A state-of-the-art survey on vehicular

mechatronics focusing on by-wire systems.

Daniel Frede, Mohammad Khodabakhshian, Daniel Malmquist

October 2010

TRITA MMK 2010:10

 iii

Abstract

This report is the result of a survey of the current state of the art/ practice in
vehicular mechatronics. It summarizes a large quantity of scientific papers and
theses, as well as white papers and field trips to manufacturers.

Mechatronics is a multi-domain discipline which is the result of the evolution

of the single-domain engineering disciplines mechanics, electronics, information
processing and control. Mechatronics is central for most new innovations in
automotive products; “according to manufacturers statements, about 90% of all
innovations for automobiles are due to electronics and mechatronics” [41]. The
consequence of this is that vehicular mechatronics has become an important
field of research.

Since this is an incredibly broad field of research, the focus of this report has
mainly been on brake and steering systems but the report also covers a wider
more general scope of systems. The report covers a wide range of subjects
within vehicular mechatronics, e.g. everything from legislative requirements to
actual prototypes.

One of the conclusion drawn in this report is that there is a lack of research
with a more holistic approach to the systems. Most research only treat individ-
ual systems and omit the level of integration and interplay between subsystems
and engineering domains which is typical for modern vehicles. There is also
a lack of result validation in real conditions; most research are only evaluated
through software simulations or in best case with hardware-in-the-loop simu-
lations. Another problem is that most research focus on single aspects like e.g.
fuel consumption when there is a lot more properties which need to be taken
into account.
iv
Contents

Contents v

Abbreviations ix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 General Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Vehicular Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Scope Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Products/Prototypes 5
2.1 Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 General Overview of Electromechanical Brake Systems . . . . 6
2.2.2 Regenerative brake systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.3 Design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.4 Control strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.5 Brake systems in product state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Overview of steering systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 New steering systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.3 Steering system products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Other by-Wire systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 System Architecture 23
3.1 System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Fault-tolerance and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Legislation & Standards 31

4.1 ECE 13 & 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 AUTOSAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 ISO 26262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

v
vi CONTENTS

5 Methodology 37
5.1 Development methodology and multi-domain optimization . . . . . . 37
5.2 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6 Conclusions 43

Bibliography 45
CONTENTS vii
Abbreviations

Abbreviation Explanation
ABS Anti-lock Brake System
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control
AFS Active Front Steering
ASIL Automotive Safety Integrity Levels
ATC Automatic Traction Control
AUTOSAR AUTomotive Open System Architecture
CAN Controller Area Network
CBIICS City-Bus Information Integrated Control System
CMM Capability Capture Model
CMMi Capability Capture Model Integration
CPU Central processing unit
DAS Distributed Application Subsystem
DC Direct Current
DD Deep Discharge
DECOS Dependable Embedded Components and Systems
E/E Electrical/Electronical
ECU Electronic Control Unit
EHPS Electrohydraulical Power Steering
EMB Electromechanical Brake
EMS Electromechanical Power Steering
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPG Exhaust Pressure Governor
EPS Electrically Assisted Power steering
ESP Electronic Stability Program
ETA Event Tree Analysis
EV Electric Vehicle
FAA Front Axle Actuator
FCV Fuel Cell Vehicle
FEM Finite element method
FIR Finite Impulse Response
FMEA Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
FO Fail-Operational

ix
x ABBREVIATIONS

FS Fail-Safe
FSLI Fail-Silent
FTA Fault Tree Analysis
FTP Federal Test Procedure
FTT-CAN Flexible Time-Triggered communication on CAN
FUDC Federal Urban Driving Schedule
GM General Motors
HA Hazard Analysis
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HIL Hardware-In-the-Loop
HPS hydraulic power steering
HRB Hydrostatic Regenerative Brake System
HWA Hand Wheel Actuator
IDIOM Integrated Design and Optimization of Mechatronic Products
ISO International Organization for Standardization
KTH Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan
MD Micro Discharge
MEMS Microelectromechanical systems
MR Magnetic Responsive
MTTF Mean Time To Failure
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
NVH Noise, vibration, and harshness
OASIS Optimization of Auxiliary Systems In hybrid heavy vehicleS
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PLA Product Line Approach
RAMS Reliability, Availability, Maintainability, Safety
RBS Regenerative Brake System
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SEI Software Engineering Institute
SIL Safety Integrity Level
SBA Simulator Brake Actuation
SOC State Of Charge
TCS Traction Control System
TFD Tactile Feedback Device
TMC Tandem Master Cylinder
TMR Triple Modular Redundancy
TTCAN Time-triggered CAN
VEB Volvo Engine Brake
VCB Volvo Compression brake
VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
xi
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 General Overview

The consequent evolution of the single-domain engineering disciplines mechanics,

electronics, information processing and control is merged into the multi-domain
discipline called “mechatronics1 ”. However, mechatronics is not just the design of
systems incorporating these disciplines, it’s rather their intelligent mutual interac-
tion and integration. According to [95], the development of mechatronic systems
involves finding an optimal balance between the basic mechanical structure, the im-
plementation of sensors and actuator, the automatic digital information processing
and overall control, whose synergy results in innovative solutions. Applying control
strategies is a core feature of mechatronic products. Also, as described in chapter
3, a new level of safety diagnosis and fault tolerance needs to be considered.

Due to the wide scope of mechatronics as a holistic engineering discipline, its field of
application and a corresponding list of examples is broad. However, some examples
of mechatronic products are for instance computer hard drives, service robots and
digital cameras. Furthermore, mechatronics also spans the component level; besides
integrated hydraulic or pneumatic servo drives, one can also refer to automatic
gearboxes, magnetic gearings and MEMS as mechatronic products.

According to Dieterle [13], the main drivers for the next generation of mechatronic
products are the so-called “market pull” (i.e. market requirements) and “tech-
nology push” (technological trends). He points out some trends up to the year
2020: New products shall be cheaper, smaller and provide advanced functionality
with software dominating function and quality of these systems. Furthermore, as

1
The term mechatronics was first used by the Japan based Yaskawa Electric Corporation in
1969, [28].

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

electrical/electronical (E/E) systems will successively replace mechanical/hydraulic

systems, Moore’s law (performance of electronic circuits doubles every 18 months)
will stay valid. Besides, Dieterle states that the wish for physical mobility will
remain dominant (despite Internet, Virtual Reality, etc.) and that the customers
require more individualized products according to their specific wishes and needs.

This report is developed within the KTH (“Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan”, Royal
Institute of Technology) projects OASIS (Optimization of Auxiliary Systems In
hybrid heavy vehicleS) and IDIOM (Integrated Design and Optimization of Mecha-
tronic Products). It seeks to give an overview of current technologies in the vast
field of automotive mechatronics. Therefore, not only the state of art is covered but
also the current state of practice.

1.2 Vehicular Mechatronics

The last section gave a quick overview on mechatronic systems. However, it did
not yet discuss the field of vehicular mechatronics in detail, although this area is
probably one of the more extensive ones. Isermann writes in [41] that “according
to manufacturers statements, about 90% of all innovations for automobiles are due
to electronics and mechatronics”.

Automotive mechatronics is a driving factor for the development of new vehicle

features as well as it pushes the general development of mechatronic systems. Lit-
eratures e.g. [40], refer to the anti-lock brake system (ABS) as the first mechatronic
product in vehicles, introduced by the Robert Bosch GmbH in 1978. Another well
known early example is the automatic traction control (ATC) also termed as trac-
tion control system (TCS)2 . Yet another well established mechatronic product in
vehicles is the mechatronic suspension, which was introduced in 1999 by Mercedes.
One other example would be the common rail injection for Diesel engines, which
uses piezoelectric injectors for precise high pressure diesel injection into the engine
(1997).

Among more recent developments are for instance the second generation of auto-
matic motor stop systems (2006, series use from 2008), which shuts down the engine
whenever the car is at standstill to save fuel consumption. By means of a so-called
integrated starter-generator the engine can be restarted in shorter time compared
to conventional starters. Another field which makes use of the mechatronic integra-
tion can be found in the driver assistance area: the so-called adaptive cruise control
(ACC) regulates the vehicle’s speed according the possibly slower traffic ahead. In
2
The ATC/ TCS feature is also known by even more names, in use by the individual car man-
ufacturers. Popular alternatives are ASR (Mercedes, Volkswagen), DTC (BMW), TRC (Toyota),
TCSS (GM), and TRACS (Volvo)
1.3. SCOPE DEFINITION 3

today’s systems (from around 1998) the velocity is not only adjusted by controlling
the engine throttle but also by actively utilizing the vehicle’s brakes autonomously.

