CHAPTER-1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

Though the nutrition science in present days, is very vast with the advent of knowledge and
discoveries in the field of nutrition. But the investigations started by ancient people were
primarily finding the link between food and food components with health.
The study of food as medicine discovered development of nutrition science since many
centuries. Scurvy found to be caused by vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500
BC.
The study of nutrition probably began during the 6 th century BC. Foods were classified
into "hot" (meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China,
India, Malaya, and Persia.
In 400 BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates (Father of Medicine) realized that food had
effect on health, body and mind to help prevent illness as well as maintain wellness of a
person.
James Lind, a physician in the British navy, conducted the first controlled clinical trial in
1747 and published “Treatise on Scurvy” in 1753. Lind discovered that lime juice saved
sailors who had been at sea for years from scurvy. Though Vitamin C was discovered during
1930s, but this experiment of Lind changed the way physicians thought about food, thus
creating a market for nutrition careers.
Antoine Lavoisier, the great French chemist, was the first (around 1770) to measure
basal metabolic rate by containing his assistant inside a rubber suit fitted with a tube sealed
to his mouth with putty. This experiment on demonstrating oxidation of food as the source of
heat and water in the body led to state that “life is a chemical process”. With this pioneer
respiration study, on understanding the chemical basis of nutrition and life, Antoine
Lavoisier was recognized as the “Father or founder” of the science of Nutrition and
Chemistry. Thereafter, chemistry became an important tool in nutrition study.
In 1790, the necessity of calcium for the survival of fowl was recognized by George
Fordyce.
In early 1800s, the elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen were recognized as
the primary components of foods and soon connected to health. The methods to measure
their proportions were also developed.
In 1816, Francois Magendie discovered that dogs fed only sugar (carbohydrates), olive
oil (fat), and water died evidently of starvation, but those also fed protein survived,
recognizing protein as an essential dietary component.

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William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and
protein. The German chemist Justus Liebig (founder of organic chemistry) worked on
chemical nature of foods i.e. carbohydrates, fats and proteins during the 19 th century. Liebig's
ideas stimulated research leading to the development of better techniques for testing
experimental models of metabolism, and pointed chemistry as fundamental to the
understanding of health and disease.
Claude Bernard, during 1860s, discovered that body fat could be synthesized from
carbohydrate and protein, and the energy in blood glucose can be stored as glycogen or as
fat.
The 20th century became an era of golden age of Nutrition as most of the discoveries of
the nutrients took place in this era. In 1906, Willcock and Hopkins showed that the amino
acid tryptophan was beneficial for well-being of mice but it did not improve their growth.
In 1906, Hopkins stated that "unsuspected dietetic factors" other than calories, protein, and
minerals are required to prevent deficiency diseases.
The research on vitamins mainly started during early 20th century. KanehiroTakaki
during early 1880s observed that the Japanese sailors fed diets consisting almost entirely of
white rice developed beriberi or prevalent neuritis (inflammation of peripheral nerves) and
adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the
disease. The cure was not due to increased protein as Takaki supposed but because of
presence of thiamine as understood later.
In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who suffered from beriberi,
observed that chickens fed diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but when
fed unprocessed brown rice keeping outer bran intact did not show any symptom. During
early 20th century, it was learnt that the outer rice bran contained vitamin B 1 (thiamine). In
1912, Casimir Funk, a Polish scientist, coined the term “vitamins” as essential factors in the
diet.
Early in 17th century a Swedish chemist Gahn found that calcium phosphate was major
component of bone ash. The importance of calcium in bone development was recognised in
1842 through the work of Chossat with pigeon fed low calcium diet. Calcium supplements
were also used for the prevention of rickets in children. The discovery of iron as a
component of blood led Frodisch to link blood iron content with anaemia in people in 1832.
Boussingault in 1847 observed a dietary need for common salt in cattle. In the 20 th
century importance of many more minerals was recognized.Studies conducted during 1928

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to 1931 at Wisconsin with rats fed specially purified diets led to recognize essentiality of
copper, manganese and zinc for health.
Selenium was included in the list of essential minerals in 1967 by Smith and Schwarz,
which was earlier recognised as toxic to livestock. Underwood and Marston independently
discovered the necessity of cobalt.
Understanding Nutrition:
Nutrition is science of nourishment of living creatures. Nutrition includes all the
physiological processes and chemical reactions by which a living being is nourished i.e. the
physiological processes and chemical reactions that transform food elements to body
elements and activities. The physiological and chemical reactions include feed intake
(ingestion), digestion, absorption, transport, metabolism of nutrients, and excretion of unused
and waste products.
Understanding nutrients and their importance in animal production and health.
Nutrients are substances that nourish living creatures and are required by the living
organisms to support and maintain life. These are water, carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals and vitamins. The inorganic nutrients are water and minerals, while the organic
nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids or fats and vitamins. These nutrients are present
in different feedstuffs in variable quantity. All the nutrients are essential for maintenance,
growth, reproduction, egg and milk production, besides good health of the animals. Nutrients
are also converted to ceratin special compoundsviz. enzymes, hormones, coenzymes,etc.
required for different physiological and biochemical processes. These nutrients are supplied
through diet or feedstuffs andcertain supplements. Some nutrients especially water-soluble
vitamins are synthesized in minor quantityby the microorganisms (mainly bacteria) normally
present in lower part of digestive tract o in rumen.

Understanding energy:
Energy is not a nutrient, but the effect of carbohydrates, fat and protein metabolism present
in feed. In feed, energy is present in the form of chemical energy. When feed is consumed,
these nutrients (carbohydrates, fat and protein) are digested to smaller units, absorbed and
transported to different organs. The units of these nutrients (amino acids from proteins,
glucose and other single unit sugars from carbohydrates, and glycerol, fatty acids and
monoglycerides /diglycerides from fat) undergo various chemical reactions in the body and
are either utilized for the synthesis of proteins, glycogen and fat and/or broken down further
to carbon dioxide, water and ammonia to liberate energy

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 CHAPTER-2 NUTRITIONAL TERMS AND THEIR DEFINITIONS
Nutrition: Various chemical reactions and physiological processes, which transform food
into body tissues and activities, are called nutrition. It involves the ingestion, digestion and
absorption of various nutrients, their transport to all body cells and the removal of unusable
elements and waste products of metabolism.

Nutrient: Any food constituent or group of food constituents of the same general chemical
composition that aids in the support of animal life.

However, some substances, which may not be of food origin, e.g. synthetically produced
vitamins, chemically prepared inorganic salts or amino acids recovered from hair are also
nutrients that aid in the support of animal life.

Feed stuff: (synonyms- Feed, food, fodder)

Feeding stuff is any product whether of natural origin or artificially prepared that has
nutritional value in the diet.

Feeding stuffs are all those materials that are included in the diet because of their nutritional
properties. It includes not only the naturally occurring plant or animal products and their by-
products but chemically synthesized pure nutrients also.

Ration: It is a twenty-four-hr. allowance of a feed or mixture of feeding stuffs. It carries no

implications that the allowance is adequate in quantity or kind to meet the nutritional needs
of the animal for which it is intended.

Balanced ration: It refers to a feed mixture just sufficient to meet the twenty-four hr.
requirements of a specified animal. The balance generally refers to the proportion of
carbohydrate, protein and fat in the ration.

Diet: A regulated selection of a feed ingredient or a mixture of ingredients (including water)

that is consumed by animal on a prescribed schedule.

A balanced diet supplies all nutrients for normal health and productive functions.

Complete ration: A single feed mixture into which all the dietary essentials except water
have been added for a particular class of livestock.

Basal feeds: Basal feeds are mainly concentrated sources of energy. They are especially rich
in starches and sugars. They are low protein concentrates e.g. corn, barley, oats, wheat and
their by-products.

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 On an average they contain 10-14% crude protein (not >16%) and <5% ether extract and
less than 18% crude fiber.

Supplements: Supplement is a feed or feed mixture used with another to improve the
nutritive balance.Feeds of this type contain large amounts of protein or mineral elements and
vitamins.

If it is a mixed protein supplement, it carries 30% or more protein. However, single feeds
that contain 20% or more protein are included in supplement category. Any mineral or
vitamin carriers added to the ration are referred to as supplements.

Concentrates: It is a feed or feed mixture that contains less than 18% crude fiber.

Roughage: Roughage is any material suitable for animal feeding which contains more than
18% crude fiber (TDN 60%). The terms forage and roughage are generally used
interchangeably.

However, there is a group of feedstuffs that in physical appearance might be classed as

concentrates but nutritionally are more like forages. Since they are high in fiber and low in
useful energy e.g. alfa-alfa hay as forage and alfa-alfa meal as concentrate. Also, it is
difficult to put oat hulls or oat feed in the category of concentrates because their crude fiber
content exceeds18%.

Oat feed: A by-product obtained during milling of table cereals (CF25%). It consists
mainly fraction of oat grains and hulls.

Barley feed: By-product obtained during manufacture of pearl barley.

Pearl barley: Pearl barley orpearled barleyis whole grain barley that has been processed to
remove its fibrous outer hull and polished to remove some or all of the bran layer.

Feed barley: Refers to whole barley that is rejected for use as seed or for malting.

Oat groat: Oat grain from which hull has been removed.

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Differences in composition of animal body and plants:

Animals Plants/plant part

Structural components Protein and minerals Carbohydrates

Relative composition of Differ less in animals Varies greatly in plants

carbohydrates, proteins,
fats and minerals

Carbohydrates Less than 1% of body 75% of plant dry matter

Proteins 54% of dry weight 8 - 41% on dry weight

Fats 11.5% to 76% of dry 2.7 to 45% on dry weight

weight

Minerals 5.0% of body weight Much less than 5% (as such)

Major source of energy Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

Storage of glucose Glycogen Starch

Reserve source of energy Glycogen and fats Starch and oils

CHAPTER-3 CARBOHYDRATES

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Nutritional aspect of carbohydrates:

The term ‘carbohydrate’ means hydrate (water) of carbon. Chemically, they are
polyhydroxy aldehydes (CHO) or ketones (C=O). These are the major component of
feedstuffs of plant origin. The roughages contain more than 65% carbohydrates, cereals
more than 75%, cereal byproducts about 50-60%, oilcakes and protein meals about 20 to
50% carbohydrates on dry matter basis. In contrast, animalbodycontains even less than
one per cent carbohydrates. The storage carbohydrates (starch and sugars) are
concentrated in seeds, and structural carbohydrates (pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose)
are mainly distributed in seed coat.

Carbohydrates include the sugars, starch, cellulose, gums and related substances.
With the exception of sugar and glycogen, none of them occur in the animal body.

Classification of carbohydrates:

The units of carbohydrates are called glycose (saccharide).A simple classification of

carbohydrates is as follows:

Compounds with one carbohydrate unit are called monosaccharides. Those with
two are designated as disaccharides and polysaccharide is the term used to describe a
compound with more than two carbohydrate units. The mono and disaccharides are
soluble in water, crystalline in structure and have sweet taste. They are called sugars. In
contrast most of the polysaccharides are insoluble in water and do not taste sweet.

1. Monosaccharides:

a- Trioses b- Tetroses c- Pentoses e.g. arabinose, xylose, ribose

d- Hexoses e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose

11- Disaccharides: e.g. sucrose, maltose, lactose, cellobiose

111- Trisccharides: e.g.raffinose

1V-Polysccharides: a. Pentosans e.g. araban, xylan

b. Hexosans e.g. dextrins, starch, cellulose, glycogen, inulin

V-Mixed Polysaccharides: e.g. hemicellulose, pectins, gums, mucilages

Nutritive importance of non-digestible carbohydrates in the diet of monogastrics:

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 Cellulose and hemicellulose escaping the small intestine of monogastrics are
substrates for fermentation, which occurs in caecum. However, the fermentation is
limited quantitatively. The volatile fatty acids formed are absorbed into the portal blood.

The capacity of non-digested carbohydrates to absorb water increases the bulkiness

of the chyme, which helps in driving the food residues forward through the intestine. The
dietary fiber helps in cholesterol and glucose absorption and checking cancer of colon
and rectum.

