasing out lead
from gasoline, reduction of sulfur in diesel and benzene in gasoline,
1 a city public transport fleet running on compressed natural gas
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering
and Technology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India. (CNG), and banning of 15-year-old commercial vehicles (CPCB
2
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering and Tech- 2011). However, second-level cities, having population between
nology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India (corresponding author). E-mail: one and 10 million, are yet to initiate air pollution control activities.
[email protected] Lucknow, the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1;
3
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology
26°52′ N latitude and 80°56′ E longitude), is one such city that
Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India.
4
Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, Dept. of Civil and Environmental has been selected as a study area. In Lucknow, air pollution levels
Engineering, National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore. for PM10 (particles of size less than 10 μm) have exceed both 24-h
5 and annual national air quality standards by a factor of 2–3 over the
Professor and Head, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of
Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, India. past five years (UPENVIS 2014).
6
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering and The city of Lucknow (and other such cities) lacks in basic in-
Technology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India. formation on emissions sources, their locations and strengths.
7
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Madan Mohan Malaviya Although the city has no major industries, the number of vehicles
Univ. of Technology Gorakhpur, Gorakhpur 273010, India.
is increasing at a rapid rate; for example, nearly 100,000 vehicles
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 12, 2013; approved
on July 25, 2014; published online on September 4, 2014. Discussion period are added annually in Lucknow (Pandey et al. 2012). As per the
open until February 4, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted for road transport office, the city of Lucknow has over 1.2 million reg-
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, istered vehicles in 2011 (CSIR-IITR 2012). The major vehicle
and Radioactive Waste, © ASCE, ISSN 2153-5493/A4014006(10)/$25.00. types are: 2-wheelers (2-Ws), 3-wheelers (3-Ws), 4-wheelers

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Fig. 1. The study area: (a) India (adapted from Delhi Tourism 2013); (b) state of Uttar Pradesh (adapted from Irrigation Department, Uttar Pradesh
2008); (c) city of Lucknow (adapted from Lucknow Nagar Nigam 2013)

(4-Ws), light commercial vehicles (LCVs), and heavy-duty ve- Lucknow were collected from different agencies (e.g., Lucknow
hicles (HDVs). Nagar Nigam, Lucknow Development Authority, etc.) and digitized
Emission inventory (EI) is a basic necessity for planning air pol- using ArcGIS 9.2. The topographical map, issued by the Survey of
lution control activities. EI provides a reliable estimate of total India (SOI) (prepared in 1977), having a scale of 1∶50,000, was
emissions of different pollutants, their spatial and temporal distri- geo-coded as the base map for geo-referencing other maps. The
bution, and identification and characterization of main sources. map projection chosen was world geodetic system (WGS) 1984
This information on EI is an essential input to air quality models (UTM Zone 44 N). The city was divided into 89 cells of 2 ×
for developing strategies and policies. With the above background 2 km size. Geo-referenced maps were digitized to extract desired
in view, as the first step to drawing up an air pollution action plan, information like city boundaries, road networks, landmark loca-
this paper focuses on developing EI of on-road vehicles on a geo- tions, and bodies of water. All the digitized features were superim-
graphic information system (GIS) platform for the city of Lucknow posed upon a layer of cells. Road lengths in each cell for major
in terms of emissions of particulate matter (PM); sulfur dioxide (number of vehicles more than 10,000 per day) and minor (number
(SO2 ); NOx ; CO; 1,3 butadiene; formaldehyde; acetaldehyde; total of vehicles less than 10,000 per day) roads were calculated from the
aldehydes; and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; digitizing maps using the ArcGIS tool, ArcMap.
compounds having two or more benzene rings). The approach is Nine traffic intersections (Fig. 1) were video recorded from
unique, as the inventory will be available on GIS and all ArcGIS 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. for obtaining traffic composition, i.e.,
tools like ArcMap, ArcCatalogue, etc., which can be effectively 2-Ws; 3-Ws; 4-Ws; LCVs; HDVs; and also the traffic volume
used by various stakeholders for planning air pollution control (number of vehicles plying on-road per hour).
and other activities. It is expected that the methodology presented Various agencies [e.g., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
in this paper can be adopted by other cities in India for initiating air (USEPA), U.K. National Atmospheric Emission Inventory (NAEI),
pollution control activities. etc.] have developed emission factors for vehicles depending on
their speed, acceleration, braking, road type, number of axles,
Methodology and driving cycle. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB
2011) has prescribed emission factors for Indian conditions. The
Fig. 2 summarizes the stepwise methodology used in this study. Indian emission factors are based on engine cubic capacity, vehicle
Various maps (of wards, road networks, bodies of water, etc.) of age, test vehicle model, and engine technology (ARAI 2008).