The value of the electronic and mechatronic components of today’s cars is about
20 − 25% of the total price, with a tendency towards 30 − 35% in 2010. A higher-
class passenger car contains about 2,5 km of cables, about 40 sensors, 100 − 150
electromotors, commonly four bus systems with over 2500 signals and 45−75 micro-
ECUs (Electronic Control Unit) [41].

1.3 Scope Definition

This report has a rather broad scope, covering all kinds of mechatronic systems in
vehicles, however it also focuses more in detail on two mechatronic systems, the first
being as the consequent continuation of the more and more complex ABS and ESP
(Electronic Stability Program) function, mechatronic brake-by-wire system. The
other mechatronic system to be discussed more in detail are mechatronic steering
systems. While hydraulic assisted power steering has been in use since the 1940s,
electrically assisted power steering, EPS only goes back to around 1996. The parallel
combination of electrical and hydraulic power steering in larger cars can be used
for automatic parking, among others, [110]. A more recent development is the so-
called active front steering (AFS), where a certain driver steering demand can be
superimposed by an electrically controlled steering angle so that higher dynamic
steering is possible.

1.4 Requirements

Innovation in the field of vehicular mechatronics is often driven by demands on

higher safety, lower costs, and higher performance. The public’s increasing environ-
mental awareness as well as stricter legislation puts demands on energy efficiency
and reduction of emissions.

The introduction of safety systems such as seatbelts, airbags, or anti-lock brakes

has most likely saved thousands of lives and lowered the consequential damage for
society. This motivates further research in this very area. Demands on cost and
performance are mainly due to the steadily increasing costumer expectations as well
as the economical strive for revenue.
Chapter 2

Products/Prototypes

2.1 Vehicles

Full-by-Wire vehicles are still only in the concept level, and none of this kind of
vehicles has been produced yet, although the concept of a Drive-by-Wire car is
not new. During the early 1990s the Swedish automobile company SAAB built a
prototype Drive-by-Wire car based on a SAAB 9000 with a joystick as steering input
[9], [87]. The prototype was part of the European Prometheus research project.
[109].

Another well known Full-by-Wire vehicle concept is the GM (General Motors) Hy-
wire, see Figure 2.1a. The Hy-wire is a fully functioning concept car which uses
by-Wire technology for all of its subsystems. systems. The body of the car is
interchangeable since the chassis with a height of 11 inches contains most of the
electronics and mechanics used to control the vehicle, see Figure 2.1b. The by-wire
system also allowed the design engineers to free up a lot of space in the driver/ pas-
senger compartment as well as made it easy to switch between left- and right-hand
drive. The vehicles power plant is a hydrogen fuel cell capable of delivering 94 kW
power continuously. The concept was first presented in 2002 and the overall project
goal was to have such a car in production by 2010, which apparently failed as there
is no car on the market today. Other GM concepts, like the Sequel, use technologies
such as fuel cells which were originally developed for the Hy-wire concept car [25],
[81].

5
6 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

(a) Picture of Hy-wire interior. (b) Hy-wire chassis.

Figure 2.1: GM Hy-wire. Images courtesy of GM.

2.2 Braking

2.2.1 General Overview of Electromechanical Brake Systems

Electromechanical brake systems (EMB) are based on electromechanical actuators

and communication networks instead of conventional hydraulic or electrohydraulic
devices. They can increase comfort of the vehicle and decrease the cost associated
with design, manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance. EMB systems can also
eliminate the environmental concerns caused by the oils in hydraulic systems. EMB
systems offer easy connection with other vehicular systems, enabling better inte-
gration with vehicle traction and stability control. They can also provide better
control of the pedal stiffness, the vehicle stability, and the brake force distribution.
Other advantages of the EMB systems are the elimination of complex and heavy
mechanical or hydraulic parts, and enhanced diagnostic capabilities of the braking
system. Further merits are the easier adaptation of assistance systems (e.g. the
anti lock system or the electronic stability program (ESP)) without any additional
mechanical or hydraulic components. Also, the efficiency and stability of the brake
control improved due to the quick and accurate generation of brake torques by
electric motors [112].

2.2.2 Regenerative brake systems

Probably one of the most important applications of vehicular mechatronics can be

found in hybrid vehicles and regenerative brake systems. Studies have shown that
a significant fraction of energy is consumed in braking especially when the vehicle
is driven in cities where a stop-and-go driving pattern is common. It is calculated
that in a typical driving cycle, a city bus runs 25% of the time at idle speed, 69%
2.2. BRAKING 7

of time is used for acceleration and deceleration, and only 5% of the time the bus
travels at constant speed [92]. The importance of regenerating brake energy shall be
demonstrated even more by considering the following results from different studies.

In the FTP75 (Federal Test Procedure) urban driving cycle it is shown that about
40% of the kinetic energy is consumed by braking [24]. In another study it is shown
that City buses with a regenerative braking system (RBS) can reduce the fuel con-
sumption by 15%-20% in a typical urban driving cycle [116]. The consumed energy
during braking is reported as about one third up to one half of the energy of the
vehicle’s power plant for a passenger car in the EPA75 (Environmental Protection
Agency) driving cycle [23]. According to another study, while braking a HEV (Hy-
brid Electric Vehicle) city bus, nearly 53% of the total kinetic energy is wasted as
heat energy [92].

In [2], it is shown that the fuel efficiency can be increased by 20% to 50% for a pas-
senger car in the FUDS (Federal Urban Driving Schedule) driving cycle, (depending
on motor size) by using a RBS. Another estimation states that 59% of the energy
can be saved when using regenerative brakes in city buses [108]. Some older studies
show less increase in efficiency, such as 15% [99] and 4%-19% [76] depending on the
powertrain modules applied and the regenerative model used for the predictions in
the FUDS cycle. However, even that number corresponds to a considerable amount
of energy. In terms of emissions, urban transport is estimated to account for up
to 16% of the global CO2 emission, of which up to 40% is due to energy dissi-
pated in friction brakes [44]. It has been shown that the driving range of electric
vehicles (EV) can be increased by 8%-10% if using a RBS [115], so that for pure
innercity driving the driving range is estimated to be extended by 14% to 40% [55].
In [113] it is shown that for a hybrid electric city bus in China, the fuel economy
can be improved from 9.6kg/100km to 7.9kg/100km, while the battery SOC (State
Of Charge)is kept around 47%.

One important factor which needs to be considered when designing hybrid vehicles
and their subsystems is the price factor. For example, a hybrid city bus costs
$200,000 more than the conventional version [17], thus the usage of new systems
to increase the fuel efficiency should be available at a reasonable price. It should
be noted that while regenerative braking has the potential of saving fuel, it may
also do more harm than good as a result of additional weight, a less than ideal
charge/discharge efficiency on the batteries or the storage flywheels, as well as the
limited fraction of the entire driving cycle when regenerative braking can be utilized.
If regenerative braking can have a net benefit, it would be on a heavy vehicle such
as a municipal bus because of the frequent stop and go requirements due to both
traffic lights and passengers [108].
8 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

2.2.3 Design aspects

There are two basic concerns in the brake system design for EVs, HEVs and FCVs
(Fuel Cell Vehicle). The first one (1) is to properly applying a braking force on front
and rear wheels to quickly reduce the vehicle speed, and meanwhile, maintaining
the vehicle traveling direction stable and controllable through the steering wheel on
various road conditions. The other one (2) is to recover as much braking energy as
possible in order to improve the energy utilization efficiency, especially while driving
in a stop-and-go pattern in urban areas [14], [16], [111].

To attain the first point and by considering the fact that safety is the most important
factor in braking systems, brake systems with mechanical backup is still preferred
over by-wire systems since they have been proven to be reliable. Thus the brake
system in hybrid electric vehicles will be laid out as a so-called hybrid brake system.
There are different configurations for such hybrid brake systems. As for instance,
a parallel brake system, which retains current mechanical systems, but adds on
electrical regenerative brakes on the front wheels. This system is based on the
conventional hydraulics brake, however the friction brake and the regenerative brake
are working in parallel.

Another possible realization is series braking or the fully controllable hybrid brake
system. Such a system allows control of each wheel individually as it is based on
a Brake-by-Wire system. Compared to the parallel braking approach, it is able to
regenerate more energy but is also more complicated [72].

When discussing RBSs in detail, they may be divided into two different systems:
series braking with optimal braking feel, and series braking with optimal energy
recovery [16]. A comparison of series braking with optimal braking feel, series
braking with optimal energy recovery, and the above mentioned parallel braking
has shown a capability of recapturing 30%, 36%, and 15%, respectively, of the
overall output electric energy. These amount of energy savings in addition to other
advantages of hybridization correspond to a total improvement of 32.7%, 34.3% and
19.6%, respectively, in fuel economy compared to a conventional braking system on
a city bus [88].