General about carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides:

Forage plants contain 1-3 percent glucose and fructose in their dry matter.
Glucose is the major end product of starch digestion and primary form of energy to be
utilized in non-ruminants. Fructose is the only important keto hexose in nature. It occurs
free in green plants, semen and blood of fetus and newborn animals.

Disaccharides:

Sucrose or saccharose occurs in larger amounts than the monosaccharides in herbages (2-
8% of DM). The concentration of sugars in grasses is higher than in legumes.
Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose or maltose) can’t be absorbed into the circulation from
the gut.

Polysaccharides:

Starch: Starch is the major polysaccharide ingested by the non-ruminants. It is also the
major carbohydrate in plants and grains (70%) cereal by products and tubers (30%) of
dry matter. Most kinds of starch consist of a mixture of two types of polymers i.e.
amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear molecule in which 250 to300 glucose units
are joined by α -1- 4 linkage.

OOOOOOOOOOOOO-----------Amylose(α -1- 4 linkage).

Amylopectin is a highly branched molecule with branching occurring at every 24-30

glucose units with α-1-6 links at branch points and α-1-4 links within the chain.

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 α-1-6 (24-30) α-1-6

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO α-1- 4

Amylopectin

The ratio of amylose: amylopectin in most starches is 1:3.

Glycogen: Glycogen resembles amylopectin in structure. Branching occurs every 10-12

units. About 40 % of glycogen present in the body occurs in the liver and 45% in the
muscles.

Cellulose: This is the major structural component of plant cell wall (20-40 % of dry
matter of green plants). The number of polymerized glucose units may range from 900 to
2000. The β- linkage of the glucose molecule makes it essentially insoluble and
resistant to digestive enzymes. It can be degraded through fermentation by
microorganisms as occurs in the rumen and to some extant in the lower tract of all
animals.

Fructosans: these are fructose polymers that serve in some herbage species and tubers as
storage carbohydrate instead of starch.

Heteropolysaccharides:

Hemicelluloses: These are mixture of linear and highly branched polysaccharides

containing various sugar residues e.g. xylose, arabinose, glucose, galactose and uronic
acid. They occur in the cell wall of plants. They are less resistant to chemical degradation
than cellulose. Non- ruminants digest hemicellulose better than cellulose.

Pectin: Pectin is found in the spaces between cell wall and intracellular layers. Pectins
are only digested by microbial action. Thus, well utilized by the ruminants. Their water
holding capacity (through gel formation) increases with methoxyl content. Pectins
prepared from citrus peels are used to check diarrhoea.

Substituted heteropolysaccharides:

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 Some heteropolysaccharides containing monosugars with amino, sulphate or carboxyl
groups are widely distributed throughout the animal body and fulfill important functions
as a constituent of organic matter of bones and connective tissues. Chondrotin sulphates
occurring in cartilage, tendons and skin contain sulphated polysaccharides.

Lignin:It is not a carbohydrate but polymer of methyl propene monomers. It is

associated with structural carbohydrates. Lignin is linked with cellulose and
hemicellulose as ligno-cellulose or ligno-hemicellulose complex .It is not digestible;
rather it reduces the digestibility of carbohydrates. Lignin content increases with the
maturity of plants. Lignin is soluble in alkali.

Mucopolysaccharides are complex carbohydrates present in animals especially in

connective tissues.

Glucose levels (mg/100ml.):

Simple stomach animals and humans: 70-100

Ruminants: 40-70

Poultry: 130-260
The fate of glucose removed from blood:

The glucose removed from the blood may be utilized in the following ways:

i. Synthesis of glycogen ii. Conversion into fat

iii. Conversion into amino acids iv. As a source of energy.

1- Synthesis of glycogen:
Glycogen synthetase is stimulated after a high carbohydrate meal, in order to enable
storage of additional glucose. The process is stimulated by insulin from pancreas.
Glycogenesis occurs in skeletal muscles and to some extent in the liver.

2- Conversion of glucose into fat:

When ingestion of carbohydrate exceeds the amount required for both energy production
and storage as glycogen, glucose is converted into fat in the liver and adipose tissues.

Long chain fatty acids

Glucose → Pyruvic acid→ Acetyl CoA CO2+H2O

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 Total oxidation through TCA cycle

In ruminants glucose cannot be converted to fat as they lack two key enzymes i.e.
ATP citrate lyase (splits citrate into oxaloacetate and malate) and NADP – malate
dehydrogenase (converts malate to pyruvate). Thus, the ruminants rely entirely on acetate
or butyrate for fat synthesis.

3-Conversion into amino acids:

Non-essential amino acids synthesized in the body derive their carbon skeleton from the
intermediates produced by the breakdown of glucose

4- Oxidation to carbon dioxide and water:

For the oxidation of pyruvate, it is decarboxylated to form acetyl CoA whose oxidation is
affected through TCA cycle.

Role of Carbohydrates:
(i) Carbohydrates constitute a major portion of dry matter of animalfeed and serve as
a major source of energy (the calorific value of carbohydrates is 4.15 kcal/g).
(ii) They provide bulk to the diet required for filling of the gut (hunger satisfaction)
and normal movementsof gastro-intestinal tract.
(iii) Structural carbohydrates are hygroscopic and therefore facilitate easy passage of
faeces (laxative effect)
(iv) Glucose and glycogen supply energy required for synthesis of tissues.
(v) Proteins and fat burn only in the presence of carbohydrates. If blood-glucose level
is decreased fats and proteins are not burnt, leading to the ketone body formation.

Digestion of carbohydrates in simple stomach animals and birds

The principle of carbohydrate digestion is that the polysaccharides and
oligosaccharides (containing less than ten saccharide units; oligos means few) are
hydrolyzed to their constituent monosaccharides in the process of digestion. The
digestion of starch starts in mouth and crop in birds with salivary
amylase(amylase/ptyalin is absent in the saliva of cat, dog, horse and
ruminants).However, this activity is of less importance than that of pancreatic amylases
in the small intestine. Mild hydrolysis of starch may occur in stomach or proventriculus
due to hydrochloric acid. The pancreatic amylases are the most active for starch

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digestion. The products of digestion of amylopectin and amylose are highly branched
which are known as limit dextrin. Limit dextrin are then digested by debranching enzyme
(iso-maltase) to short linear chains of glucose, which are then further hydrolysed by
amylases to maltose and glucose. Lactase enzyme is absent in poultry; thus, they are
unable to digest lactose. Large quantity of lactose in diet (10% or more) causes
intolerance. Several enzymes as given in the following Table act on various
carbohydrates and convert them to single unit sugar like glucose, fructose and galactose.

Table. Source of enzymes, substrates and end products of enzyme action

Substrate Enzyme Source End products

Starch Amylase Saliva, pancreas, intestine Dextrin, limit dextrin,

maltose, maltotriose
and some glucose
Dextrin Dextrinase Small intestinal brush border Maltose
Limit dextrin Iso-maltase Small intestinal brush border Maltose and glucose

Maltose Maltase Small intestinal brush border Glucose

Sucrose (cane sugar) Sucrase Small intestinal brush border Glucose and fructose

Lactose (milk sugar) Lactase Small intestinal brush border Glucose and
galactose

Maltose (α - 1,4 linkage) and isomaltose (α - 1,6) linkage

Absorption of carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are absorbed mainly as glucose;some amount of fructose and

galactose. Glucose is absorbed into the epithelial cells or villi by active transport
(movement of molecules or ions against their concentration gradient using energy in the
form ofATP across a plasma membrane) process. Sodium, energy (ATP), and carrier
proteins are required for their absorption. Glucose is then moved into the blood stream.
Galactose is also absorbed through active transport. Fructose is mainly absorbed in the
small intestine. Jejunum is the main sites of absorption of sugars. The digestibility of
starch, glucose and fructose is 95%, 99% and 96%, respectively in poultry birds.
Factors affecting carbohydrates digestion:
→Dietary fiber decreases carbohydrate digestibility by creating a barrier for enzyme
action and increasing the rate of passage of ingesta because of increased bulk.

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→ The presence of soluble non-starch polysaccharides in dietcauses gel formation that
acts as barrier as well as increase the rate of passage of ingesta.

→ Any disease that increases rate of passage of ingesta, causes enteritis and diarrhea:
and gastrointestinal parasites decreases digestibility of all nutrients.

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in ruminants:

Digestion: It is breaking down of the organic components of food into simpler

compounds. It may be mechanical, chemical or microbial.

Absorption: Passage of the digested nutrients through the mucous membrane of the
alimentary canal into blood and lymph.

Calf, at the time of birth, has no functional rumen, and milk reaches directly to
abomasum through esophageal groove. The rumen becomes functional after two to three
months of age. Therefore, the digestion of the nutrients in calves during first two to
threemonths is accomplished by the enzymes secreted by the calf, like in other
monogastric animals.

Once the rumen becomes functional, the ration largely consisting of roughages and
concentrate are effectively utilized by micro-organisms inhabiting the rumen.

After development of the rumen, a major portion of carbohydrates is digested in

rumen. Later on, when ingesta is passed through large intestine, a part of undigested
carbohydrates is also digested in caecumand colon. The microbes (bacteria, protozoa and
fungi) present in the rumen and large intestine produce all the enzymes required for
digestion. The carbohydrates are hydrolysed to monosaccharides and then fermented to
volatile fatty acids, carbon-di-oxide and methane and under some conditions, hydrogen.
During fermentation energy is also liberated, which is used by the microbes for their
growth.

Fiber digesters are most active at pH of 6.2 to 6.8. Increase in production of volatile fatty
acids causes more acidic environment (pH 5.5) resulting in decreased number of fiber
digesters.

Under normal feeding condition, the molar ratio of volatile fatty acids produced
in rumen is acetic, 60 to 65; propionic, 20 to 24; and butyric 12 to 13. The other acids
produced in rumen are isobutyric acid, isovaleric acid and valeric acid. Feeding high

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amount of grains reduces the production of acetic acid and increases that of propionic
acid.More acetic acid is produced in high fiber diets.About 200 to 300 litres of methane
is produced by a cow per day. A significant proportion (6 to 9%) of feed energy is lost
through methane.

Conversion of carbohydrates to pyruvate in the rumen

Cellulose Starch

Cellobiose Maltose Isomaltose

Glucose – 1 – phosphate Glucose

Sucrose

Glucose – 6 – phosphate

Fructose – 6 – phosphate Fructose Fructans

Pectins Uronic acids

Hemicellulose Pentoses

Pentosans Fructose – 1, 6 diphosphate

Pyruvic acid

Conversion of Pyruvate to Volatile Fatty Acids:

Pyruvate

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 Formate Acetyl COA Lactate Oxaloacetate MethylmelonylCoA

CO2 H2

CH4 MalonylCoA Acetoacetyl CoA Lactyl CoA Malate

Acetyl phosphate β– OH-butyryl CoA Acryl COA Fumarate

Crotonyl COA Propionyl CoA Succinate Succinyl COA

Butyryl CoA

Acetate Butyrate Propionate

Absorption of volatile fatty acids from rumen:

Acetic, propionic and butyric acids produced in the rumen are absorbed by
ruminal epithelium by passive diffusion and then carried to the portal vein through
ruminal veins. Continuous absorption of volatile fatty acids from the rumenprevents drop
in pH of rumen and thus damage of ruminal wall.

Metabolism of carbohydrates

Free glucose cannot enter into other metabolic activities; thus, upon entrance into
the cell it is immediately phosphorylated, a process which requires ATP. Glycolysis can
proceed in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Net gain in ATP via glycolysis (per
initial glucose unit)

Anaerobically ----- +2 Aerobically ---- +8

Total ATP from 2 moles of pyruvate (15× 2) = 30 moles of ATP

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Total ATP produced from oxidation of one mole of glucose aerobically:

1mole of glucose to 2 moles of pyruvate = 8

2 moles of pyruvate to CO2 and H2O =30

Total = 38

The entire process of citric acid cycle takes place in mitochondria under only
aerobic conditions.

