ae Swi Bean mc aos WY TOUCHES EVERY CORNER OF NCERT INCLUDES NCERT ACTIVITIES (AKQ), v BOXES(BKQ) & EXEMPLAR (EKQ) 4 EACH LINE, FLOWCHART & DIAGRAM IS MOTIVATED FROM PYQs ~Y APPROVED Cees CBSE TOPPERS rrra lanl ecdrvevorniHeredity is the process of passing the traits and characteristics from parent to offspring. This heredity is very evidently seen in sexual reproduction, as the variation of characteristics that are inherited is high. During the sexual reproduction process Variation occurs due to some error in DNA copying, Variation is important because it contributes to evolution and forms the basis of heredity. Variation is caused due to positive gene mutations, the Interaction of genes with the environment and various combination of genetic material. 2 Gregor Johann Mendel, known as the ‘Father of Genetics’, was an Austrian Monk who worked on pea plants to understand the concept of heredity. G His work laid the foundation of modern genetics. © He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment. ‘(GRRE It is the basic unit of inheritance. It consists of a sequence of D.N.A, which is the genetic material. A point to be noted here is that genes can mutate and can take two or more alternative forms. (Alleles: The alternative forms of gene which arises as a result of mutation. They are found In the same place on the chromosome and effect the same Characteristic or trait but in alternative forms. (Chyomosome: These are thread like structure of nucleic acids and protein that are found in the nucleus of most living cells. They earry the hereditary or genetics information in the form of genes ‘(Gemotypel it is the complete heritable genetic identify of an organism. (PREROEYPE 't is the description of the actual physical characteristic of an organism, the way the genotype is expressed. when an allele affects the phenotype of an organism, then it is a dominant allele. itis denoted by a capital letter eg "T* to express tallness ‘([Retetsive alleles An allele that affects the genotype in the absence of the dominant, allele is called a recessive allele. It will express itself inthe small letter. e.g, “t" for tallness. Each organism has two alleles for every gene. if both the alleles are same then it is called homozygous. If tallness is the trait, then it is expressed as "TT" If the two alleles are different from each other, then they are heterozygous in nature If tallness is the trait, then it is expressed as "Tt"It is the cross between two pea plant which have one pair of contrasting character. £.g, a cross between a tall pea plant and a short(dwarf) plant. fanenbal genveston + ae ih geneetion a pe - Att one “TH? Phenokyper All one tale 7 rR Gants ME] OH NS 7 CR ED F, greition Grenotype — TT! TH! t= 124) ¥ Phenotype “Tall: Beat Bit El Observation and lusion + Inthe first generation (F1) the progeny were tall. There was no medium height plant. + In the second generation (F2), 1/4th of the offspring were short and 3/4th were tall. * The phenotypic ratio in F2 is 3:1. (3 tall: 1 short) © The genotypic ratio in F2- 02:1 - (TT:Tttt) + Fora plant to be tall, a single copy of “T” is enough, but if plant has to be short, both the copies should be “t” Characters like 'T’ are the dominant traits as they are expressed and ‘t' are recessive traits as they remain suppressed. a is the on oa ween two plants which have two pairs of contrasting characters, This takés Into Consideration alternative traits of tuo different character. Eg. a cross between 1 pea plant with around and green seed and the other pea plant having wrinkled and yellow seeds.Parent —> Round green Seeds x Wrinkle yellow Seda Opticon Shes wy it + Rey (Roura , yettoud) ae 5 x 5, RY RY > Ry R Selfing F, Y peta a a a y Observation and Conclusion * The F1 generation is 100% hybrid when Rryy cross with rrYY, all were RrYy with round and yellow seeds in the first generation. The round and yellow seeds ave the dominant characters © In F2, the phenotype ratio is 9:3:3:1. The genotype ratio is very complex one. * This shows that the gene ave inherited independently of each other. Answer: (1 nt through an experiment called Test cross. it is the cross between plants of unknown genotypes with recessive plants (tt), Here, the genotypes of tall plants are unknown. So they are crossed with recessive (short) plants If the tall plant is pure (homozygous), it produces only tall offspring (TT x tt > Tt) If the tall plant is impure (heteroaygous), it produces 50% tall offspring & 50% dwarf offspring (Tt x tt — Tt & tt), Thus we can confirm the F2 genotypic ratio is 1:2:1 tA \. one of his experiments with pea plants Mendel observed that when a pure tall pea plant is crossed with a pure dwarf pea plant, in the first generation, Ff, only tall plants appear. (a) what happens to the traits of the dwarf plants in this case? (b) When the F, generation plants were self-fertilized, he observed that in the plants of second generation, F, both tall plants and dwarf plants were present. Why it happened? Explain briefly. Answer: (4) The dwarf traits of the plants is not expressed in the presence of the dominant tail trait (b) in the F2 generation, both the tall and dwarf traits are present in the ratio of 4: 1, This showed that the traits for tallness and dwarfness are present in the fy generation, but the dwarfness, being the recessive trait does not express itself in the presence of tallness, the dominant trait.The traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits. In Mendel’s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the short trait * Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait + A trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive. + So, a recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele exists (1) Law of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the organism. It is called the dominant gene, and it expresses in any possible combination. Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without any mixing of alleles. Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters during gamete formation * The process of determining the sex of an individual based on the composition of the genctic material is called sex determination. + indifferent animals, the sex of an embryo is determined by different factors * Inhumans, sex determination happens onthe basis of the presence or absence of the ¥ chromosome. + XX is female, and XY is male + An ovum always contains an X chromosome. + An ovum, upon fusion with the Y-containing sperm, gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with the X-containing © gives rise to a girl child SH ce GA zygote oc fas 4 ‘Lemoate, Mate oft spating#Traits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a physiclogical aspect of the organism. + The traits that ave acquired by an organism over the period of its lifetime are termed acquired characteristics. + These characteristics that are not passed on to the DNA of germ cells do not get transferred to the next generation, E.g, loss of muscles and less weight due to starvation, loss of limb or tails due to injury, ete. PASISILS, The traits that ave inherited from the parents are called inherited characters. + These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or recessiveness, they may or may not be expressed. © Examples ave height, skin colour and eye colour. Variation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others. Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations. Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term accumulation of variations plays a significant role in evolution. The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes. The differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations. These differences lead to different/varied physical characters or biochemical pathways. + It is the phenomenon by which a favourable trait in a population of a species is selected. * Changing natural conditions exert equal pressure on all the existing species + The species/organisms which are better adapted to the changing conditions survive and reproduce i.e. selected by nature and species/organisms which cannot adapt perish‘. rejected by natureNatural selection can play an important role in deciding the traits that survive in a population. However, random fluctuations in gene variants are seen on many occasions. This phenomenon is known as genetic drift. Thus, genetic drift is a change in the frequency of an existing allele in a small population. Genetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic variation. It is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, ete. Speciation leads to diversity in the ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution. Gene flow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population. This results in the change in gene frequencies of a population A population is a community or a group of animals, plants or any living organism that can reproduce with each other and have fertile, viable offspring,