To satisfy (2), that is recovering as much braking energy as possible, suitable power
management controllers should be used in the brake system design for EVs, HEVs
and FCVs. Here, the battery and super capacitors are the important components.
The batteries may be used in two modes: deep discharge (DD) as in an EV, and
micro discharges (MD) around an average value of the SOC e.g. 50% or 60%. The
DD mode allows a pure electrical mode but limits the lifetime of the batteries. The
MD mode is typical for hybrid mode driving, where it allows a more reasonable
lifetime of the batteries and also an optimization of their efficiencies. Furthermore,
a combination of these modes is mentioned in literature [4].
2.2. BRAKING 9

2.2.4 Control strategies

The control problem of the RBS in HEVs can be defined as having three main ob-
jectives. First, the driver’s demand of the overall braking force according to the
driver’s action and the vehicle state should be identified. Secondly, the driver’s de-
mand of the braking force by distributing braking power between service brake and
auxiliary brakes (e.g. retarders) should be satisfied. This is to be achieved by means
of an appropriate energy management strategy for the best fuel economy without
damaging the components of the vehicle. Third, the braking power distribution
should be done properly by coordinately controlling the braking components’ state
aiming for good drivability and appropriate braking force [48].

Overall control strategies of most brake blending systems are as follows: When the
demanded deceleration is little, only the auxiliary brake system is in use, e.g. the
engine braking in conventional heavy vehicles. When the deceleration increases,
the braking force of the front and rear shaft will be controlled according to the
ideal braking force distribution curve. This distribution should follow the idea that
the frictional braking force is only applied if the demanded braking force exceeds
the available retardation force of the RBS. That is, depending on the amount of
braking force needed, the control system will either apply the front RBS only, or a
superposition of the RBS and the mechanical braking system together (considering
that the totally available braking force equals the sum of regenerative braking force
and mechanical braking force) [45].

A lot of research on the optimum regenerative brake strategy is currently done.

These so-called power management control strategies can be divided into three main
categories: fuzzy logic or neural network techniques, rule-based strategies, and static
optimization methods [59]. Built upon fuzzy logic, in [114] a two-input one-output
Mamdani’s fuzzy inference system [62], is developed for the regenerative braking
model. Also, in order to maximize the brake recuperation fuzzy control methods
were used to control and distribute the torque (for the example case of stopping a
city bus) between electric motors, hydraulic retarder and friction brakes [70]. Fuzzy
logic has also been used in other research [57], [61], [71], [120], [118]. Apart from
RBS control, fuzzy control strategies are also used for other applications like vehicle
stability control in hybrid vehicles [36], [50], [51], [52], [58], [79], [122].

In [91] the Lyapunov method has been used in order to design a brake torque
controller for a hybrid electric bus. Using control points on the control strategy
curve as design variables, a regenerative hybrid brake system is optimized in order
to regenerate more energy [46]. The brake curves show the relation of front and
rear brake forces.

In [119] an agent-based power management is used to improve fuel economy. The

method also extends the life cycle of the fuel cell engine by letting the fuel cell
10 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

engine work within its designated operating range. Agents have a certain level of
autonomy, which means they can make decisions without a central controller or
commander. To achieve this, a set of rules and a control algorithm module are
proposed. Furthermore, agents are able to perceive environmental changes and to
respond to them. In multi-agent systems, agents can communicate mutually and
work together to achieve a global objective .

Another algorithm which is reliable as well as easily applicable and has been used
to enhance the energy efficiency of a front and rear wheel drive parallel HEV-Van
is the so-called rule based algorithm [30]. However, this algorithm has mainly
been used in the early stage of HEV system development. To improve the vehicle
performance and to decrease the energy loss of the components, however, it is
necessary to introduce optimized approaches so that the energy management system
could distribute the demanded power more efficiently [117].

Alternative strategies for controllers are common look-up-tables [45] or so-called

dynamic programming. With the latter method, a reduction of fuel consumption of
2% was achieved for a passenger car in the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC),
even without predicting the driving cycle [54]. However, as for city buses the driving
cycle is know before, dynamic programming can be used to efficiently switch between
the two sources (combustion engine and electric motor) [47], [80]. A so-called Model
Predictive Control has been used to regenerate the maximum energy during braking
[18]. Genetic algorithms are another way to optimize the control strategy in hybrid
vehicles [68], [83].

Besides the regenerative braking and the main brake system, another important
part of a heavy vehicle’s brake system is the so-called retarder, which is used to
minimize pad wear, brake fading and also reduces fuel consumption. It is essential
that the blending between the main brakes and the retarders gives the best braking
performance in the aspects of safety, comfort, energy consumption and the like.
Retarders can be primary retarders, secondary retarders and engine braking. For
instance, Volvo trucks use a so-called VEB (Volvo Engine Brake), an EPG (Exhaust
Pressure Governor), or the VCB (Volvo compression brake (playing with valves in
the engine, using exhaust valve) as engine braking. In hybrid vehicles, the electric
motor acts as an additional retarder when regenerating energy. Its main advantage
is its quicker response time and that it can be controlled for better comfort.

When talking about the recovery of brake energy, it must be stated that this does
not necessarily imply that the energy being recovered is electric energy. Also, not all
hybrid vehicles are electric hybrids [27]. The recovery of the brake energy through
a Hydrostatic Regenerative Brake System (HRB) is another alternative. These sys-
tems have some advantages over the electric regenerative system, in particular their
hydraulic accumulators have considerable advantages over batteries with respect to
brake energy recovery. Also, hydraulic components already in series production can
2.2. BRAKING 11

be used, making it more cost efficient. Retrofitting the HRB system requires only
small changes to the vehicle. In a study in [6] it is shown that the fuel consumption
can be reduced by 30%. Using an energy regeneration system for bus brakes based
on “the electric controlled compressed gas energy storage technology” is another
way and it can save more than 10% of energy according to [121].

2.2.5 Brake systems in product state

In the following some examples of mechatronic brake system products are to be

presented. Note that most information is obtained from the manufacturer directly
and may thus be biased.

Vienna Engineering has developed a mechatronic brake system, termed the VE-
mechatronic brake, shown in Figure 2.2. It is claimed that this brake system needs
low electric actuation energy (for example only 5W) and low actuation force (for
instance as low as 100N) depending on design specification. This brake system is
self enforced and it does not have locking problems as stated by the manufacturer.
It shall also be possible to use it as parking brake. The size of the VE-mechatronic
brake is compatible with the conventional hydraulic brakes so that it fits in a stan-
dard wheel rim. According to Vienna Engineering the cost of VE brake system is
less than conventional brakes as it does neither need any brake cylinder, booster,
brake fluid nor a parking brake cable, vacuum pump and the like. As claimed it
is also a suitable choice for hybrid electric vehicles in terms of brake blending for
RBS. Furthermore, it can properly simulate the brake feeling for driver [84].

Figure 2.2: Vienna engineering brake caliper. Figure from [84].

12 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

Haldex has developed an electromechanical brake system for heavy vehicles (see
Fig. 2.3 and Fig. 2.4). By using this brake system, the stopping distance of
vehicles may be reduced up to 14% compared to conventional brakes equipped with
electronic stability control (ESC) system. As the system is compact and available
as a presetup wheel module, it can be seamlessly integrated into the existing design
concepts without needing to change anything on the axles to install it. According
to Haldex their system improves safety of vehicles as a better brake control and will
lead to better stability control which outperforms the conventional Anti-lock Brake
System (ABS). Also, the brake system can be monitored more easily. Furthermore,
as the parking brake in this brake system is purely mechanical, it complies with given
regulations. The noise which is present within pneumatic brake systems is reduced
to large extend as well. One of the advantages of Haldex’ EMB actuator is the fact
that the brake is self enforcing. Doing so, the motor itself only needs little energy to
activate braking by pushing the brake pad towards the brake disc and establishing
contact with the latter. The actual braking/ self enforcement is achieved using the
phenomenon of friction; the brake pad will follow the disc rotation and eventually
wedge (using a seesaw-like construction which increases brake force). Theerfore it
can be used in the today’s heavy vehicles which use 24V power without changing the
electrical system. The peak energy consumption is below 300W, and in steady state
mode is below 5W. The life cycle costs are low, with the number of components
being reduced in general. For hybrid vehicles, this brake system can increase the
regenerative braking performance to regenerate more kinetic energy without risking
damage to the electrical system as a consequence of electrical overload [29].

Figure 2.3: Haldex Electromechanical Brake (EMB) system. Figure from [29].