CHAPTER-4 LIPIDS

The lipids are a group of substances found in plant and animal tissues, insoluble
in water but soluble in organic solvents e. g. ether, benzene or chloroform. Like the

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 carbohydrates, the fats contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but they are much richer in
carbon and hydrogen as shown below. Because of large proportion of hydrogen in
addition to carbon, much more atmospheric oxygen instead of internal oxygen is used to
oxidize fats. Burning of one gram of hydrogen produces 34.5 kcal. While one gram of
carbon gives 8 kcal. That is why fats produce more heat than carbohydrates or proteins.It
is customary to call a lipid, a fat if it is solid at 250C and oil if it is liquid at that
temperature

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen

Fat 77 12 11
Starch 44 6 50

Classification of Lipids

..

Properties of fats:

Hydrolysis: Fats may be hydrolyzed by boiling with alkalies thus forming glycerol and
soaps. The process may take place naturally under the influence of lipases.

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Oxidation: The unsaturated fatty acids readily undergo oxidation and thus forming
hydroperoxides. Oxidation of saturated fatty acids results in the development of a
sweet, heavy taste and smell commonly known as ketonic rancidity.

Antioxidants: Natural fats possess a certain degree of resistance to oxidation due to the
presence of antioxidants. A number of compounds have antioxidant properties e. g.
phenols, quinones, tocopherols, gallic acid and gallates.

Hydrogenation: Hydrogen is added to double bonds of unsaturated acids of a fat, thus

converting them to their saturated analogues such as conversion of oleic acid to stearic
acid. The process is important commercially forproducinghard fats from vegetable and
fish oils in the production of margarine. The process results in raising the melting point
of the saturated fats and thus their keeping quality.

Some terminologies related to fats:

Melting point: - Naturally occurring lipids consist more or less variable mixture of
glycerides, their melting point provides a useful measure of hardness.

for the fats which are liquid at ordinary temperature the solidifying point rather than
melting point is used as the measure; which varies according to the makeup of the fat.
Although the presence of acids of low molecular weight tends to make for a low melting
point the degree of unsaturation is also an important factor influencing the melting
point.

Coconut fat has much smaller amount of unsaturated acids than lard but it melts at lower
temperature because of its high content of low molecular weight acids.

Iodine number: - Iodine number is a measure of the degree of unsaturation. Two atoms
of iodine are added for each double bond. It is the grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of
fat.

Iodine number of soybean oil 130

Iodine number of coconut oil 8

Iodine number of completely saturated fat zero

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Saponification number: - Saponification number is the number of mg of potassium
hydroxide required for the saponification (hydrolysis) of one gram of fat.

When a fat is boiled with alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide it splits into glycerol and the alkali
salt of fatty acids. These alkali salts are called the soaps and the process is called
saponification. The saponification number of low mol. wt. (short chain fatty acids) is large
and becomes smaller as the mol. wt. of fat increases.

Reichert-Meissl (R-M) Number -It is the number of ml. of 0.1N KOH solution required
to neutralize volatile water-soluble fatty acids (short chain) obtained by hydrolysis of 5g
of fat.

Beef tallow and other high mol. wt. fats contain no volatile acids and therefore, have
RM value zero. Butterfat contains higher proportion of volatile acids and has a RM value
of 17-35.

Rancidity: -(Rancid – having a bad taste or smell of spoiled fat)

Both oxidative and hydrolytic changes are responsible for the development of
rancidity in different fats. Peroxides are formed as intermediate compounds of the process
of rancidity and thus peroxide number is used as a measure of rancidity.

The changes occur especially in the presence of heat, light and moisture.
Certain substances called pro oxidants e.g. copper and iron salts catalyse the process.
Many other compounds referred to as antioxidants retard the development of rancidity.
Many vegetable oils have natural antioxidants. Vitamin E is a very effective antioxidant.

Deficiencies of fats:

Essential fatty acids:Over fifty years back linoleic and arachidonic acids were considered
essential but now it is known that animals have the capability to synthesize arachidonic
acid from linoleic and only linoleic is dietary essential. Oil seeds are a good source.

The deficiency of essential fatty acid in rats leads to cessation of growth after
three to four months, besides dermatitis characterized by scaliness of back, skin, paws
and tail. The deficiency leads to marked increase in water consumption probably due
to permeability of skin to water. Excessive amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in the
diet may induce a shortage of vitamin E, as the vitamin is antioxidant in nature.

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Functions of Lipids

1- Fats are the most important forms of energy in animal kingdom. They furnish 2.25
times more calories as compared to carbohydrates and proteins.

2- Lipids provide insulation for the vital organs thus protecting them from mechanical
shock.

3- It improves palatability of feeds of all classes of animals. Addition of fat tends to

reduce dustiness of feed.Also, they promote absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

Digestion and absorption of fats

Non- ruminants:

Digestion of fat primarily takes place in the small intestine, although a small
amount of short chain triglycerides is digested in the stomach by gastric lipase. For
digestion the fat globules are converted into emulsion so that water soluble digestive
enzymes can act on it. The process is achieved by a liver secretion i. e. bile, which does
not contain any enzyme but helps in breaking the fat into small globules which greatly
enlarges the surface area available for action of enzymes. Also, it activates lipase which
splits fat into monoglycerides and fatty acids.

Free cholesterol and fatty acids are absorbed as such. Only neutral fats,
phospholipids and cholesterol esters are first hydrolysed in the small intestine.

Bile + Agitation
Fat Emulsified fat
Pancreatic lipase → ↓
Monoglycerides → 78%
Glycerol
Fatty acids

Absorption:

i. Free glycerol, being water soluble is absorbed and carried to the liver.

ii. Free fatty acids, shorter than 10-12 carbons are also directly absorbed

and carried to the liver.

20 | P a g e
 iii. The remaining mono, diglycerides and long chain fatty acids require a wetting

agent to facilitate their absorption. The job is accomplished by bile salts which carry
them to the intestinal wall.

Within the intestinal wall, the ß- monoglycerides are further hydrolyzed to free
glycerol and fatty acids, whereas monoglycerides may be converted to triglycerides
under the influence of intestinal lipase. About 6 % of the monoglycerides here are
hydrolysed to free glycerol which may be reutilised for triglyceride synthesis.

For the transportation of these fats across the lipoprotein membrane of the
epithelial cells these are made soluble by surrounding them with a lipoprotein
envelopconsisting of phospholipids and small amount of protein. Such particles are
known as chylomicrons. The neutral fats may also be absorbed if dispersed into very
fine particles. A combination of bile salts, fatty acids and a monoglyceride may bring
about this dispersion. Such engulfing of the globule by the cell membrane is called
pinocytosis.

Ruminants:

Inthe rumen glycerol and galactose released from the lipids are readily
fermented to yield volatile fatty acids. Of which propionic acid the main product of
glycerol fermentation. All short chain fatty acids and volatile fatty acids produced from
lipids are largely absorbed through the rumen wall while the long chain fatty acids
through omasum pass on to the abomasum where millions of microbes disintegrate and
enter the small intestine. After emulsification and hydrolysis, lipids are absorbed from
the small intestine.

..................................................................

Brown fat: it is unique type of adipose tissue found in new born goats and lambs and in
number of rodents. It is located near and around the spinal cord, thoracic organs and
kidneys, and has a radish-brown colour. The colour is due to an intense vascularity and
presence of high concentration of cytochrome and flavin compounds. Brown fat is
specifically involved in the process of no shivering thermogenesis. It has special
advantage to the young one is during hostile weather.

CHAPTER-5 PROTEINS

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 The term protein is taken from the Greek word PROTENS which means FIRST.
In common with carbohydrates and fats they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but in
addition they all contain nitrogen and generally sulphur with occasional occurrence of
phosphorus. Average composition of protein is as follows:

Average composition of protein is as follows:

Element Percent Element Percent

Carbon 50 Nitrogen 16

Sulphur 0 to 3 Hydrogen 7

Phosphorus 0 to 3 Oxygen 23

…………………………………………………………………………….
Proteins are composed of various amino acidswhich are the building
blocks of proteins. There are about 200 naturally occurring amino acids but only 20
occur in proteins of all forms of life i.e. plant, animal or microbial. All amino acids
contain both an acidiccarboxyl (- COOH) and a basicnitrogenous group, generally an
amino group (- NH2) attached to the α- carbon (carbon atom adjacent to the carboxyl
group)and an organic -R group (or side chain) that is unique to each amino acid.It can be
represented as follows:

R C COOH

NH2
The exception to the above given general formula is proline which has an
imino(NH) instead of an amino group. The amino acids present, their position in the
molecule and the special arrangement of the molecule determine the properties and
characteristics of the proteins.

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 All amino acids are amphoteric in nature i.e. have both basic (due to -NH2) and
acidic (due to – COOH) properties and thus in a solution or in blood, amino acids are
mostly present as uncharged molecules. Such a molecule is known as “Zwitter ion”. In
a strong acidic solution, an amino acid exists largely as cation (positively charged ion)
while in alkaline solution it exists largely as anion (negatively charged ion). There is a
pH value at which it is electrically neutral. This value is known as “isoelectric point”.

Essential amino acids: Physiologically, all amino acids found in animal tissues are
essential. The animal body can synthesize some amino acids in sufficient amount, while
some are synthesized in amounts not sufficient to meet the body requirements and some
amino acids cannot be synthesized at all. So, the amino acids in the last category are
termed as essential amino acids. Different animals have different capacity of synthesizing
amino acid types. So, the list of essential amino acids is different from species to species.

Dietary essential amino acid:

Phenylalanine (Phe), valine (Val),threonine (Thr),tryptophan (Try),isoleucine (Iso),

methionine (Met), histidine His), arginine (Arg),leucine (Leu), lysine (Lys). (PVT TIM
HALL)

Classification of amino acids:

1. Basic amino acids (Diamino-monocarboxylic): Arginine, histidine, lysine.

2. Acidic amino acids (Monoamino dicarboxlic): Aspartic acid, glutamic acid.

3. Neutral amino acids (Monoamino monocarboxylic):

i. Aliphatic straight chain: Alanine, glycine

ii. Branched chain: Isoleucine, leucine, valine

iii. Hydroxy: Serine, threonine

iv. Sulphur containing: Cystine, cysteine, methionine

v. Aromatic: Phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine

vi. Imino: Hydroxyproline, proline

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Classification of proteins:

Proteins may be classified into three main groups according to theirsolubility,

chemical composition and biological functions.

1- According to solubility: Two major groups included in this category are fibrous and
globular proteins.

a. Fibrous proteins: These are insoluble in water and resistant to animal digestive
enzymes e. g. collagens, elastin, myosin and keratins.

b. Globular proteins: They include,albumins (water-soluble and heat coaguable) and

globulins: (insoluble or sparingly soluble in water).

2- According to composition:
The complex or compound proteins on hydrolysis yield non-protein groups,
usually called prosthetic group as well as amino acids. Thus depending upon the
prosthetic group they may be further subdivided as:

a- Glycoproteins: - Contain a carbohydrate or carbohydrate derivative.

b- Hemoproteins: - Proteins with heme unit e.g. hemoglobulin, myoglobulin.
c- Lipoproteins: - Proteins carrying lipid molecules.
d- Metalloproteins: - Proteins carrying metallic ions e.g. various enzymes.
e- Nucleoproteins: - Proteins bound to nucleic acids e.g. ribosomes.

3- According to biological functions: - According to biological functions proteins can

be again sub grouped as enzymes, hormones, storage proteins, transport proteins,
structural proteins and protective proteins.

Functions of proteins:

1. Repair of worn out tissues: The damaged parts of tissues broken down during
metabolism are repaired with the help of amino acids.

2. Protein storage: -In animals, when nitrogen equilibrium is established proteins

cannot be stored, but these can be stored in young ones or pregnant animals.

3. Proteins / amino acids are required for the synthesis of:

i. Cell protoplasm: Proteins/amino acids areessential constituents of all living cells,

24 | P a g e
ii. Bile acids: Taurocholic acid and glycocholic acid derived from the amino acids
taurine and glycine, respectively.
iii.Hormones: Thyroxine and adrenaline are derivatives of tyrosine/ phenylalanine.
iv. Melanin: Melanin is derived from the amino acid tyrosine or phenylalanine.
v. Rhodopsin: Scotopsin is required for the synthesis of rhodopsin(visual purple).
4. Supply of energy: Amino acids upon breaking down liberateenergy. (4.3k cal/g)
A low protein diet causes a cessation of estrus and that, if fertilization occurs, fetal
resorption or the birth of premature, dead, or weak offspring results.