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 NOx , CO, and PM, respectively. In the United Kingdom, the emis-
sion factors for all passenger cars for urban environments are re-
ported as: 0.423, 2.867, and 0.015 g=km for NOx, CO, and PM10 ,
respectively (NAEI 2011).
Because internationally available emission factors may not be
applicable in India due to varying driving cycles, road conditions,
vehicle technology, fuel composition, etc., the CPCB (2011) emis-
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sion factors have been used in this study.

Parking Lot Surveys

To obtain the prevalence of vehicle technology types operating on
the city roads and fuel used, parking lot questionnaire surveys
(engine technology and capacity, vehicle age, fuel use, etc.) were
done at seven locations (Saharaganj, Bhoothnath, IET, Charbagh,
Aminabad, Chinhut, and Transportnagar) in the city of Lucknow.
Out of total 2,340 vehicles surveyed, the breakdown was: 808
2-Ws; 354 3-Ws; 553 4-Ws; 272 LCVs; and 353 HDVs (Singh
2011). All HDVs and LCVs use diesel. Twenty-one percent of
4-Ws use diesel and the remaining 79% use gasoline. 3-Ws use
Fig. 2. Stepwise methodology
compressed natural gas (CNG) and all 2-Ws use gasoline. As an
example, the parking lot survey results of 2-Ws are shown in Fig. 3.
A net emission factor (for each pollutant) was estimated for each
Wang et al. (2008) used international vehicle emission (IVE) model vehicle type (e.g., 2-Ws, 3-Ws etc.). For example, the net emission
(http://www.issrc.org/ive/) in the Shanghai area with emission fac- factor for 2-Ws in terms mass=km=2-Ws was derived by multiply-
tors for passenger cars such as: 1.58, 13.34, and 0.01 g=km for NOx, ing the fraction of each 2-W category (obtained from parking
CO, and PM, respectively. The Indian emission factors for passenger lot survey) by its corresponding emission factor (of that vehicle
cars range as: 0.09–0.95, 0.84–8.09, and 0.002–0.180 g=km for category) and then adding these products for all vehicle categories.

Fig. 3. Distribution of 2-Ws in study area (parking lot survey)

Table 1. Derived Net Emission Factors

Net emission factors
(mg=km=vehicle) Net emission factors (μg=km=vehicle)
Vehicle type CO NOx PM 1,3 butadiene Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Total aldehyde Total PAHs
2-Ws 2,000 310 20 5.33 3.97 0.88 8.77 655.09
3-Ws 1,890 600 200 5.52 12.16 6.49 29.35 938.36
4-Ws 1,990 400 50 7.83 10.85 1.73 18.13 283.46
LCVs 3,320 2,410 630 270.69 78.81 8.06 140.90 6,640.24
HDVs 8,720 9,650 830 6.93 41.17 8.29 79.81 1,765.13

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 Table 2. Vehicle Fleet Composition day; D = distance traveled in km per day; and EF = mass emission
Vehicle type Total number of vehicles VKT=day factor per vehicle per km.
For estimating SO2 emissions, only diesel vehicles are consid-
2-Ws 563,710 16,097,830
ered, as sulfur content in gasoline is much less (0.005%) than in
3-Ws 136,471 2,587,670
4-Ws 266,873 7,519,602 diesel (0.05%) (CPCB 2010; IITK 2010). Average kilometer run
LCVs 14,717 278,188 per liter of diesel is taken as: 10 km for 3-Ws; 15 km for 4-Ws;
HDVs 23,634 499,379 7 km for LCVs; and 5 km for HDVs. It is assumed that all the sulfur
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Total 1,005,405 26,982,671 is burnt to SO2 (IITK 2010).

Vehicular data in each cell were calculated by the traffic count
survey for each road category (e.g., main highway, minor road,
Similarly, net emissions factors for other vehicles types plying on service road, etc.). The daily vehicular kilometer traveled
the roads of the city of Lucknow were derived (Table 1). (VKT) for all categories of vehicles in each cell were estimated
The emission for each pollutant in all cells was calculated using on the basis of the parking lot surveys and road lengths in
data such as: distance traveled by each vehicle per day, number of each cell.
vehicles, net emission factors, and road lengths in each cell. The The emission depends upon emission factor and VKT. For
following expression was used for estimating the emissions: 2-Ws, 3-Ws, 4-Ws, and LCVs, the emission factors in descending
order are: CO > NOx > PM. The VKT is highest for 2-Ws. In
X  case of HDVs, the emission factors in descending order are:
Ej ¼ nVehi × Di × EFij ð1Þ NOx > CO > PM. However, it is expected that CO emission will
be the largest, as for most vehicles, CO emission factor is the
highest.
where Ej = mass emission per day for pollutant j; i = vehicle The emissions for each cell were extracted and mapped to
type (e.g., 2-Ws, 3-Ws, etc.); nVeh = number of vehicles per the database prepared using ArcGIS. Finally, spatially resolved