TRW Automotive developed a regenerative-capable electronic stability control sys-

tem for hybrid electric vehicles which is also a good example of electrohydraulic
2.2. BRAKING 13

Figure 2.4: Draft showing the principle mechanism behind the self enforcing brake.
Figure from [29].

brake systems (see Figure 2.5). It is fully compatible to regenerative braking in

HEV vehicles without changing the pedal feel compared to conventional brakes. It
is based on the common 12V system and replaces the traditional brake actuation
system including boosters, master cylinders and vacuum pumps with an electro-
hydraulic control unit. Moreover, the brake system enhances noise, vibration and
harshness of the system and so achieves a smooth and quiet braking. The main goal
to develop such systems is to have a series regenerative brake system, in order to
achieve the maximum regenerative energy effectiveness. This is achieved by always
using the maximum possible braking effect of the generator at each time while the
friction brake only provides the remaining braking portion. The system is developed
by only slightly modifying existing components and it has proven to be optimum in
terms of component cost as well as development effort. A more detailed description
of system functionality is given in [104].

Continental has developed an electrohydraulic combi brake system for passenger

cars and light trucks. It is a combination of a conventional hydraulic brake at the
front and electromechanical brake actuators at the rear. According to Continental,
this system can improve the brake performance, noise and vibration, as well as it also
has a good pedal feel. Since this system also has the ability of regenerative braking
it is a suitable option to use in hybrid vehicles to reduce the fuel consumption and
decrease the CO2 emission. Fuel economy is also contributed to by reducing residual
torque [11].
14 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

Figure 2.5: Principle sketch of the Regenerative Brake System (RBS). Figure from
[104].

VDO Automotive AG is another company which has developed an electronic wedge

brake system which is compliant to the common 12V power system (see Figure 2.6
and Fig. 2.7). Their brake approach is described as a modular system which is fitted
to the wheels. It consists of brake pad, the wedge attached to the wedge-bearing
mechanism, the mechanical power transmission between the two electric motors,
and a sensor system for monitoring movement and force. During braking, a brake
pad which is attached to a wedge is pressed between the brake caliper and the brake
disk. Due to the rotation of the wheel, the effect of the wedge will be intensified
automatically, allowing to gain almost any level of braking with only little difficulty.
This system can be used as an automatic parking brake. The VDO brake system
eliminates the hydraulic pipes, brake cylinder and brake boosters [69].

2.3 Steering

2.3.1 Overview of steering systems

Conventional steering systems can be divided into two categories which are the rack
and pinion steering system as well as the ball and nut steering system. The latter
is used for higher steering forces than the former. It is important to note that both
systems are purely mechanical. The loss of steering control due to failures in the
steering system like breaking or locking up the system are usually not considered
for these systems, as these mechanical systems are designed with sufficient safety
margins. Furthermore, the manufacturers’ long experiences and given standards
ensure these systems to be very reliable.
2.3. STEERING 15

Figure 2.6: VDO electronic wedge brake (EWB). Parts: 1 - brake disk; 2 - brake
pad; 3 - electric motor; 4 - electric motor; 5 - rollers; 6 - wedge-shaped inclined
faces. Figure taken from [93].

Figure 2.7: Wedge principle used in the electronic wedge brake (EWB). Figure from
[93].

Modern steering systems are usually hydraulic power steering systems. These sys-
tems consist of a mechanical steering system plus a hydraulic system which usually
consists of a V-belt drive hydraulic pump. Such systems are used to assist in such
a way that the effort to steer the car can be reduced. In case of a failure in the
hydraulic system (e.g. leakage in hydraulic lines), the only “problem” which may
16 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

occur is an increase in steering effort for driver.

Because of, among others, simplifications made possible by modular design as well
as possible energy saving issues, new steering systems being developed today. These
systems can be divided into the three following categories: Electromechanical/Elec-
trohydraulical power steering systems (mechanical/hydraulical systems with electri-
cal boosting), Steer-by-Wire systems with hydraulic back up and full Steer-by-Wire
systems. So-called electrohydraulic power steering systems are the same as a con-
ventional hydraulic power steering where the hydraulic pump is driven by electrical
power instead of by the vehicle engine. It can save up to 75% of energy depending
on load distribution and control strategy. In the case of failure, again only the
steering effort of the driver is increased. Electric power steering is a combination of
a mechanical steering system with an electrical motor which, instead of a hydraulic
system, boosts the steering force. It is stated that such systems can decrease the fuel
consumption up to 80%. Further, these systems are more environmentally friendly
than the hydraulic systems as no hydraulic fluids are necessary. Installation costs
can be kept low, as the Electric power steering systems can also be used as a ready-
to-install module on different cars. Like the already mentioned systems, in case
of failure in the electrical system the driver will have to use more effort to steer,
however, no safety issues of magnitude will occur [31]. Figure 2.8 classifies different
steering systems considering the source of energy used for the actual steering. In
the Figure 2.8, EAS means electric angle assisted system, HPAS means hydraulic
power assisted system, EHPAS means electrohydraulic power assisted system and
EPAS means electric power assisted steering system. In the electrical power assisted
category, the electric motor can reduce the driver effort by applying extra torque
either on steering column, pinion or rack. In the dual-pinion system, the electric
motor is mounted on a seperate pinion on the rack. In the full power steering
(Steer-by-Wire) category, HPS means hydraulic Steer-by-Wire system, EPS means
electric Steer-by-Wire system and EHPS means electrohydraulic Steer-by-Wire sys-
tem. The physical Scheme of the different steering systems is presented in Figure
2.9.

2.3.2 New steering systems

In future steering systems, which are currently in research, the steering column
will be omitted so that there is no direct mechanical connection between steering
wheel and driven wheels. In the case of certain failures within the system, this
may lead to serious problems for the vehicle, requiring serious considerations in the
design process of these systems. The advantages, however, are the improvement
of steering comfort, the possibility to have a variable steering ratio, reduction of
injuries in accidents due to the missing steering column, and better steering behavior
in oversteer and understeer situations. It can also provide more design freedom of
2.3. STEERING 17

Figure 2.8: Classification of steering systems based on the source of energy and
steering assist method. Figure from [37].

the engine compartment [31].

Other general benefits of X-by-Wire systems also apply to Steer-by-Wire system;

for instance vehicle dynamics improvements, emission reductions, weight reduc-
tions, improvements in fuel efficiency, and improvements of NVH (Noise, Vibration,
Harshness) performance [5], [56], [77].

Weight reductions are especially important when it comes to hybrid vehicles; extra
weight can easily outweigh the efficiency benefits gained through hybridization. The
efficiency gain by downsizing the hybrid electric power train by 30 to 40% can be
totally offset by an increased weight of electrical energy storage [43].

In terms of cost efficiency Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering is, according

to [26], the best solution to apply as a combustion engine independent steering
system on hybrid electric vehicles. Hydraulic power assisted steering is a proven
technology, however only with very poor energy performance in the conventional
18 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

(a) Mechanical steering system (b) Hydraulic power steering

(c) Electrohydraulic power steering (d) Electrical power steering

Figure 2.9: Different steering systems. Figure from [31].

cases. In [106], it has been shown that by replacing the hydraulic power steering
systems in passenger cars with electric power assisted steering systems one would
save about 90% of the fuel consumed by the conventional hydraulic power steering
system. This reduction in fuel consumption translates to a reduction of 0.3 - 0.5
l/100km. In another study on passenger cars in a FTP-75 (Federal Test Procedure)
driving cycle, [107], it is shown that by using electrohydraulic power steering and
electric powered steering, overall fuel consumption of the vehicle can be improved
by 1% and 1,7% respectively compared to conventional hydraulic power steering
systems .

Steer-by-Wire systems can be divided into two categories. The first category de-
scribes systems where the two wheels are connected with the steering rack. In
contrast, the second category includes the systems in which the wheels are con-
nected to two independent motors. The second method has the advantage that the
left and right wheels are controlled independently in an optimal way [77]. Figure
2.3. STEERING 19

2.10 illustrates both mentioned steering systems.

(a) Integrated Steer-by-Wire system (b) Independent-type Steer-by-Wire System

Figure 2.10: Different types of Steer-by-Wire systems. Figure from [77].

One main issue in using electromechanical steering systems is to simulate the steer-
ing feedback in order to provide a proper feeling to the driver. To simulate the
steering feeling, four main methods are used: a model-based approach, a torque
sensor-based method, a torque-map method, and a direct current measurement
method. In the model-based method there is no need for a torque sensor and the
force feedback is based on a disturbance observer which considers the aligning torque
as the source of disturbance. In the torque-map method, a map for steering wheel
torque based on different signals, e.g. vehicle velocity and steering wheel angle, is
constructed. In this method, the computations for calculating torque is avoided. In
the torque sensor-based method, as its name implies, a torque sensor is used. In the
direct current measurement method the current which is consumed by the motor is
measured to allow the produced torque to be calculated [74].