Absence of proteins in proper amount affects the digestion of cellulose. However,

feeding of excessive amount of proteins is also undesirable as after their break down the
nitrogenous portion is excreted through the kidneys which is unnecessary taxation on
kidney function besides, heating effect and production of off smelling faeces.

Symptoms of protein deficiency

I. General: Soft, painless and partially localized edema.

II. Skeleton: Non-specific retardation of cell proliferation in the epiphyseal and
osteoblastic activity.
III. Connective tissues: Failure of collagen formation and thus poor healing of
wounds.
IV. Skin: Atrophy, loss of hair.
V. Muscles: Atrophy of cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscles.
VI. Bone marrow: Decreased hemoglobin production.
VII. Liver: Loss of basophilic material in cytoplasm, changes in numerous enzymes,
decreased synthesis of plasma protein and so edema.
VIII. Reproductive tract: Atrophy of testes and impaired maturation of follicles.

Digestion and absorption of proteins

Non-ruminants:

Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach of non-ruminants. The gastric juice is

composed of water, mucin, pepsin, hydrochloric acid and a gastric lipase.

The enzyme pepsin is capable of digesting any kind of protein of the diet. It splits the
polypeptide chain into proteoses and small polypeptide chains which then enter the small
intestine where these are attacked by pancreatic enzymes liberated from the pancreas,

25 | P a g e
among which trypsin, carboxypeptidases, chymotrypsin and elastase are important.
Theseare capable of hydrolyzing some of them to amino acids, but generally the products of
trypsin digestion are dipeptides (chain of three amino acids) or small
polypeptides.Enzymes present in the epithelial cells of small intestine finally hydrolyze the
peptides into amino acids which are absorbed into the portal blood.

FOOD PROTEIN
HCl
Stomach Pepsin Pepsinogen
Parapepsin1 Parapepsinogen1

Proteoses
Peptones
Polypeptides
Trypsin
Trypsin Trypsinogen

Small intestine Chymotrypsin Chymotrypsinogen

Carboxypeptidase procarboxypeptidase

Elastase Proelastase

Amino acids
Dipeptidase
Aminopolypeptidase

Dipeptidase

Amino Acids

In stomach, pepsin originates from pepsinogen and parapepsin 1 from parapepsinogen 1.

HCl causes these changes by activating the zymogen (pepsinogen). In small intestine all
zymogens are activated by trypsin.

Absorption: The amino acids are absorbed from the intestine into the portal blood. There
is difference in the rate of absorption of three classes of amino acids i. e. neutral,basic and
acidic. There is some competition within the class also e. g. arginine or cystine inhibits

26 | P a g e
lysine. Both neutral and basic amino acids are actively transported i. e. they require extra
energy for their transport across the wall.

Ruminants:

Unlike simple stomached animals, there is no free proteolytic enzyme source in the
rumen wall. Microorganisms, the normal inhabitants of the rumen digest the dietary
proteins by releasing proteolytic enzymes. All the protein and non-protein nitrogenous
compounds are hydrolyzed by the microorganisms comprising both bacteria and
protozoa.

Under normal conditions the bulk of the dietary nitrogen entering the rumen is in the form
of protein. Further simplification of which i. e., proteolysis involves their conversion into
free amino acids and then to ammonia. The rate of proteolysis depends upon the solubility
of protein in the rumen fluid. Other than protein, ruminants’ diet also contain non- protein
nitrogenous (NPN) compounds e. g. amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids, nitrate,
amines, etc. which rapidly degrade in the rumen to ammonia. Ammonia forms an
important intermediate in the conversion of feed nitrogen to microbial nitrogen.

(Feed nitrogen → Ammonia → Microbial nitrogen)

From the rumen there is negligible absorption of amino acids.Billions of dead

microbes along with the partially digested feed reach the abomasum where like in
monogastrics they are acted up on by proteolytic enzymes. In the small intestine,
pancreatic secretion and proteolytic enzymes act on these dead microbes and bring about a
complete protein digestion resulting in amino acids as the end product. Then After
absorption through the microvilli of the small intestine the amino acids are used for
growth, tissue repair, maintenance of body protein reserves and for products like
milk, etc.

CHAPTER-6 ROLE AND REQUIREMENT OF WATER

The principal nutrients of all feeding stuffs are:water, organic nutrients and mineral
matter. The organic part is composed of crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), crude fiber
(CF) and nitrogen free extract (NFE).

Water: The water content of animal body which varies with age is an ideal dispensing
medium because of its solvent and ionizing properties. Possibly, no chemical reaction
inside the body can take place without water.

27 | P a g e
The new born animal contains from 75 to 80% water but it falls to about 50% in the mature
animal. Animal may survive for more than 100 days without organic food i. e protein,
carbohydrates or fat, but not without water. Loss of 10% of body water results in disorders
and 20% water loss may result in death.

Role of water

-Water plays an important role in regulating body temperature.

- It aids in digestion, transport of metabolic products and excretion of waste products.

- It is a constituent of cells and body fluids. Surplus water is excreted via urine, feces,
perspiration and as vapors from the lungs via breathing.

- As a constituent of synovial fluid lubricates the joints and as cerebrospinal fluid, it acts as
water cushion for the nervous system.

- In the ear, it transports sound and in eye, it is concerned with sight.

- It provides cushion to body organs and system.

Water is obtained by drinking, from the feed (green succulent fodder/dry roughage and
concentrates) and from metabolic water i.e. Water formed from oxidation of nutrients.

Metabolic water: It is the water which is liberated during the biochemical reactions e.g.
oxidation or synthesis of organic compounds such as fats, proteins and carbohydrates in the
body and thus available to the animal body. One gram of glucose upon oxidation produces
0.6 gram of water whereas on an average one gram of protein produces 0.42 gram of water.

In certain circumstances this water may form the major source of supply. Such as in
the incubating chick and in hibernating animals.

Bound water: It is the water combined the constituents of protoplasm by either physical
or chemical means. It does not separate easily from protoplasm by freezing or by
evaporation at high temperature or under dry conditions.

Bond water is of special interest in connection with the ability of plants and animals to
resist to low temperatures and drought.

28 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-7 MINERALS

These are essential inorganic nutrients, required in small amounts. As many as 20

minerals may be required for growth, maintenance, reproduction and lactation. The term
essential is restricted to the mineral elements those have a metabolic role in the body i. e.
feeding of a purified diet lacking in that particular element causes deficiency symptoms in the
animals and the condition is alleviated when the same element is included in the diet.

The essential mineral elements and their approximate concentration in the animal body.

Essential elements Probably

Essential elements

Major element % Trace Trace

elementmg/kg

Calcium 1.5 Iron 20 – 80 Fluorine

Phosphorus 1.0 Zinc 10 - 50 Bromine

Potassium 0.2 Copper1 - 5 Barium

Sodium 0.16 Manganese 0.2-0.5 Strontium

Chlorine 0.11 Iodine 0.3 - 0.6

Sulphur 0.15 Cobalt 0.02 - 0.1

Magnesium 0.04 Molybdenum 1 - 4

Selenium 1.7

Chromium 0.08

Since the trace elements are present in the animal body in very low concentration, therefore,
the quantities present in animal or plant tissues are usually expressed in terms of mg per kg
(ppm) rather than percentages.

Minerals are necessary in the animal body for the following reasons:

1. Tissue growth and repair

i. For the formation of new bones and tissues in the growing animals.

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 Composition of fresh bone (%)

Water 45 Calcium 36

Ash 25 Phosphorus 17

Protein 20 Magnesium 0.8

Fat 10 Others 46.2

ii. For the synthesis of hair, hoofs and horn.

iii. Small amount of minerals is present in all soft tissues, which is essential for carrying
out vital body functions.

iv. For the normal functioning of blood cells. Fe +++ inhaemoglobin helps in carrying
oxygen or carbon dioxide

2. As body regulators or aid in the formation of body regulators

i. For the maintenance of proper osmotic pressure in the body fluids.

ii. For the maintenance neutrality of blood and lymph.

iii. As co- enzymes, minerals play important role in metabolism.

3. In milk production
Toreplenish the losses of minerals secreted through milk in milch animals. Milk
contains all the essential minerals except iron.

Functions, Deficiency Signs of Minerals

Calcium (Ca)

Functions: i. Bone formation including bones and teeth.

ii. Essential in blood coagulation, nerve and muscle function

iii. Milk and egg production.

iv. Maintenance of acid base equilibrium.

30 | P a g e
Ratio of Ca:P. should be 1-2:1. Excess Mg decreases absorption.

Deficiency signs: i. Rickets in young animals with crooked legs and enlarged joints.

ii. Osteoporosis in older animals with brittle and weak bones.

iii. Thin shelled eggs in poultry.

iv. Milk fever due to sudden depletion of calcium.

v. Thin shelled eggs and poor hatchability.

Milk Fever (mostly just prior to calving)

Symptoms: Hypocalcemia, loss of appetite, nervousness, loss of consciousness and

collapse, head turned towards flank.

Phosphorus (P)

Functions: Closely associated with Ca in the animal body. It plays an important role
in carbohydrate metabolism in the formation of hexose phosphates, adenosine di- and tri-
phosphates. Essential for the formation of bones, teeth, and body fluids. Required for
metabolism, cell respiration and normal reproduction.

Legumes are high in calcium and low in phosphorus. It should be in a 1:1 to 2:1
ratio with Calcium. Excess Calcium or Magnesium decrease its absorption.

Deficiency signs: Similar to calcium deficiency. Rickets and osteomalacia (a term

commonly used to denote a failure of calcium and phosphorus nutrition in the adult
bone), Pica (chewing bones, rocks, boards or other unusual things), decreased
reproduction and growth.

Sodium (Na)

Most of the sodium is present in the soft tissues and body fluids. It is concerned with
acid- base balance and osmotic regulation of the body fluids. Sodium is the chief cation
of blood plasma and other extra - cellular fluids of the body.

Functions:

i. Maintains body fluid pH

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ii. Regulates body fluid volume

iii. Actively involved in nerve transmission and muscle contraction.

Deficiency symptoms:

i. Retarded growth and reduced utilization of digested protein and energy.

ii. In poultry egg production as well as growth is adversely affected.

Chlorine (Cl)

Chlorine is associated with sodium and potassium in acid-base balance and osmosis.
In gastric secretion it occurs as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts

Sodium chloride (common salt)

Since plants are low both in sodium and chloride, it is usually given as a part of
concentrate to the herbivores. Its inclusion in the poultry diet is known to counteract
feather picking and cannibalism. However, too much salt causes excessive thirst,
muscular weakness and oedema. Salt poisoning is common in pigs and poultry
especially when fresh water supply is limited. In poultry diet if common salt exceeds 4 %
and the water supply is limited, death may occur. 2 % salt in poultry and pig diet is the
absolute maximum. In turkey poults of salt should not be exceed 1 % in the diet.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus; it is the most common
enzyme activator. Excess magnesium upsets calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
Also, it reduces potassium retention.

Deficiency symptoms:
Ruminants grazing on certain growing plants in the late winter or early spring
develop deficiency. The condition is commonly known as grass tetany or grass stagger.
The symptoms include increased nervousness, tremors, twitching of the facial muscles,
convulsions, incoordination and often death. Hypomagnesaemic tetany has been known
under a variety of names including magnesium tetany, lactation tetany, grass staggers but
most of these terms have been discarded because the disease is not always associated
with lactation or with grazing animals.

32 | P a g e
Potassium (K)
In the osmotic regulation of the body fluids it playsimportant role along withsodium,
chlorine and bicarbonate ions. Potassium functions principally as the cation of cells. It
plays an important part in nerve and muscle excitability, and is also involved in rumen
digestion especially carbohydrate metabolism.
Potassium content of plants is generally very high so it is ingested in very large
amounts than any other element. Therefore, its deficiency is unlikely in farm animals.
Excess of potassium intake reduces magnesium absorption. Magnesium
deficiency reduces potassium retention that leads topotassium deficiency.

Deficiency signs: Lethargic condition with high incidence of coma and death.

Iron (Fe)
In the animal body over 90 % of the iron is combined with proteins especially
haemoglobin. It also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin or
siderophilin. It isconcerned with the transport of iron. Ferritin is a brown, iron
containing protein present in spleen, liver, kidney and bone marrow, provides a form of
storage for iron. Haemosiderin is a similar storage compound.