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 4. Pollutant specific emission contribution of each vehicle type in city of Lucknow: (a) SO2 , PM, and NOx ; (b) CO; (c) total aldehydes,
acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and 1, 3 butadiene; (d) total PAHs

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 Table 3. Traffic and Emission Studies in Different Cities
Serial number Study area Population PM (tons=day) NOx (tons=day) CO (tons=day)
1 Lucknow, Indiaa 2,245,509 3.5 24.6 95.9
(present study)
2 Kanpur, Indiab,c 2,715,555 1.9 10.5 32.1
3 Bangalore, Indiab,d 5,701,446 22.4 146.3 —
4 Pune, Indiaa 3,760,636 3.3 5.0 419.0
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5 Delhi, Indiaa,e 12,877,470 15.0 194.0 509.0

6 Mexico City, Mexicoa 15,175,862 15.0 411.0 3,900.0
7 Sao Paulo, Brazila 11,253,503 44.7 116.0 8,214.9
a
Research done using international vehicle emission (IVE) model (http://www.issrc.org/ive/).
b
Research done using GIS platform without computational model.
c
IITK (2010).
d
TERI (2010).
e
Goyal et al. (2013).

maps for various pollutants were generated for the city of 13, and 11%, respectively, to the total vehicular emissions of PM.
Lucknow. The 3-Ws are one of the frequent modes of public transport within
the city. The parking lot survey reveals that the majority of 3-Ws
were 10–15 years old and were diesel powered. The HDVs account
Results and Discussion for only 2% of the vehicle population, but were responsible for 23%
of SO2 , 36% of NOx , and 28% of PM emissions. HDVs are diesel
The 2-Ws, 3-Ws, and 4-Ws show morning and evening peaks be-
tween 9:00 and 11:00 a.m. and between 5:00 and 7:00 p.m. The powered and are 10–15 years old and poorly maintained, which
highest traffic count (214,244) was observed between 5:00 to may be responsible for high SO2 , NOx , and PM emissions.
7:00 p.m. Large traffic flow of LCVs and HDVs were seen on high- 3-Ws and 2-Ws are major contributors to formaldehyde (42 and
ways (Lucknow-Sitapur, Lucknow-Hardoi, and Lucknow-Kanpur 25%), acetaldehyde (68 and 17%), and total aldehydes (47
highways). In the inner part of the city, the traffic largely consisted and 26%) emissions. 2-Ws, LCVs, and 3-Ws contribute 36, 27,
of 2-Ws, 3-Ws, and 4-Ws. Table 2 presents fleet composition and and 21%, respectively, to 1,3 butadiene emissions. 2-Ws and
VKT. The percentage share (in terms of vehicle count and VKT) of 3-Ws contribute 47 and 37%, respectively, to total PAHs emissions.
2-Ws is the maximum and of LCVs is the minimum. The emission This reveals that limiting the usage of 2-Ws and passenger cars can
contributions of each type of vehicle are shown in Fig. 4. help to bring down CO emissions, and improving the emission con-
There were 563,710 2-Ws in the city of Lucknow, which ac- trol technology for heavy-duty vehicles is the key to decreasing the
counted for 56% of the vehicle population. These were responsible vehicular emissions of SO2 , NOx , and PM emissions in the city.
for 31% of NOx and 54% of CO emissions. This is because 2-Ws Table 3 presents the comparison of previous studies with the
are responsible for 59% of total VKT and the number of 2-Ws was current study on vehicular emissions carried in various cities. It
high. 3-Ws, HDVs, 4-Ws, 2-Ws, and LCVs contributed 33, 28, 16, can be seen that there is a large variation in the vehicular emissions

Fig. 5. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of PM (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