LORD Corporation produced a tactile feedback device (TFD) that uses a magneto-
rheological (MR) technology which can mime the steering feeling for the driver.
According to the company, the MR solution has several advantages over other types
of torque generating devices (e.g. electromagnetic friction brakes or motors), for
instance a smooth torque with no stick-slip or cogging is generated while also being
more energy efficient [56]. The Linde Material Handling GmbH uses the LORD TFD
Steer-By-Wire devices to provide tactile feedback for its Steer-by-Wire reach trucks.
Replacing the hydraulic steering system with a Steer-by-Wire system enabled Linde
to design a lighter vehicle with a smaller footprint and fewer parts. It also reduced
electricity usage, and extended the battery life, while improving the quality of the
steering feel.

There are some disadvantages with using a motor for the road feedback feeling; for
instance, an oscillatory feeling, and improper and potentially dangerous acceleration
20 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

of the steering wheel by the motor may occur when the driver’s hands are released
from steering wheel too quickly. The inherent safety problems of the motor-based
active steering wheel can be eliminated by a semi-active steering wheel with two
magneto-rheological brakes used for reactive torque generation [78].

2.3.3 Steering system products

It shall be noted that although Steer-by-Wire systems have many advantages, they
have still not been put into production in cars and trucks since more proof of
reliability and further development is needed. Therefore, power steering systems
are usually chosen over Steer-by-Wire systems [105]. Still, there is a number of
Steer-by-Wire prototype systems for road vehicles.

SKF manufactures a Steer-by-Wire plug-and-play module as shown in Figure 2.11.

It can sense the change in angular position (how far the steering wheel is turned
and in which direction), angular velocity and angular acceleration of the rotating
shaft. This module uses several identical sets of sensors that operates independently,
making it fail-safe (see also chapter 3). Its application areas include forklift trucks,
harvesters, tractors, road rollers and electric carts. SKF claims that this system can
save up to 60% of energy required for steering compared to conventional hydraulic
steering. The module is maintenance free and there is no need for lubrication and
steering torque adjustment [94].

Figure 2.11: The SKF Steer-by-Wire plug-and-play module. Figure from [94].

Delphi Corporation has produced a so-called E-steer system for passenger cars that
incorporates the steering gear, electric assist mechanism and also an electronic con-
2.4. OTHER BY-WIRE SYSTEMS 21

troller. It eliminates the need of a power steering pump, hoses, hydraulic fluids,
pulleys and drive belts. In the E-steer system, an electric motor is mounted onto
an intermediate shaft which is attached to the rack and pinion gear system. The
sensors in this system measure the steering shaft torque and steering wheel posi-
tion. By using these inputs and other system variables, the amount and direction of
steering assist will be determined. Delphi has also an alternative system closer to a
full Steer-by-Wire system which is called Quadrasteer. In this rear steering system
there is no mechanical joint between the driver and the steering subsystem [21].

Ognibene S.p.A. has developed a fully functional Steer-by-Wire driving control

unit for agricultural tractors. It fulfills all practical requirements for off-road use,
as well as all legal requirements for on-road use. Ognibene collaborated with
TTControl-TTTech to design the bus architecture based on the Time-Triggered Pro-
tocol (TTP). They have used a distributed redundant real time system to achieve
a very high degree of fault tolerance. Functional units are grouped into subsystems
and each subsystem is mapped onto one or more electronic control units. There are
redundant inputs from sensors, redundant outputs to actuators, and each subsys-
tem is distributed on more than a single electronic control unit [100]. Again, see
chapter 3 for details on safety and fault tolerance.

2.4 Other by-Wire systems

Apart from Brake-by-Wire and Steer-by-Wire systems, other X-by-Wire subsystems

has been developed recently. Lindner et al.[60] describe requirements and a solution
for a Shift-by-Wire system (currently in production and use today in several BMW
car models) that replaces the classical mechanical Bowden-wire based system. The
paper states that great weight has to be put into choosing the right shift-pattern
to gain customer acceptance. Electromagnetic blocking actuators are used to give
the right controller-feel and to block functions depending on the current state. The
actual input sensing is taken care of with redundant digital switching Hall effect
sensors and certain conditions have to be met before an input is accepted in order
to prevent erroneous shifting. The input is transmitted to the ECU controlling the
gearbox actuation over either of two redundant CAN-buses. Some of the advantages
gained by using this system instead of more conventional ones are, as stated in the
paper, increased comfort, no mechanical constraints on positioning of gearbox and
lever as well as significant weight reductions.

While the above stated research introduces a gear selector for Shift-by-Wire ap-
plication only, Kirchner et al. with GM Powertrain, [53], present concepts of a
Full-by-Wire powertrain. That is, not only the gear shift is laid out X-by-Wire, but
also a Clutch-by-Wire system is introduced. However, for the sake of the driver’s
convenience, the actual operating devices (gear lever and clutch pedal) remain un-
22 CHAPTER 2. PRODUCTS/PROTOTYPES

changed so that the driver does not need to adapt to a new system. Moreover, as
there is no mechanical connection and as the force-displacement characteristics of
the devices show only little hysteresis, both pedal and gear lever may be designed
only with regard to comfort purposes. Nevertheless, GM found that the haptics of a
gear shift essentially needs to be velocity dependent. In this way, the driver is able
to relate the shifting speed with the synchronization force and therefore it is possi-
ble to distinguish a slow upshift from a faster downshift by haptics. With respect
to heavy vehicles’ range-change transmission the authors stated that although the
underlying concept of actuation is similar to passenger cars’ single-range transmis-
sion, different aims are followed: while for the latter ones shift haptics and noise
are important, for heavy vehicles mainly a driver-friendly shifting is sought. By ap-
plying a Full-by-Wire powertrain it would be possible have the advantages of both
manual and automatic shifting.

A more unconventional X-by-Wire system is introduced in a paper by Nguyen et

al.[73]. The so-called Observe-by-Wire system uses a force feedback system as a
haptic interface to the driver to increase safety. The feedback force is calculated
from a number of proximity sensors. A forklift truck where proximity sensors are
mounted on the forks is used for prototyping. This allows the vehicle to sense the
distance from the fork to nearby objects, which can be hard to see by bare-eye when
fork has been lifted up high, and feedback it to the driver. An interesting find from
the prototype is that safety as well as operating performance is increased. Further,
it was found that feedback forces need to be adjustable due to that different people
have different sensitivity to this kind of feedback.
Chapter 3

System Architecture

3.1 System Design

One possible classification of distributed systems is to divide them into two cate-
gories; federated and integrated. Federated systems are characterized by having a
separate dedicated processing system for individual application, whereas an inte-
grated system architecture has several applications integrated on a single or more
processing units [82].

The federated architecture has historically been preferred for safety critical systems
since it has a natural separation of subsystems and allows for isolation of faults
and complexity management. Integrated systems, however, have the advantage of
massive cost reduction as well as other benefits such as e.g. space reduction [82].

An important factor in the system architecture design for future cars is the con-
stantly growing number of features depend on mechatronic systems. A new archi-
tecture must be versatile enough to handle the demands of the foreseeable future.

In 2005 Peti et al. [82] suggested an integrated system architecture called DECOS
which supposedly provides a foundation for integrating criticality-mixed subsystems
while supporting applications with high dependability requirements (up to maxi-
mum 10−9 failures per hour). The architecture builds upon a concept described as:
“The complexity of a large real-time computer system can only be managed, if the
overall system can be decomposed into nearly-independent subsystems with linking
interfaces that are precisely specified in the value and time domain”.

The DECOS architecture denotes each individual subsystem as a Distributed Ap-

plication Subsystem (DAS), and an example of a such could e.g. be a Steer-by-Wire
system. The architecture provides a number of core services like fault isolation and

23
24 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

diagnosis as well as high level services like virtual networking. See Figure 3.1 for an
overview of the DECOS Integrated System Architecture.

Figure 3.1: The DECOS Integrated System Architecture. Figure from [82].

The design flow specified in the architecture allows the system to be designed upon
a top-down approach. See Figure 3.2 for a design flow example.

The advantage of this architecture is that a DAS is somewhat contained in its own
allowed space while at the same time several DAS’s can be run on the same physical
ECU. This of course provides space and cost benefits compared to traditional feder-
ated systems. The isolation of the individual components also lessens the complexity
in analyzing the system compared to traditional integrated architectures.

In [89], Santos et al. develop and discuss a modular control architecture applied in a
small electrical vehicle equipped with X-by-Wire systems. Again, they indicate that
with decoupling safety-related systems from a mechanical backup it is inevitable to
have a sophisticated overall control architecture. This is also true as the performance
gap between mechanical and electrical systems increased, so that the driver “cannot
cope with non-assisted systems in a safe way”.