Function: Essential for the function of every organ and tissue of the body (hemoglobin).

Deficiency signs: Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly
growing suckling, especially young pigs because the iron content of milk is usually very
low besides the pigs are born with low iron body reserves. Insufficient blood hemoglobin
leads to labored breathing and pale eyelids, ears and nose. Baby pigs can be given few
drops of ferrous sulphate.

Copper (Cu)
Copperplays a vital role in many enzyme systems e.g. cytochrome oxidase and
also occurs in certain pigments, notablyturacin, a pigment of feathers. The element is
necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool.

Deficiency signs: since it performs many body functions so there are a variety of
deficiency symptoms e. g. anemia, poor growth, bone disorders, depigmentation,
scouring, loss of wool or stringy wool/steely wool (wool which lacks crimp), sway
back /enzootic ataxia in lambs (partial paralysis of rear quarters), impaired breeding

33 | P a g e
performance, etc. Excess amount of molybdenum or sulphate may also lead to copper
deficiency.

Zinc (Zn)
The element tends to accumulate in the bones rather than the liver. It acts as co-
factor for many body enzymes.Its deficiencies in pigs is characterized by lower feed
efficiency and parakeratosis. The condition is aggravated by high calcium diet.in
poultry its deficiency leads to parakeratosis and a bone abnormality called swollen hock
syndrome.Excess zinc interferes with copper metabolism and may cause anemia.

Manganese (Mn)

It is an important enzyme activator. It is needed for cholesterol synthesis, normal

functioning of reproductive system, milk production and skeletal development.
Manganeseis an important element in the diet of young chicks in the prevention of
perosis or ‘slipped tendon’ (a malfunction of leg bones). And pigs lameness is the
symptom. Excess calcium and phosphorus decrease absorption of manganese and thus
increase requirements.

Cobalt (Co)

A number of disorders characterized by an emaciation and listlessness have been

described as ‘pinning’, ‘saltlick’, ‘bush sickness’ and ‘wasting disease’ are associated
with a dietary deficiency of cobalt caused by its low concentration in the soils and
pastures. Cobalt is required as a nutrient by the rumen microbes for the synthesis of
vitamin B12. Because swine cannot synthesiseB12 from cobalt, the diets are
supplemented with vitamin instead.

Deficiency signs: lack of appetite, loss of weight, rough hair coat, anemia, retarded
growth and listlessness, decreased milk and wool production and death in extreme cases.

Mineral supplements:
The rations based on concentrate and roughage are generally deficient in certain
minerals, especially calcium, phosphorus, sodium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese and
iodine. The deficient minerals are added through their specific supplements to meet their
requirements. The minerals are supplemented in feed through specific mineral
supplements. Concentrate mixture of dairy animals should contain one per cent common

34 | P a g e
salt. Sulphur is usually not deficient for dairy animals. However, in urea-based diet it
becomes deficient. The supplements are sodium or potassium sulphate.

Vitamin Supplements:

Dairy animals, with functional rumen do not require dietary supplementation of water -
soluble vitamins and fat - soluble vitamin K. Similarly, animals receiving green forages
need no supplementation of vitamins A and E. Animals exposed to sunlight can
synthesize vitamin D. However, pre-ruminants under some conditions require
supplemental vitamins. Vitamin A alone or premixes of vitamin A and D 3 are also
available. The inclusion rates are different depending upon concentration and type of
fodder being fed.

Feed Additives:

Feed additives are non-nutrient substances added in the diet to promote intake,
digestion and utilization of feed. They stimulate growth, improve efficiency of feed
utilization, prevent metabolic disorders and reduce methane production in the rumen.
These are antibiotics (monensin, lacolacid, zinc bacitracin, chlortetracycline, etc.),
buffers (NaHCO), hormones, antioxidants, anthelmintics, etc.

............................................................................

35 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-8 VITAMINS

Definition: Vitamins are organic compounds required in minute amounts, necessary for growth
and maintenance of life.

They are regulatory substances, each performing specific function. They must be supplied in
the diet, since body is not able to synthesize at least in the amounts required.

Vitamins have been divided into two major groups

Fat-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins

1) They contain only C, H and O. 1) In addition, they also contain either N,S or Co.
2) They may occur in plant tissue in the 2) No provitamins are known for any water
form of provitamins. Soluble vitamin B
3) They are not universally distributed 3) Water-soluble B vitamins are universally
rather are completely absent from distributed in every living tissue.
some tissues.
4) They are absorbed from the intestinal 4) In general, their absorption is a simple
tract in the presence of fat. process as there is constant absorption of
water from the Intestine
. 5) They are stored wherever fat is 5) Water-soluble vitamins B are not stored
deposited. except vitamin B12.
6) Members of this group are excreted 6) Water-soluble vitamins may also be present
usually through feces. in the feces (because of bacterial synthesis)
but their chief pathway of excretion is through
urine.
______________________________________________________________________
Vitamin C is the only member of water-soluble group that is not a member of the B family
and its functions and characteristics are different from B vitamins. Consequently in the above
table the consideration of vitamin C has been excluded.
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN -A

Observation of McCollum and Davis in 1913 that addition of egg in rats’ purified diet could
improve growth led to the discovery of vitamin A.

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Functions and deficiency signs:
i. Vitamin A and vision: Vitamin is essential for the formation of rhodopsin (visual purple)
needed for vision in dark. Its deficiency leads to night blindness → Xerothalamia → total
blindness

ii. Vitamin A in reproduction:

The vitamin (retinol or retinal) is required for the maintenance of placenta. Necrosis of the
periphery of placental disk occurs, if there is deficiency of vitamin A. Its deficiency in males
leads to failure of spermatogenesis. The damage can, however, be reversed in both the cases
by retinol.

iii. Synthesis of mucopolysacchrides (glycosaminoglycans):

Vitamin A is concerned in the synthesis of MPS. In its absence keratinization of epithelial

cells take place.

iv.Development of bones:

Vitamin A controls the activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts of the epithelial cartilage and
cartilage and thus plays role in the development of bones.

Other deficiency symptoms include rough hair coat, swollen legs in cattle. Incoordination
followed by posterior paralysis in growing pigs. Reduced egg production and hatchability in
birds.

37 | P a g e
 Sources of vitamin A:

Plant kingdom contains no vitamin A. It is the different carotenoids (precursors of vitamin

A), present in green plants, which are converted to vitamin A

Conversion of carotenoids to vitamin A.

Carotene 20,20 prime dioxidase Vitamin A

(Intestinal epithelium & liver)

VITAMIN - D
Vitamin D is the collective name for a family of compounds with antirachitic effects.
There are two forms of vitamin D:

1) Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2) and 2) Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3)

(C28H44O) ( C27H44O)
Ergocalciferol is produced from ergosterol, present in plants whereas cholecalciferol is derivedfrom 7-
dehydrocholesterol found in animals.UV lightconverts these provitamins into vitamin D

There is no vitamin D1.Other forms of vitamin D e.g.D 4, D5 also exist but their value is not
established since they are present in very small amounts. Nutritionally, only D 2 and D3 are
important. These forms differ only in side chains. Both have same value for rat, dog, pig and man,
but D3 is 35 times more effective for chick and turkey.

Metabolic functions:

i. A primary function of the vitamin is promotion of calcium; for which D 3 is converted in the
liver to 25- hydroxy cholecalciferol (25- OH- D3) which in turn is converted in the kidney to 1, 25 –
dihydroxycholecalciferol (1, 25- (OH )2 –D3) which is the active form of the vitamin. It stimulates
synthesis of Ca binding protein necessary for efficient Ca absorption. In many species of animals
and birds it is also involved in phosphorus absorption.

ii. Vitamin D has a specific action on kidney tubular reabsorption of phosphate.

iii. It reduces oxidation of citric acid.

iv. It increases the activity of enzyme phytase, which hydrolyses phytic acid, yieldinginorganic
phosphate.

38 | P a g e
v. Vitamin D stimulates incorporation of phosphorus into phospholipids

vi. It stimulates release of calcium by kidney mitochondria.

Deficiency symptoms:

i. In young animals its deficiency leads to ricket and retarded growth.

ii. In older animals vitamin D deficiency causes osteomalacia due to reabsorption of bones
iii. In poultry its deficiency causes the bones and beak to become soft and rubbery. Growth
is usually retarded and legs may become bowed.
Sources:
The vitamin D is not well distributed in nature except in some dried roughages.
In animal kingdom it is abundant in fish liver. Storage of the vitamin in animal tissues is
very limited. Seeds, their by-products and living tissues of forages are practically devoid
of the vitamin.

1mg of vitamin D3 = 40 IU OR 1IU = 0.025 mg D3

Over dosage of vitamin D:
Massive doses of irradiated ergosterol can lead to hypervitaminosis chacterised by hyper
calcemia, wide spread deposition of Ca salts in the arteries and various organs and tissues
(calcinosis) and bone changes. However, up to 125 times dosage does not show
calcinosis.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Terminologies
Rickets → A childhood condition caused by decalcification of bones, resulting in deformed
bones.
Osteomalacia → in mature animals. In both cases weak deformed bones.
Osteoporosis → A disease marked by loss of calcium from the bones causing them to weaken.
→ Active form of vitamin D is manufactured in response to the secretion of
parathyroid hormone, which occurs when blood calcium levels are low.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VITAMIN – E

Compounds with vitamin E activity are called tocopherols. Tocopherol is a Greek

word consisting of:

39 | P a g e
Tokos → Child birth and

Phero → To bear

So far about eight naturally occurring tocopherols (a,b, g, &d) and tocotrienols (a,

b,g&d) have been identified. All have the same physiological effects but varying

biological activity.

Bio-chemical functions:

1.The vitamin is a strong anti - oxidant and along with selenium. It prevents the
breakdown of cell membranes by free radicals besides, protecting other nutrients e.g.
vitamin A and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

2. It is also important for immune system (primarily in monogastric animals), muscle

structure and normal reproduction.

Signs of deficiency:

 Vitamin E deficiency leads to muscular dystrophy in some species.

 White muscle disease in calves and lambs. Liver necrosis in swine, brain degeneration in
poultry ("crazy chick" disease). Also, its deficiency may lead to retained placenta and
low fertility.
● It has basic effect of vitamin E deficiency is hemolysis of RBCs

Relationship with selenium:

Vitamin E and selenium play important role in protecting leukocytes and macrophages
during the process of phagocytosis, thus enhancing host defense against infection. Both
vitamin E and selenium protect animals from toxicities of heavy metals. Exceptnutritional
encephalomalacia, the conditions like haemorrhagic diathesis andmuscular dystrophy can be
cured by supplementing either selenium or vitamin E

Sources:
Rice bran oil, peanut, soybean sunflower oil, wheat germ oil, and colostrum are excellent

sources. However, utilization of Vitamin E is dependent on adequate selenium.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

40 | P a g e
 VITAMIN – K (Koagulation Factor)

A large number of compounds are known to have vitamin K activity. Naturally

occurring compounds come from two sources:

1) Phylloquinone (K1) – series that is present in all green leafy materials.

2) Prenylmenaquinone (K2) –series that occurs in the intestine by the microbial synthesis.
Among the synthetic compounds Menadione (K3) is about 3.3 times as active as the
naturally occurring ones because it is slightly soluble in water.
Bio-chemical functions:

The vitamin isnecessary for normal blood coagulation. It is required for the synthesis of
prothrombin, a precursor of thrombin; one of the factors needed for normal blood
coagulation.

Deficiency signs: Blood loses its power to clot or the time needed for clotting is longer
and serious hemorrhages can result from slight wounds or bruises.

Sources: It is present in most leafy materials. Among animal products, egg yolk & fish meal
are good sources.

.......................................................................................

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Most of the water-soluble vitamins are required in minute amounts. They are all organic
compounds & most function as metabolic catalysts, usually as coenzymes.

VITAMIN -C (Ascorbic acid)

It is vitamin for man, monkey and guinea pig as they cannot synthesise because they are
lacking in enzyme L- gulonolactone oxidase which is required for synthesizing the vitamin
from dietary carbohydrates.