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Fig. 6. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of SO2 (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

in different cities even though they have similar human popula- the population, emissions, and major vehicle type responsible for
tions. The emission depends on the number of vehicles, availability high emissions in each critical cell of the city. It can be seen from
of good public transport (e.g., metro or local rail network, etc.), Table 4 that in the outer city critical cell, the HDVs and 4-Ws pro-
congestion, etc. vide a major contribution to emission. In the critical cells of the
Figs. 5–11 show the spatial distribution of PM, SO2 , CO, NOx , inner city, the 2-Ws contribution to PM is high. The 2-Ws and
1,3 butadiene, total aldehydes, and total PAHs emission loads in 3-Ws share high emissions of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and
2009. The high emission cells, LK-72, 73, 74, 75, 87 in the inner total aldehydes due to their high VKT.
city and LK-44, 89, and 102 in the outer city have been identified as The variations in the emission levels in various cells can be ex-
critical cells. In inner critical cells, the emission is due to significant plained by comparing land-use pattern, socioeconomic conditions
movement of all types of vehicles except HDVs. Table 4 presents of the populations, and its proximity with highway/industrial

Fig. 7. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of NOx (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

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Fig. 8. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of CO (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

activity. The cell numbers LK-72, 73, 74, and 75 fall in the center of 100, 102, 113, and 114 are at the outskirts of the city where land use
the city, where the land-use pattern is mainly residential and com- is mainly residential, but these cells are in proximity to national and
mercial. There are a number of offices (government as well as pri- state highways. The movement of 4-Ws and HDVs is high in these
vate) in this area and commercial activities (shopping centers, cells, and these are predominant vehicle types responsible for
restaurants, etc.) are also prevalent. One of the prominent reasons emission. The areas that have the minimum vehicular emission
of high vehicular emission load in these cells is that the vehicle (Figs. 5–11) have low population density and the land-use pattern
movement (dominated by 2-Ws, 4-Ws and public transport) is high is purely residential. The majority of areas are newly developed or
in comparison to other cells in the city. Cell numbers LK-76, 89, under development and have low occupancy. One of the major

Fig. 9. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of 1,3 butadiene (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

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Fig. 10. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of total aldehyde (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

reasons of low emission in these areas is the fact that the minor The work presented in this paper has further scope for improve-
roads account for about 80% of road length, and movement of ment. It is important to validate the data, apply more accurate and
HDVs and LCVs is restricted to a certain extent. locally relevant emission factors, and account for nonexhaust emis-
The vehicular emission inventory developed in this study can be sions caused by road-tire interaction. The emission factors used in
used both for making broad decisions at the city level and at the cell this study do not account for driving cycle, including speed of ve-
level to reduce emission. It is important to note that 3-Ws contribute
hicles. Braking, acceleration, idling, and speed can all influence
significantly in inner cells of the city, and technological improve-
emissions. In addition, cold and hot starts of engines also influence
ments in 3-Ws including changes in fuel from diesel to CNG may
greatly help in reducing the emissions. For long-term planning, a emissions. In future work, the authors propose to establish a driving
public transport system should be revamped to include introduction cycle in Indian cities using a global positioning system (GPS) and
of a nonpolluting metro system so that people would feel discouraged account for start and stop emissions using vehicle occupancy char-
to use individual 2-Ws, which also contribute heavily to emissions. acteristics enumerator (VOCE) units.

Fig. 11. Spatial cell-wise emission inventory of total PAHs (kg=day) (2 × 2 km cell size)

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 3-Ws and LCVs
2-Ws and 3-Ws

3-Ws and 4-Ws

2-Ws and 3-Ws

and total PAHs
1,3 butadiene,
Conclusions

A GIS-based methodology has been demonstrated and established

for developing a vehicular emission inventory for the city of Lucknow
in terms of PM; SO2 ; NOx ; CO; 1,3 butadiene; formaldehyde; acetal-
dehyde; total aldehydes; and total PAHs. The 2-Ws dominate the total
traffic with a 56% share and are the main sources of NOx and CO
Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,
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emissions. 2-Ws are responsible for 59% of total VKT, and 3-Ws con-
Major vehicle type contributor in emissions

and total aldehydes

HDVs and 3-Ws

tribute over 30% to the total the emissions of PM. The HDVs make up
2-Ws and 3-Ws

2% of the vehicle population but were responsible for 23% of SO2 ,

36% of NOx , and 28% of PM emissions. The 2-Ws are major contrib-
utors to 1,3 butadiene (36%) and total PAHs (47%) emissions in the
city. 3-Ws is the major contributor to formaldehyde (42%), acetalde-
hyde (68%), and total aldehydes (47%). A spatial cell-wise emis-
sion inventory of pollutants indicates that the city center has the
highest pollutant emissions resulting from a large number of ve-
hicles, which is a mix of mostly 2-Ws, 3-Ws, and passenger cars.
HDVs and 4-Ws
HDVs and 2-Ws

2-Ws and 4-Ws

NOx and CO

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