As will be shown in the next section, Santos et al. apply the concept of redundancy
in order to provide fault-tolerance and to make the respective systems safe. For
communicating among all modular functions the FTT-CAN has been used. Here,
critical nodes (i.e. those nodes which implement safety related functions as well
3.1. SYSTEM DESIGN 25

Figure 3.2: DECOS Design flow example. Figure from [82].

as the FTT-CAN master node) are implemented twofold. Non-safety-critical nodes

are however not redundant but at least connected to two buses in order to tolerate
bus partitioning. Also, using the FTT-CAN, jitter and end-to-end delays (which
closed loop controllers are sensitive to) can be minimized imposing phase control
both on the system tasks and messages. The actual control of the braking algorithm
is carried out by specific ECUs interconnected by a subnetwork.

The Steer-by-Wire system is set up In a similar way. It is broken down into two
distinct subsystems (steering wheel handling and haptic force feedback; and road
wheel sensor interfacing and steering motor control) and also gathers data from
different subsystems.

With X-by-Wire systems another important component is the energy management

strategy. In the mentioned project of Santos et al. a specific ECU is devoted
to control the energy flow between the sources (batteries, super capacitors, solar
panels) and the motors with the aim of maximizing autonomy and longevity of all
subsystems.
26 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

3.2 Fault-tolerance and Safety

Mechatronic systems are to replace purely mechanic, hydraulic and pneumatic sys-
tems. However, the transition towards such systems should not only incorporate
improvements on the feature side. New mechatronic products also need to be at
least as safe as any conventional systems. Although X-by-Wire systems can prevent
up to 30% of traffic fatalities if they are used in the safe and proper way (which is
the same percentage as airbags give [10]), the safety of these systems needs to be
guaranteed to prevent system failure which could cause serious damages. Therefore,
for new mechatronic systems it is essential to be designed highly fault tolerant. This
means that a single failure of one component must not lead to a failure of the whole
mechatronic system. Also, it must be ensured that a system failure does not lead
to a state in which human life, economics or environment are endangered, [98].

In order to lessen the risk of failure of mechatronic components, two conceptual

ideas are given: perfection and redundancy. The former seeks to avoid failure by
overdesign, careful inspection, etc. which in most cases is not economically rea-
sonable and is thus seldom followed. The idea behind redundancy is that failure
of components is considered from the very beginning, which in turn results in a
dynamically changing structure of the overall system.

In automotive applications the probability of failure should be much less than 10−7
faults in one hour of operation. This can also be stated in terms of the so-called
safety integrity level (SIL) where the maximum bound of 10−9 fault/hour corre-
sponds to SIL4. For example, a steering system should comply with SIL4 [38]. If a
Steer-by-Wire system is used, several electronics components will be involved in the
system and it is difficult for single individual components to reach this previously
mentioned high level of safety. There are different ways to solve this issue. One of
them is to implement redundancy in the system by adding similar components or in
other word making it fault-tolerant. Another way would be to add redundancy by
adding a different kind of system, e.g. adding a mechanical backup to the electronic
system and making this electronic system fail-safe [90].

A measure of the reliability with respect to random failures is given by the MTTF
(Mean Time To Failure) which is the time period in which there is a 37% chance
that the component is still functioning. However, for safety-relevant systems all
aspects of reliability, availability, maintainability, and safety (RAMS) essentially
need to be considered. With the terms system integrity and system dependability
[38], two procedures to meet safety requirement in technical disciplines are given.
According to [42], “safety and reliability are generally achieved by a combination
of fault avoidance, fault removal, fault tolerance, fault detection and diagnosis,
automatic supervision and protection”. Further, it is stated that “fault avoidance
and removal has to be accomplished during a design and testing phase.” In order
3.2. FAULT-TOLERANCE AND SAFETY 27

to investigate the effects of faults on safety and reliability, various analysis methods
have been developed. The most common ones are as follows:

• reliability analysis,

• event tree analysis (ETA) and fault tree analysis (FTA),

• failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA),

• hazard analysis (HA),

• risk classification.

When talking about redundancy it is crucial to discuss its structures. The two
common ones are static and dynamic redundancy. For static redundancy multiple
parallel modules are concurrently active, using the same input signal. Their out-
put is fed to a voter in order to decide on the correct signal. To further improve
redundancy even the voter can be set up redundantly [75] . Hoseinnezhad et al.
use a fuzzy voter as an improved method in decision making, resulting in an up
to 82% reduction of the voting error compared to regular majority voting [35]. On
the other hand, so-called dynamic redundancy, requires less modules at the expense
of higher information processing; there is only one active module and in case of
failure the system will switch to a backup unit instead. However, this implies that
any failure has to be detected safely. Depending on whether this reserve unit is
continuously in operation or not, this structure is called hot or cold standby, respec-
tively. Rooks et al. propose a duo duplex system, that is evaluating two channels
with each of them containing two redundant controllers [85]. Fault tolerance with
dynamic redundancy and cold standby is attractive for mechatronic systems due to
the fact that many sensor signals and embedded computers are readily available so
that fault detection can be improved considerably by applying process-model-based
approaches [42].

The level of redundancy is limited mainly due to cost, space and weight issues.
Therefore three common levels of degradation can be defined:

• fail-operational (FO): one failure is tolerated,

• fail-safe (FS): upon the first failure the component enters a safe state,

• fail-silent (FSLI): upon the first failure the component stays in a passive mode
and thus does not wrongly influence other components.

It must be stated that the various components of a fault tolerant (mechatronic)

product are based on different levels of redundancy. This idea is handled by an
28 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

automatic fault management system. Besides fault tolerant components such as

sensors, actuators, and communication, this fault management system also covers
fault detection and fault handling.

It has been pointed out that X-by-Wire systems should be laid out redundantly, as
such systems are safety-critical. Also, the sensors in such systems need to continu-
ously provide their measurement data as the overall control relies on these values.
Therefore, it is important to compensate for occasionally missing data due to sensor
failures or errors in communication of such safety-critical sensors . In [34] Hosein-
nezhad et al. develop a FIR (Finite Impulse Response) filter approach which imple-
ments a multistep ahead prediction. According to the authors the prediction filter
outperforms comparable prediction methods (e.g. linear smoothed Newton filter,
Newton polynomial predictive filter, nonlinear filtering upon neural networks, etc.)
in terms of computational overhead with at least similar prediction performance.
Hence, missing data can be predicted and compensated for in real time contributing
to an increased overall system safety.

One way to increase redundancy, as described by Matsubara et al.[65], would be

to use a network centric architecture where instead of having several redundant
central ECUs doing control calculations and then sending actuator values over a
bus to the actuator ECUs, the actuator ECUs are capable of reading the sensor
data directly from the bus and doing simplified control calculations in the case of a
central ECU failure. This architecture would be especially useful for Brake-by-Wire
systems, as they naturally have actuator redundancy. Even with a central ECU
failure and three brake actuator ECU failures, the vehicle would still be able to do
limited braking with this architecture. See Figure 3.3 for an example of a network
centric Brake-by-Wire system architecture.

(a) Normal operation (b) In case the integrated ECU has failed

Figure 3.3: Example of network centric Brake-by-Wire system. Figure from [65].

Another less conventional method to increase fault-tolerance is so-called analytical

redundancy, which is a way to reduce the number of sensors which needs to be
used in a system (e.g. Steer-by-Wire system) by using models to calculate what
3.2. FAULT-TOLERANCE AND SAFETY 29

a sensor value should be based on other sensors values [3]. One way of adding
actuator redundancy is to use a system with a different functionality to backup the
a system. An example could be the usage of a brake system to steer the vehicle
using asymmetric brake application in case of failure in steering system and another
would be using alternative control surfaces of an aircraft to compensate for loss of
others, e.g. using ailerons to compensate for rudder malfunction[15].

Redundancy can be designed into all different product levels, including chip-level
like Hitachi which has created a chip with built in dual redundant CPUs as well as
other fault-tolerance improving technologies,[49]. The advantage with this method
is having redundancy at a relatively low-cost which is the key in vehicle mechatronic
systems.

Since modern mechatronic products use increasingly complex software, the trust-
worthiness of them gets harder and harder to prove. The trustworthiness of any
software depends on a number of attributes [32]:

• Safety, i.e. the absence of catastrophic environmental consequences,

• Quality of Service, i.e. which includes availability, reliability and performance,
• Security, i.e. the absence of unwanted access to the system,
• Privacy, i.e. the absence of unwanted disclosure of information from the sys-
tem.

Security and safety are growing concerns when embedded systems are getting more
and more interconnected since the ECUs get more and more control of the different
actuators available in the vehicle.