Bio-chemical functions:

1- Vitamin C is essential for the collagen formation, which is the main supportive protein of all
connective tissues.
2- It is involved in the metabolism of lipids and calcium in the body.
It helps in: a) conversion of folic acid to tetra hydrofolic acid (active form).

41 | P a g e
b) Keeping the iron in reduced state.

Deficiency signs:

Not demonstrated in livestock. Human deficiency: scurvy (swollen and painful joints and
bleeding gums) and brittleness of bones. The gross lesions observed are related to
degeneration of collagenous intra cellular substance

Sources: Fresh fruits especially citrus & leafy vegetables are good source of this vitamin.

------------------------------------------------------------------------
THIAMIN (Aneurin, B1)

The vitamin is present in rice polishings, the outer layer and embryo of kernals. Bio-
chemical functions: The vitamin is required for the normal metabolism of carbohydrates and
lipids.
Deficiency signs:

In humans thiamin deficiency syndrome beri- beri includes numbness of extremities,

weakness & stiffness in the thighs, edema of feet and legs, unsteady gait, rigidity , paralytic
symptoms and pain along the spine.

In thiamin deficiency, blood pyruvic & lactic acidconcentrations increase. Because

pyruvic acid is a key metabolite in energy utilization in the citric acid cycle thus thiamin
deficiency seriously affectscarbohydrate & lipid metabolism.

Sources: Brewer yeast is the richest known source of the vitamin besides, raw whole
grains especially their seed coat and embryos are good sources .

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

RIBOFLAVIN (B2)

Metabolic functions: The vitamin is necessary for normal embryo development, and in the
metabolism of amino acids and carbohydrates. It is most likely to be deficient in swine and
poultry as grains and plant proteins are low in riboflavin. It is usually synthesized in
rumen.

Deficiency symptoms:

42 | P a g e
 In chicks Curled toe paralysis besides poor egg production and hatchability. Skin lesions,
reduced growth, and high neonatal mortality inpigs (hairless dead piglets). Moon blindness in
horses (horses more susceptible when fed poor quality hay).

In humans, riboflavin deficiency causes lesions of the lips & mouth (angular stomatitis)
¤cheilosis, insomnia, irritability, scrotal dermatitis, conjunctivitis & burning of eyes.High
proteindietsmay be toxic in riboflavin deficiency.

Sources: Higher plants, yeast, fungi and some bacteria synthesize the vitamin.

In higher plants the vitamin is richest in the leaves and leafy forages, particularly alfalfa are a
good source. Yeast is the richest natural source (125mg / g).

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NIACIN (B3)
Elvehjem and his group isolated a compound called “nicotinamide” from liver and
demonstrated its effect and that of a related compound “nicotinic acid” in preventing and curing
black tongue in dogs. In order to avoid confusion with the name of the tobacco extract, nicotine,
the name of the vitamin nicotinic acid was changed to niacin.Tryptophan can act as a precursor
of the vitamin.

Deficiency signs:

A peculiar darkening of the tongue (black tongue) and mouth lesions in dogs. In humans,
a bright red tongue, mouth lesions, anorexia & nausea are the common syndrome of pellagra.
Pellagra, is caused by high intake of maize, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or its
precursor tryptophan

Niacin- tryptophan interrelationship: If animals are deprived of dietary niacin, the

metabolic requirement for the vitamin can be met by conversion of tryptophan to niacin. The
synthesis of 1mg of nicotinamide requires about 60 mg of tryptophan.

Pellagra may also be mediated through amino acid imbalance. Black tongue disease was
induced in pups by the addition of leucine.

Sources: Animal & fish by- products, distillers’ grains, yeast, various distillation and
fermentation solubles and certain oil meals are good sources.

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 FOLACIN (B 9)

Tetrahydrofolic acid is the metabolically active form of this vitamin.

Functions: It functions as co-enzyme in the transfer of one carbon unit, which is important
in the metabolism of many body compounds.

Deficiency signs:Macrocytic hyperchromic anemia, leucopenia&thrombocytopenia aside

from reduced growth rate are the major signs of folacin deficiency in humans & animals.
Because folacin is widely distributed in nature especially in green foliage of plants (hence the
name folacin) .

 Hypochromic microcytic anemia---- low hemoglobin & smaller RBC

 Penia ----- reduced number
 Pernicious ---- size bigger but immature.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VITAMIN (B6)

Three compounds i. e. Pyridoxin, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine had similar functions

therefore, name of the vitamin B6 was retained.

Functions: Vitamin B6 functions as part of coenzyme systems in the body that aid in the
metabolism of amino acids, fatty acids & in the release of energy.

The conversion of tryptophan to niacin depends on the action of this coenzyme. The vitamin
is responsible for the conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid.

Deficiency symptoms: The characteristic lesion in is skin disorder called acrodynia

(characterized by edema & denuding of ears, paws & snout). Vitamin B 6 deficient animals may
also develop microcytic hypochromic anemia. Some animals show anorexia, listlessness, a
poor coat of hair & sometimes convulsions. The deficiency of the vitamin has seldom been
recorded except when feeding linseed meal.

Sources: The best sources of the vitamin are muscle meats, liver, vegetables & whole grain
cereals.

--------------------------------------------------------

44 | P a g e
 PANTOTHENIC ACID (B5)

As a remedy to overcome the graying of hair in human beings, pantothenic acid

received a great deal of publicity. The results were, however, not consistent.

Deficiency symptoms: Reduced growth, dermatitis, neurological defects and loss or graying of
hair in birds. Goose-stepping gait in swine.

Sources: The richest amounts of the vitamin have been found in liver, kidney, yeast, egg yolk
& fresh vegetables.

………………………………

BIOTIN (B7)

Observation that feeding of raw egg white showed extreme loss of body hair & finally
death in rats lead to the identification of toxic factor “avidin” (egg protein); which is destroyed
when the eggs are cooked and the condition was referred to as “eggwhite injury”. Then a
protective factor was found in foods e.g. liver and yeast and called as biotin. Now it has been
established that biotin is rendered unavailable when avidin combines with it.

Deficiency symptoms: The affected animals lose hair or feathers besides loss of weight. Death
will occur if the vitamin is not restored in the animal’s ration.

Sources: The richest sources are egg, milk, most fresh vegetables and some fruits.

.........................................................................

CHOLINE

Choline has been included with the vitamins of B-family because it does occur with them
in foods. It has never been related to a deficiency in man. Also, may be synthesized in the body
when sufficient amounts of methionine are available. Choline has a lipotropic effect

Deficiency signs: Its deficiency results in accumulation of fat in the liver; enlargement and
hemorrhaging of the kidney.

Sources: Egg yolk, glandular meat, and brain are the richest animal sources.

.................................................................................

45 | P a g e
VITAMIN B12 (Animal protein factor/chick growth factor)

Vitamin B 12 exists in many forms and has been given the generic name Cabalamine. The
two active members of this group are cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin) It functions as a
coenzyme especially the cells of bone marrow, the nervous system and the GI tract.

Deficiency symptoms:

B12 deficient sheep are unable to metabolize propionic acid. In humans, pernicious
anemia, could be either due to deficiency of the vitamin or lack of a heat labile protein known
as “intrinsic factor” required to carry the vitamin across the mucosa and then to the blood
stream. Poor growth and reproductive failure with slight or no anemia characterize deficiency of
B12.

Sources: Microbes of the family actinomycetaceae can synthesize it. Yeast and most of the
fungi apparently do not.

.............................................................................

46 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-9 COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS

Livestock feeds are classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they furnish.

1. ROUGHAGES

i. Succulent (60 - 90% moisture)e.g. pasture, cultivated fodders,tree leaves, silage and root
crops.

ii. Dry (10 - 15 % moisture)e.g. hay and straws.

Succulent feeds:

1. Pasture:For maintaining livestock pasture is themost convenient and Economical.Also these

are rich in nutrients and palatable.

2. Cultivated fodders: These are:

i. Leguminous: e.g. cowpea (Vigna catjung), cluster bean/guar (Cyamopsispsoraloides) are

common leguminous crops of July-August months. Berseem (Trifoliumalexandrium) and
lucern (Medicago sativa)are two other leguminous crops grown as annual (October-November)
and perennial crops, respectively. These are a good source of protein.However, they can
produce bloat if given in large quantities. Thus, it is advisable that they should always be fed
along with some dry fodder. The phosphorus content of berseem and lucern is poor and thus
have a wider Ca: P ratio. It is advisable to supplement a ration containing a large amount of
leguminous fodder with a limited quantity of wheat bran or rice bran.

ii. Non-leguminous: e.g. maize (Zea mays), jowar (Sorghum vulgare) and sudan grass
(Sorghumsudanens) are common fodders of July-August months. As compared to the
leguminous fodders these are low in protein but rich in energy.

Among the non-leguminous fodder crops of October-November months, oats

(Avenasativa) and barley (Hordium vulgare) are the most important. Of these two oats is by
far preferred for milch cattle. It is higher in protein and energy. Other non-leguminous
perennial fodder crops are napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), hybrid napier grass, guinea
grass (Panicum maximum), para grass (Brachariamutica).All these grasses flourish during
summer and rainy season.

These fodder crops yield on an average:

47 | P a g e
- Cowpea and cluster bean 100 Qtl/acre

- Berseem and lucern 300 Qtl/acre in 5-6 cuttings

- Maize, jowar and sudan grass 100-200 Qtl/acre

- Napier grass, hybrid napier grass,

guinea grass and para grass 30-40 tonnes/ acre in 4-6 cuttings.

Tree leaves: Tree leaves are generally fed to sheep and goats, and sometimes to cattle during
a period of fodder scarcity. These are fairly rich in crude protein and low in crude fiber during
their early stage of growth. However, as maturity progresses, there is a gradual decrease in
crude protein with concomitant increase in crude fiber. The tree leaves and shrubs are
generally rich in calcium and poor in phosphorus.

Root crops: Root crops like turnip, carrot, fodder beat, etc. are extensively used in some
European countries for feeding when other succulent fodders are not available or in short
supply. These crops are high in moisture (75-92%) and low in crude fiber content (5-11%
DMB).

Silage:To ensure uninterrupted supply of green fodder round the year, green fodders can be
preserved as silage or hay for use at the time of scarcity.

Dry roughages

1. Hay: It is one of the methods of conserving green fodder by reducing its moisture content
up to 15-20% to inhibit the action of plant and microbial enzymes. Green crops in blooming
stage, when the yield of total nutrients per unit area is maximum are harvested, dried and
preserved. Among the leguminous crops, the most suitable is lucerne (calledalfalfa inU S A).
Berseem and cowpea due to their hollow and thick stems, respectively, are difficult to be
dried and thus preserved as hay.
2. Straws: Of all feeding stuffs, straws are perhaps the poorest in protein and have largest
percentage of crude fiber. They are also poor in phosphorus, available calcium, trace
elements but are rich in silica. Their DCP is almost nil and TDN about 40%. In general straws
of leguminous crops like cowpea, pea, groundnut, gram, etc. have higher nutritive value (2 to
3% DCP and 30 to 40% TDN. Paddy straw contains a deleterious substance viz.,
oxalateswhich interfere with calcium retention of the animals.

48 | P a g e
 Feeding value of poor quality roughages can be increased by spraying a solution of feed
grade urea (2 kg) and molasses (10 kg) in 10 kg of water over 100 kg of straw with a
sprayer.The treated straw should be spread evenly under the sun over an area of 20 X 20 ft.
This straw can form maintenance ration when supplied along with mineral and vitamin
mixture.

2. CONCENTRATES

A concentrate is usually described as a feed mixture which contains less than 18% crude
fiber and supplies the primary nutrients i.e. Protein, carbohydrate and fat. In general, these are
rich in either energy or protein.