When it comes to redundant computer systems, e.g. TMR-systems (Triple Modular

Redundancy), it is also important to have software diversity, which means that the
computers should not run exact duplicates of each other’s software. This is because
there might be programming mistakes that will cause the same error on all the
redundant computers, hence causing the system to fail. It is also recommended
that the different computer firmwares should be written in different programming
languages since there might also be language specific faults due to e.g. compiler
design.

Current automotive digital communication architectures are typically based on Con-

troller Area Network (CAN) technology. This technology may not be adequate
for the demands of X-by-Wire systems, and therefore technologies such as Time-
triggered CAN (TTCAN), Byteflight, and FlexRay are more suitable in automotive
digital communications [21] which some of them like FlexRay are currently being
used for some applications.
Chapter 4

Legislation & Standards

Apart from technical issues which should be considered when new braking and
steering systems are designed, also legislation and standards have to be taken into
account to be able to use new braking and steering systems in products.

4.1 ECE 13 & 79

For designing steering systems, old legislation emphasized that there should be
a positive mechanical link between the steering control (steering wheel) and the
road wheels. Newer regulations allow steering systems without any mechanical
connection between steering control and wheels. However, there are other rules
that have to be followed, some of them being that the steering system should have
tendency of self-centering and no unusual vibration should be felt at the maximum
speed of the vehicle. There should also be a continuous relationship between the
steering control deflection and the steering angle (except for full power steering
systems when the vehicle is stationary and the system is not energized). If the
engine or transmission fails, no immediate change should occur in the steering angle
and if any failure happens in the control transmission, it should still be possible to
steer to some amount. If any failure in the energy source of the control transmission
occurs, it should be possible to steer. Also, the electric steering system should be
protected against excessive energy supply [101].

When it comes to brake systems there is also a number of rules that have to be
followed, some of them as described in [102] being:

• The brake system should be able to control the movement of vehicle and halt
it safely, speedily and effectively whatever its speed, load and road gradient

31
32 CHAPTER 4. LEGISLATION & STANDARDS

are,

• The parking brake, which should able to hold the vehicle stationary on slopes,
should be purely mechanical,

• The operation of electric regenerative brakes should not be affected by electric

and magnetic fields,

• When the parking brake is released, the braking system should be able to
generate a static total braking force even when the ignition and start switch
are switched off, or the key is removed.

4.2 AUTOSAR

In order to be able to cope with the growing complexity of electrical and elec-
tronical (E/E) systems, many vehicle manufacturers have decided to comply with
AUTOSAR (AUTomotive Open System Architecture). So, considering AUTOSAR
for developing new X-by-Wire systems is important. AUTOSAR is an open and
standardized automotive software architecture for automobile manufacturers, sup-
pliers and tool developers [33]. It makes it easier to exchange and update software
and hardware over the service life of the vehicle, which forms the basis for reliably
controlling the growing complexity of the E/E systems in motorized vehicles. The
standard comprises a set of specifications describing software architecture compo-
nents and defining their interfaces [20]. The main purpose of the standard is to
manage the growing complexity of automotive electronic architectures. It is very
important to build a common architecture and a common understanding of how
electronic control units (ECU) cooperate on the same functions. It can also be used
to separate the software from the hardware in order to allow software reuse and
smooth evolutions which limits re-development and validation. AUTOSAR allows
multiple different functions, i.e. different software modules to coexist on the same
ECU independently from the supplier of either part, [22].

Overall objectives of AUTOSAR as described in [67] can be concluded as:

• Implementation and standardization of basic system functions as an OEM

wide "Standard Core" solution,

• Scalability to different vehicle and platform variants,

• Transferability of functions throughout network,

• Integration of functional modules from multiple suppliers,

• Maintainability throughout the whole “Product Life Cycle”,

4.3. ISO 26262 33

• Increased use of “commercial off-the-shelf hardware”,

• Software updates and upgrades over vehicle lifetime,
• Consideration of availability and safety requirements,
• Redundancy activation.

The main working topics of AUTOSAR are architecture, methodology and applica-
tion interfaces. AUTOSAR only considers the information exchange of the building
blocks of the implemented design. The information about what the electrical/elec-
tronical (E/E) system should fulfill is not considered in this standard. Support of
general architecture decisions is not implemented either. AutoSAR defines a soft-
ware component technology for developing application software as well as it proposes
a standardized ECU software architecture. Furthermore, it suggests a methodology
with predefined templates how to exchange design information between actors [97].

AUTOSAR aims to be prepared for the upcoming technologies and improves cost
efficiency without compromising quality. It is also a key enabling technology to
manage the growing electrics/electronics complexity [1].

4.3 ISO 26262

Safety is a very important aspect of every industrial product. To standardize the

functional safety (i.e. the absence of unreasonable risk due to hazards caused by
malfunctioning behavior of systems) in the E/E and programmable electronic sys-
tems, the IEC 61508 has been in use since the mid-1980’s and recently been updated
to the second edition [38]. The ISO 26262 standard [39] is an adoption of IEC 61508
so it can be used in the E/E systems in road vehicles. E/E systems have provided
several new functionalities in the vehicles like driver assistant systems; vehicle dy-
namics control systems, and active and passive systems. The new development of
these systems and integration of them requires specific safety system development
processes and criteria to show that these systems are behaving safely. As in any
other system, whenever software content and mechatronic systems are used, there
is always risk of systematic and random failure in the system. The ISO 26262 is
proposed to provide guidance to avoid these risks. This standard is intended to be
used for safety related systems which include one or more E/E systems which are
installed on passenger cars with a maximum gross weight of 3.5t. The standard is
planned to be extended for heavy vehicles by 2013. ISO 26262 considers the pos-
sible dangers which can be caused by the malfunctioning of the safety related E/E
systems. Hazards from electric shock, fire, smoke, heat, radiation, toxicity, flamma-
bility, reactivity, corrosion, release of energy, and similar hazards are not considered
unless they are caused by a malfunctioning of safety related E/E systems.
34 CHAPTER 4. LEGISLATION & STANDARDS

The ISO 26262 provides an automotive safety life cycle (management, develop-
ment, production, operation, service and decommissioning) and supports tailoring
the necessary activities during these life cycle phases. Furthermore, it provides an
automotive specific risk-based approach for determining risk classes (so-called Auto-
motive Safety Integrity Levels, ASILs), and uses the ASILs for specifying an item’s
necessary safety requirements for achieving an acceptable residual risk. Moreover,
the standard also provides requirements for validation and confirmation measures
in order to ensure a sufficient and acceptable level of safety.

ASIL specifies the item’s or element’s necessary requirements of ISO 26262 and
safety measures for avoiding an unreasonable residual risk. Four ASILs are defined:
ASIL A through ASIL D, where ASIL A is the lowest safety integrity level and
ASIL D the highest one. In addition to these four ASILs, the class QM (Quality
Management) indicates no requirement according to ISO 26262. The severity of a
potential danger is estimated using a severity class of S0, S1, S2 and S3. Class S0
means that the hazard is only limited to material and does not involve humans.
The other severity classes are shortly defined in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Severity classes. Figure from [39].

The probability of exposure in operational situations is estimated by means of so-

called probability classes E0, E1, E2, or E3. Class E0 is used for situations that
are suggested during hazard and risk analysis, but are considered to be extremely
unusual. Other classes can be decided based on the Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Probability of exposure. Figure from [39].

The controllability of dangerous events, caused by the driver or other traffic partic-
ipants, can be estimated using the controllability classes C0, C1, C2 and C3 which
are shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Controllability of dangerous events. Figure from [39].

4.3. ISO 26262 35

The ASIL should be determined using the severity (S), probability of exposure (E)
and controllability (C) in accordance to the Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: ASIL determination. Figure from [39].

The safety life cycle which includes the main activities during the concept phase,
the product development phase and after the start of production (SOP) phase are
shown in Figure 4.5. In this figure, the numbers in the blocks correspond to the
specific chapter in the standard document which is referred to [39].
36 CHAPTER 4. LEGISLATION & STANDARDS

Figure 4.5: Safety life cycle. Figure from [39].

Chapter 5

Methodology

5.1 Development methodology and multi-domain

optimization

Since mechatronic product development is a wide area, it is (almost) impossible to

define one fixed optimized generic development method to use.

Figure 5.1: The V-model as a macro-cycle. Figure from VDI 2206 [96].