Energy rich concentrates:

i. Grain and seeds: The grains provide the best source of energy. Their protein content is,
however, low. Among the grains used extensively for animal feed are maize, oats,
barley,jowar, wheat, etc. These are rich in starch except for oats and low in fiber. Their
TDN content being of the order of 70-80%, while the DCP is only 6 -7 %. Cereals are
deficient in calcium, sodium and chlorine but adequate in phosphorus, potassium. Of other
seeds, cotton seed is extensively used in animal feeding. It has an ether extract content of
about 20% and TDN value is about 80 %.

ii. Mill by- products: By-products of the grain industry are extensively used for livestock
feeding. Of these, brans of rice and wheat have been used traditionally for stock maintenance.
DCP content of these ranges between 6-10 % while the TDN content is about 65 %. Rice
branis richer than wheat bran in phosphorus content. The calcium content is similar in both
the brans.Besides brans, by-products of pulse processing industry are also used in animal
feeding.

iii. Roots: Roots of some plants e.g. tapioca are used for animal feeding after processing.These
are rich in energy (83%TDN) but poor in protein (1.5% DCP).

Protein rich concentrates:

1. Animal by-products: High protein feeds of animal origin are usually obtained from the meat
scraps and offal from slaughter houses, butcher shops and from dead animals processed for
separating tallows and fats. Their TDN content varies from 60-90%.
Tallow: Fat rendered from beef.

49 | P a g e
 Lard: It is fat from pork.

Blood meal is prepared by coagulating its protein. It is rich in protein (70 -80%) but low
in calcium and phosphorus content. Its protein has poor digestibility having low isoleucine
and methionine and only traces of glycine. The amino acid constitution is badly balanced
and it has low biological value. However, it does have a highlysine content. It can be fed up
to 25-50gm / day to calves and young pigs. Great care has to be taken for its storage as it gets
putrefied on absorbing moisture.

ii. Marine by-products: Fish meals are produced in two ways i. e. first by steam drying under
vacuum or drying in sun on the sea shore after an admixture of salt. Fish meals are rich in
crude protein (≈ 65%) with a digestibility of about 93 to 95%.

Fish meal protein is rich inlysine, methionine and tryptophan besides minerals (Ca 8%,
P 3.5%) and vitamins especially choline, B12, and riboflavin. Common adulterants in fish meals
are urea and common salt.

Brewer’s grains and yeast:

In breweries, when barley is germinated for alcohol production,different by products rich

in protein are obtained. Dried grains contain about 18 % crude protein and 15 % crude
fiber.Dried yeast contains about 42% crude protein. It is highly digestible and a good source of
B group of vitamins

Oil cakes: It is the by-product left after extraction of oil from oil seeds. There are mainly two
methods for extraction of oil i. e. expeller and solvent extraction. Of these expeller cake
contains more oil as compared to solvent extracted. Conversely the protein content is higher in
solvent extracted cake.

Groundnut cake (GNC) andsesame (til) cake are extensively used for livestock feeding.
These have about 40 % DCP and 70&78% TDN, Sesame cake is richest among all cakes in
calcium content (2-3%).

Cotton seed cake (CSC) isavailable in two forms viz. cotton seed cakewhole
pressedcotton seed cake (25 - 28% CP) and hulled cotton seed cake, which is simply known as
cotton seed cake(about 40% CP).

50 | P a g e
 Linseed cake is another good protein supplement for all kind of farm stock. Its DCP is 30
% while TDN only 65 %. It should be boiled for 10 minutes before giving to youngstocks to
destroy linamarin derived by enzymatic action. (linamarin produces HCN)

Mustard cake is also used for cattle feeding. Its nutritive value is much lower than
groundnut cake. DCP and TDN values being 27 and 74%, respectively. In poultry rations it
can be used up to 20%.

...............................................................................................

51 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-10 MEASURES OF FOOD ENERGY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Energy: A measure of a system’s ability to do work. It is measured in calories/joule.

Calorie: The basic unit of energy is calorie (cal). It is defined as the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1 oC (14.5 to 15.5oC). However, this unit is too small
for most convenient use in nutrition. Thus, the kilocalorie (kcal or 1000 calories is more
commonly used and the one we refer to when considering our own diet. Where larger values
are involved, the mega calorie (megacal or Mcal) is employed.

In the United Kingdom, the kjoule has been adopted. 1 kcal = 4.184 kj or 1kj = 0.239 kcal.

Gross Energy (GE): When a substance is completely burnt under a pressurized oxygen
atmosphere to its ultimate oxidation products, viz. CO 2, water and other gases, the heat given
off is considered as its gross energy, or heat of combustion. This is the starting point in
determining the energy value of foods for body use. The determination is carried out in a
calorimeter. Fats > Proteins > Carbohydrates

Digestible Energy (DE): Digestible energy is the difference between the gross energy of the
feed consumed and the gross energy of the feces excreted (GE – FE).Fecal losses are more in
ruminants than non-ruminants. Fecal losses can be as high as 60% in low quality forage diets.

1 Kg TDN = 4400 Kcal DE.

Metabolizable Energy (ME): When the energy lost in the gaseous products of digestion and
that lost in the urine (UE) is subtracted from the digestible energy, one arrives at the portion of
the total energy ingested which is actually capable of transformation in the body. (ME
= DE – (Gas + Urinary Energy).

The gaseous products of digestion result from the fermentations which take
place in the digestive tract. The gases produced contain energy and thus result in an energy
loss, consist largely of methane with traces of hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. These gaseous
losses are of largest significance in the case of ruminants. They are very small in the case of
man, pigs, dogs and chicken and are usually not taken account of in arriving at the ME of a
feed for these species.

The urine contains energy, which constitutes a further loss (2 to 3% of GE in pigs and 4
to 5% in ruminants) to be subtracted in arriving at ME. The urine loss results from the

52 | P a g e
excretion of incompletely oxidized nitrogenous compounds, primarily urea in mammals and
uric acid in birds.

However, there is always a portion of body origin, called endogenous urinary nitrogen.
Also, there are small amounts of energy which escape as perspiration, epidermal scales, and
shed hair. If accounted for they should be subtracted in arriving at ME, but they are so small
that no significant error is ordinarily involved in neglecting them.Energy loss as methane is in
the range of 3 – 10% in ruminants whereas it is 0.1 – 3% in monogastrics.

Net Energy (NE): It is that portion of feed energy which is completely useful to the body for
maintenance, growth and milk production.

Heat Increment (HI): It is the heat loss (or energy consumed) as a result of nutrient
assimilation in the body for normal processes inside the body.

Heat Increment consists of heat of fermentation (HF) and the heat of nutrient metabolism
(HNM). Below the critical temperature, heat produced in metabolism serves to keep the body
warm and thus is a part of NE.

Rubner coined the term Specific Dynamic Effect (SDE) to denote the increase in
metabolic rate following food intake. The German word for “effect” was mistranslated into
English as “action” and thus abbreviation SDA arose, which has been replaced by SDE. HI
varies according to the makeup of the ration, the level at which it is fed, and the body functions
being supported i.e. maintenance growth, fattening or lactation.

Physiological fuel values of nutrients:These are the calorific values originally established for
use in human nutrition to calculate the portion of gross energy available for transformation in
the body.The following values of the three classes of nutrients were derived by Atwater and
Bryant.

Nutrient Heat of Heat of Nutrient Physiological fuel

combustion combustion of absorption % value (Kcal/g)
(Kcal/g) metabolic
products
(Kcal/g)

Carbohydrates 4.1 -- 98 4.0

Proteins 5.65 1.30 92 4.0

Fats 9.45 -- 95 9.0

53 | P a g e
 Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN):

It is a traditional system to express digestible energy concentration of feedstuffs. The

basis of TDN is physiological fuel values of the major nutrients.

It is the sum total of all the digestible nutrientsviz., protein, fiber, nitrogen free extract
and fat. It is determined by conducting adigestion trial where total amount offeed consumed
and faeces voided by the animals is recorded and analysed for their nutrient composition to
arrive at the digestibility percentage of different nutrients.

TDN% = Dig. CP% +Dig. CF% + Dig. NFE% + (Dig. EE X 2.25%)

TDN values provide a relative measure of the digestible energy content of feeds.
However, no allowance is made for the higher energy value of proteins which averages 5.65
kcal per gram for mixed proteins.

1 kg TDN = 4.41 kcal Mcal DE

For ruminants, 1 lb TDN provides about 1600 kcal ME. (One lb = 453. 59 grams)

Limitations of TDN system

● Limitations associated with digestion trials

 Errors in chemical analyses

 Errors in sample collections
● TDN system does not include all energy losses in metabolism e.g.urine losses, methane gas
losses which can be 3-10% of feed energy

●Does not include:

- Work of digestion
- Heat of fermentation Heat increment
- Heat of nutrient metabolism
Factors affecting TDN value of a feed
1. Percentage of dry matter: Water does not contribute in a positive way to the TDN value of
a feed. The more water present in feed, less of other nutrients. Since the TDN value depends on
the amount of carbohydrate, fat and protein, and not on water as such, any feed having less of
water is expected to have more of TDN. Silage is low in TDN compared to hay mainly
because of a difference in water content.

54 | P a g e
2. Digestibility of dry matter. TDN results from the digestible portion of the nutrients present
in a feed. Mineral oil has a high gross energy value, but it cannot be digested by the animal and
so has no digestible energy or TDN value. Lignin would fall in similar category. Feeds high in
fiber are in general, low in digestibility and relatively low in TDN.

●Mineral oil is liquid mixture of hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum

3. The amount of mineral matter in the digestible dry matter. Since mineral compounds
contribute no energy to the animal as such, they have no TDN value. Salts like limestone and
defluorinated phosphate are all digested by the animal but would have 0.0 TDN value.

4. The amount of fat in the digestible dry matter. In calculating TDN, the digestible fat is
multiplied by 2.25 as reasons mentioned earlier. Consequently, the more digestible fat a feed
contains, other things being equal, the greater will be the TDN value. In feeds high in fats such
as dried whole milk, TDN values may even exceed 100 per cent. A pure fat which has a
coefficient of digestibility of 100 per cent would theoretically have a TDN value of 225 per cent
(100x 2.25).

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Starch Equivalent:

Kellner, a German scientist chose a measure i. e. fat producing power of the food
relative to the fat producing power of starch.

In his experiments, Kellner added starch to the basal maintenance ration of steers; he
found that for each gram of, the animal stored 0.248 g of fat.

In another experiment, when barley was given to the animals, 0.20 g of fat was stored
per g ofdigested food. One gram of barley dry matter was therefore, equivalent in fat producing
power to 0.20 ÷ 0.248 = 0. 81 and this value when multiplied by 100, is known as the starch
equivalent of starch of barley.

The starch equivalent of a foodtherefore, can be expressed as:

Weight of fat stored per unit of weight of food

---------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Weight of fat stored per unit weight of starch

55 | P a g e
 It is therefore, the net energy value of a food for fattening, relative to the net energy value of
starch.

Starch equivalents have been adopted in many European countries and parts of British
Commonwealth. In U.K. Kellner expressed the fat producing power of the feed in terms of
number of kgs of starch required to produce the same amount of fat as 100 kg of feed.

Values for calculating theoretical fat depositing power, energy values and starch
equivalent

One kg of digestible nutrient Fat deposited (kg) Starch equivalent

From starch 0.250 1.00

From true protein 0.235 0.94

From crude fiber 0.250 1.00

from fat (roughages) 0.475 1.90

From fat (cereals) 0.525 2.10

From fat (oil cakes) 0.600 2.40

When Kellner tested feedstuffs instead of pure nutrients, he found that the fat producing
power was less than calculated from their content of digestible nutrients and the discrepancy
was larger with those feeds high in fiber.

Kellner, therefore, instituted two types of correction factors:

1. The Werticeit or Value number for concentrates: The digestible nutrients are multiplied by a
‘Value number’ or Golden number. This ranges from 95 to 100.
2. The fiber correction for roughages: For dry roughages like straw and hay, it is 0.58 and for
chopped dry roughages it is 0.29.

56 | P a g e
Factors for correcting the predicted starch equivalents of roughages on the basis of
their crude fiber content.

Type of roughage Crude fiber Starch equivalent deducted

Content (%) For each 1% of crude fiber

Hay and straw - 0.58

Chaff - 0.29
Green fodders >16 0.58
14-16 0.53
12-14 0.48
10-12 0.43
8-10 0.38
6-8 0.34
4-6 0.29
No crude fiber correction is used when predicting the starch equivalents of
concentrates.