However, one of the more commonly used methods is the V-model, which is recom-
mended by VDI. The VDI 2206 [96] proposes to use conventional problem solving on

37
38 CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY

micro-level and the V-model on a macro-level. Figure 5.1 describes the V-model;
the horizontal axis describes project completeness and the vertical axis describes
the abstraction level. The main idea is to verify each step on the right side against
its corresponding requirements on the left side. The VDI 2206 also proposes an
iterative V-model where the macro-cycle is repeated several times with increasing
product maturity, see Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Iterative macro-cycle V-model. Figure taken from VDI 2206 [96].

The traditional design methods for mechatronic systems are usually fairly sequential
[7], [8], [86]. The different engineering domains are treated as separate designs, e.g.
mechanics, electronics and control systems are designed and optimized individually
and then integrated with each other. Usage of off-the-shelf components instead
of custom components is also quite common, leaving out an all optimization step
together.

Fredrik Roos proposes an alternative model-based design methodology [86]. This

design methodology uses a combination of static models which describe relation-
ships between different physical parameters, and dynamic models which describe
the components’ behavior. By using this method, optimization using genetic algo-
rithms with regards to properties such as cost, weight and performance is possible.
The genetic algorithm gives a global system optimum instead of local component
5.1. DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY AND MULTI-DOMAIN OPTIMIZATION 39

optimums which would have arose by optimizing the components individually.

Behbahani et al. [7], [8] describe a method to optimize a mechatronic system with
respect to multiple criteria. To take the different criteria into account a so-called
Mechatronic Design Quotient is used. This multi-criteria quotient is calculated
through aggregation by a non-linear fuzzy integral, which makes it possible to weigh
a combination of off-the-shelf components against other combinations. Optimization
carried out via a niching genetic algorithm, which in comparison to a standard
genetic algorithm lets several “eco-systems” (also called niches) evolve parallel to
each other. The niches have small differences in their initial conditions and when the
evolutionary cycles are completed the top “ elite” candidates compete against each
other to generate a winning candidate based on the Mechatronic Design Quotient.

As pointed out in [13], the Robert Bosch GmbH started the initiative “Systems
Engineering Mechatronic” in order “to cope with the challenges of system design
and complexity handling”. This approach is based on the above introduced V-
model. Key elements of this initiative are that physical/ mathematical models
are to be used whenever possible. However, as some physical processes are very
complex (e.g. combustion processes) they can not be used for an efficient product
design of such systems. It is then pointed out that information systems need other
methods of modeling, which is also holds for mechatronic systems with a high part of
information technology. Furthermore, it is stated that a mechatronic system and its
components shall be tested against the requirements specification. Apart from that,
an overall computer aided engineering tool infrastructure is required, for instance by
coupling commercially available tools via scripts for parameter exchange. Another
key of the “Systems Engineering Mechatronic” is that standardized base models for
different technologies have to be available so that fast or virtual rapid prototyping
is enabled with a high reuse of these models. Apart from that it is significant that
one can exchange models quickly between different tools in horizontal direction
(“e.g. in a one-dimensional simulation level between tools for hydraulic simulation
and electronics simulation”) as well as in vertical direction (“e.g. between three-
dimensional and one-dimensional hydraulic simulation tool”).

According to Bosch the application of Systems Engineering Mechatronic yields dif-

ferent benefits. For example it is said that by using rapid prototyping the design
quality can be increased already in early phases, and the design efficiency can be
increased (as a result Bosch was able to reuse up to 80% of the design models). Also,
it is pointed out that different variants of a certain design were developed easily as
they all base on a stable set of construction elements. In general, it is stated that
the system design has become more flexible due to the model-based system design
description.

The role of software is special in mechatronic systems in such a way that the soft-
ware design must take physical border conditions into account. There are already
40 CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY

some software methodologies for software-intensive systems of high complexity (e.g.

Product Line Approach (PLA) and Capability Maturity Model (CMM), both de-
signed at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI), Pittsburgh, USA). However,
as these approaches do not consider “classical” mechatronic aspects, they cannot
be used for mechatronic development and rather an integrated concept considering
“classical mechatronic” next to software aspects is needed.

5.2 Tools

During product development, simulation is usually an important step. Due to the

multiple-domains included in mechatronic product design, it is difficult to do proper
simulations of the whole system. Well proven tools exist for the individual domains,
e.g. SPICE simulators for electronics, FEM-tools for structural analysis, software
simulators, etc. Tools designed specifically for multi-domain simulation exist, but
are usually limited in comparison to domain-specific tools.

One possibility is to interconnect existing domain-specific tools through a common

software framework as is introduced by Farkas et al. in [19]. Similar approaches
are being developed in several institutes around the world, including KTH.

Something about Ahsans work?

Another consequent idea to optimize mechatronic systems from a holistic point

of view, is that the developers should be able to model and simulate any part of
the system within one environment and easily be able to exchange them, which is
achieved by a so-called model-based design.

As long as there is no single environment simulation toll available, one usually ap-
plies a specialized software tool in order to model certain components in detail,
next to a general modeling/ simulation environment. This so-called co-simulation
requires the special tool being interfaced with the general simulation environment
used for holistic modeling. However, this becomes difficult as it needs to be con-
trolled what actual data both tools are allowed to exchange, and which of the tools
performs a certain calculation.

To overcome those apparent problems of co-simulation, Mathworks introduced the

Simscape software accompanied with the Simscape language which allows to even
model in detail within a single environment [66], [64]. Here, the system is rather
modeled upon its actual structure than on the underlying mathematical physical
description, which the tool itself takes care of.

Although only a single environment is used, still different domains may be coped
with easily. The different components are represented by nodes in a network of phys-
5.2. TOOLS 41

ical components. This network is then analyzed using Kirchoff’s law in an analogue
manner to analyzing electrical networks. In contrast to Mathworks’ Simulink, in
Simscape equations may be expressed implicitly. That is, unlike common program-
ming languages, the equation does not simply assign values of variables. Rather a
mathematical relation between the parameters, the variables and their derivatives is
established, which is defined within each component. In doing so, each component
is only defined once, however, may be used throughout different systems, as only
the underlying relation is evaluated.

MapleSim is also a modeling software used to model multi-domain physical systems.

It uses symbolic computational techniques to model the multi-domain systems. This
software, like SimScape, uses a drag-and-drop method to build models. The equa-
tions of system are produced automatically in MapleSim [63].

Dymola is another example of modeling softwares which is used for modeling and
simulation of dynamic behavior of complex multi-domain systems [12]. Dymola
uses the Modelica modeling language which is an object oriented language for phys-
ical modeling. Dymola consists of different libraries of components from different
domains such as mechanical, electrical, control, pneumatic, powertrain, vehicle dy-
namics and the like. Dymola is also very good software to be used for hardware-in-
the-loop (HIL) simulations. Some of the main Dymola features are the handling of
large and complex multi-domain systems, fast simulations, symbolic preprocessing,
the capability of implementing user defined components, 3D animation and real
time simulation. A brief comparison of the mentioned modeling and simulation
software is done in Figure 5.3 [103].
42 CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY

Figure 5.3: Comparison of SimMechanics, Dymola and MapleSim, Figure taken

from [103].
Chapter 6

Conclusions

From this study it can be concluded that most published research focuses on single
or few aspects of the systems, e.g. fuel consumption. However, to analyze if these
systems are viable for use in a real production vehicle, there is a wide range of
properties which needs to be considered in conjunction with other aspects such as
safety and regulations, cost, applicability, etc. Therefore more research needs to
be conducted on each individual aspect as well as the combination of them before
common application of these systems is possible. Further on, it would seem a good
idea to take a wider array of properties into account already from an early state in
future research.

Another conclusion that can be drawn is that most research is only evaluated by
software simulations or in some cases hardware-in-the-loop simulations. Thus a
large share of published research in the area misses the all important validation in
real conditions. There are even some aspects like passenger comfort which are not
usually considered in the simulations and can only be studied in full extent in real
tests.

The consistency of new technologies with new regulations and standards is an im-
portant aspect which is not considered in most of the research. Researchers usually
focus on the theoretical and scientific aspects of new technologies and do not care
about the legislation and standards, which is one of the most important factors
which can decide whether a technology can be used in production or not.

Also, focus is often laid on individual systems whereas when these systems are used
in real conditions, they are required to coexist and work in synergy with a large
number of other systems. That is, the aspect of integrating an individual system
into the overall vehicle environment is often omitted.

For some systems like electromechanical steering, only a little research has been

43
44 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS

conducted so far. There is a wide range of research areas such as the effect of
electromechanical steering systems (especially Steer-by-Wire systems) on fuel con-
sumption, safety, cost, packaging, etc. for which more research is needed.

Although a large portion of traffic consists of trucks and heavy vehicles, however,
the percentage of papers about the application of mechatronic systems on these
vehicles is considerably low compared to the number of articles about passenger
cars. So, more research is needed in this area since improvements in this area can
affect the whole transportation system.
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