Calculation of SE of Feedstuffs
Example 1: Calculate the Starch Equivalent of barley for the following data (value no. of
barley is 98). 100 kg barely contains 7.6 kg DCP, 1.2 kg DEE, 60.9 kg DNFE and 2.5 kg DCF.
Solution:

Nutrient % Factor SE

DCP 7.6 x 0.94 = 7.14

DEE 1.2 x 2.10 = 2.52

DNFE 60.9 x 1.00 = 60.90

DCF 2.5 x 1.00 = 2.50

73.06

Calculated SE = 73.06
Value No. (Golden no.) of barley = 98
Corrected SE of barley = 73.06 x 98/100 = 71.60

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 Example 2: Green Fodder Such as Berseem (CF=6.0%)

Nutrient % Factor SE

DCP 2 x 0.94 = 1.88

DEE 0.5 x 1.91 = 0.96

Dig. total carbohydrates 9.0 x 1.00 = 9.00

11.84

Calculated SE = 11.84
The crude fiber content of berseem on green basis is 6%. Therefore, it has to be
multiplied by a factor 0.34 which comes to 6.0 x 0.34 = 2.04
Corrected SE = 11.84 – 2.04 = 9.80

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 CHAPTER-11 DIRECT AND INDIRECT CALORIMETRY

Direct calorimetry: Itis measurement of the amount of heat produced by a subject enclosed
within a small chamber.

Direct calorimetry: Lavoisier was to recognise that animal heat is produced by oxidation of food
constituents and oxidation of fat and protein liberated from the body tissues. Lavoisier and Laplace
(1780) devised the first animal calorimeter to measure this heat using guinea pig as the subject. The
animal was enclosed in a chamber surrounded by ice and the amount of ice melted in a given period of
time was recorded as a measure of the amount of heat given off by the animal. In due course of time
more precise animal calorimeters were developed replacing ice with water (Adiabatic type). The latest
type is known as gradient- layer calorimeter. It is so constructed that the average temperature gradient
between the inner and outer spaces is proportionate to the total heat produced by the animal.

Indirect calorimetry: Itis measurement of the amount of heat produced by a subject by

determination of the amount of oxygen consumed and the amount of carbon dioxide
eliminated.Indirect calorimetry can be performed with an equipment known as a metabolic cart.

It is a type of whole-body calorimetry where all gas consumption and gas

exhalation are continuously monitored and can be used to determine energy expenditure
through the use of equations relating total O2 consumption, CO2expiration, and urinary nitrogen
excretion to energy utilization.

Adiabatic calorimeter: In adiabatic type of calorimeter, an animal is confined in a chamber

constructed in such a way that heat loss through the walls of the chamber is reduced to near
zero. This is attained by a box within a box. The outer box is electrically heated to the same
temperature as the inner wall. The volume and change in temperature of the water can be used
to calculate sensible heat loss from the animal body.

Gradient calorimeter: Calorimeters of this type allow the loss of heat through the walls of the
animal chamber. The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a constant
temperature with a water jacket; the temperature gradient is measured with thermocouples
which line the inner and outer surfaces of the wall. By the use of appropriate techniques, it is
possible to measure separately the radiation component of the sensible heat loss.

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Respiratory Quotient:

The animal receives its energy from its ration which consists of carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats mainly. The amount of oxygen required to oxidized nutrients is not the same due to
their specific molecular structure. The ratio between the oxygen consumed and the carbon
dioxide given off in respiration by the animal is called the respiratory Quotient (RQ)

R. Q. = Volume of CO2 given off

Volume of O2consumed
The overall reaction for the oxidation of carbohydrate (glucose):

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + H2 O - ∆ H (675 Kcal per mole)

Therefore, RQ for carbohydrates can be calculate from the molecules of CO 2 produced and
O2 used i.e.

6 CO2 ÷ 6O2 = 1

Thus R.Q. of Carbohydrates = 1

R.Q. of Fat (mixed) = 0.707

R.Q. of Proteins = 0.8

Carbon- nitrogen balance studies:

Carbon- nitrogen balance studies are conducted to ascertain theenergy retained/stored

by the animal while given a particular feed. The main forms in which energy is stored by the
growing and fattening animal are protein and fat. The amount of carbohydrates in the body is
small and fairly constant, thus not taken into account. Determinations are made of the carbon
and nitrogen in the food, faeces, urine, and of the carbon and methane in the gaseous output.
Thus, if we know the amount of carbon gained with a side by side nitrogen gain, we can easily
find out the protein deposited. By subtracting the carbon of protein from the carbon gain we can
estimate the total fat stored from rest of the carbon. The amount of energy retained, can be
calculated by multiplying the quantities of nutrients stored by their calorific values.
…………………………………………

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 CHAPTER-12 PROTEIN EVALUATION OF FEEDS

The criteria generally used for protein quality evaluation are:

i. Growth rate: - It is the most common criteria for the evaluation of feed/ its protein.
Drawback: the growth is not always the result of protein synthesis but can also result
from increase in the fat content of the tissues.

ii. Feed conversion ratio (FCR): - It is the ratio between the weight of the feed
consumed and the weight gain. Reciprocal of FCR is the feed utilization ratio (feed
conversion efficiency).

FCR is generally given on wet basis of both feed and weight. Drawback: The plants
or natural food containing more moisture than dry feed will differ in FCR. Also, the weight
gain in the fish comprises varied amounts of moisture or fat, which further complicates
evaluation of the feed.

iii. Protein efficiency ratio (PER): - It is the ratio between weight gain and crude protein
consumed.
Weight gain (g)
PER = -----------------------------------
Crude protein consumed (g)
It corrects the error due to variability in moisture content in the diet.

Drawbacks: -

i- It evaluates the protein in the diet rather than the diet itself.

ii- It does not consider differences in the composition of the weight gained and
accumulation of fat in tissues.

iii- It is assumed that all protein in the diet is utilized for the synthesis of new tissues,
whereas in fact, some of it is utilized for maintenance.

Net protein retention (NPR):It is a modification of PER. It makes an allowance for

maintenance and thus claimed to give more accurate results than PER.

Weight gain of TPG ̶ weight loss of NPG

NPR = --------------------------------------------------------
Protein intake

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Where, TPG is group fed test proteinand
NPG is group fed protein free diet.
Gross protein value (GVP):In this method the chicks are fed a depletion diet containing 8
% protein for two weeks and after that they are divided into three groups. The live weight
gain of chicks receiving a basal diet containing 80 g CP/ kg are compared with those of
chicks receiving the basal diet plus 30 g CP /kg of a test protein, and of others receiving the
basal diet plus 30 g CP of casein.

Gram increased weight gain / g test protein

GVP = ---------------------------------------------------------
Gram increased weight gain / g casein

The extra weight gain per unit of supplementary test protein, stated as a proportion of the
extra weight gain per unit of supplementary casein, is the Gross protein value of the test
protein.

Productive protein value (PPV): -

It takes into account the transformation of the dietary protein into body protein rather than
the overall increase in the body weight.

Protein retained in tissues

PPV = ------------------------------------------
Dietary protein consumed
Net protein utilization (NPU): This is the percentage of dietary protein, which is
converted into body proteins.

Retained nitrogen
NPU = ------------------------ X 100
Intake of nitrogen
Nitrogen retention may be estimated by carcass analysis. It combines in a single index,
both the digestibility and the biological value of proteins.

NPU = BV x digestibility

Biological value (BV): - It is defined as that proportion of the nitrogen absorbed or

retained by the animal.

N intake – (faecal N + urinary N)

BV = -------------------------------------------- X 100

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 N intake – faecal N
This formula however takes into account the biological value of protein for growth
purposes only. A more useful measure is one that takes account of maintenance as well
which can be accomplished by considering the metabolic and endogenous losses separately
from the total faecal and urinary excretions. Biological value of dietary protein thus can be
expressed by the Thomas- Mitchell equation:

N intake –(faecal N- MFN) – (urinary N – EUN)

Percent BV = ----------------------------------------------------------------- x100

N intake – (faecal N – MFN)
MFN → metabolic faecal nitrogen

EUN → endogenous urinary nitrogen.

It is dependent upon the level of dietary protein. At low protein level the excretion
of nitrogen from the endogenous source will be more thus resulting into lower biological
value. Biological value of proteins will be lower at higher level of proteins because at this
level there will be deamination of proteins and the same will be utilized for energy.

Protein replacement value (PRV): it is a measure of the retention of the total nitrogen
intake rather than the digestible nitrogen. It compares the extent to which a test protein will
give the same nitrogen balance as an equal amount of standard protein,

NB1 ̶ NB2
PRV = -------------------------- X 100
Nitrogen intake
Where, NB1 is the nitrogen balance of the animal fed standard protein, NB 2 is the nitrogen
balance of the animal fed test protein.

Chemical score: - It is based on the assumption that whole egg protein has the highest
biological value and therefore, most suitable for growth and that the growth will be limited
by that essential amino acid in the diet whose ratio to its content in the whole egg protein is
the lowest.

% age of the limiting EAA in protein

Chemical score = -------------------------------------------------------------------- X 100
% age of the corresponding EAA in egg protein

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Essential amino acid index (EAAI): This measure isbased on the contribution ofeach
essential amino acid in a protein for its quality evaluation. It is defined as the geometric mean
of the ten egg ratios found by comparing the content of ten EAAs in a feed protein to that
found in whole egg protein. Algebraically the index is expressed as:

100a 100b 100c 100j

EAAI = 10 --------x-----------x--------x---------------------
ae be ce je

Where, a, b, c, ………j = % concentration of essential amino acids in a feed protein.

ae, be,ce …………….je = concentration of the same amino acidsin the egg protein.
Calorie / Protein ratio: It is defined as the ME (Kcal) per kg divided by the percentage of
crude protein in the ration. Calorie protein ratios for BIS requirements are as given below.

Type Calorie – protein ratio

Broiler starter feed 122

Broiler finisher feed 145

Chick feed 130

Growing chicken feed 156

Laying chicken feed 144

It is of great importance in poultry, swine as well as ruminants for efficient feed utilization. It
is also called nutrient to calorie ratio.

Nutritive ratio (NR): it is ratio of the digestible protein to the sum of digestible carbohydrates
and fat. The fat being multiplied by 2.25. it is also called the albuminoid ratio. Feeds richer in
protein have narrownutritive ratio. Rations with wide nutritive ratio (1: 9) are suitable for idle
horses and cattle; a medium ratio (1: 6) for early fattening, lactation, working animals, etc. and
narrow ratio (1: 0.7) for young stock.

Crude protein: Protein is called crude protein because we estimate total nitrogen of the feed
sample which includes nitrogen from true proteins and non-protein nitrogenous(NPN),
compounds e. g. free amino acids, amides, urea, etc.Total nitrogen value is then multiplied by

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a factor 6.25 to getcrude protein value. Since the value we arrive at includes nitrogen from true
proteins and NPN compounds therefore we call it crude protein and not protein.

Digestible crude protein (DCP):It ispart of the protein offered which is utilized by the
animal. It is calculated by conducting digestibility trial. During which feed of known chemical
composition is offered to the animals and feces voided by the animals are also analyzed. The
difference between the crude protein offered and voided by the animals is called digestible
crude protein. It is similar to bioavailability.

Protein equivalent (PE):In anattempt to have NPN fraction half the nutritive value of true
protein a concept of protein equivalent was developed.

PE = %DCP + % DTP
2

-----------------------------------------------------------------

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 CHAPTER-13 INTRODUCTION TO FEED TECHNOLOGY

Animal feed technology may be defined as the application of physical, chemical,

biochemical, biological and engineering techniques to increase the nutrient utilization of feeds
and fodders for livestock and poultry.

It deals with the processing of feeds, fodders and preparation of formula feeds
for which the knowledge of nutritional requirements of various livestock and poultry, quality
control of feed ingredients, feed plant management and the storage of feed ingredients and
feeds are essential.

Development of feed industry in India:In 1961 feed industry came into existence in India
with the establishment of a feed plant in Ludhiana, Punjab. Compound Livestock Feed
Manufacturers Association (CLFMA) was formed on 8th June, 1967.it has about 115
members in public, private and cooperative sectors. The installed capacity of CLFMA
members was around six million tones.

Some of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) definitions:

Complete feed: a nutritionally adequate feed for animals other than humans; by specific
formula compounded to be fed as the sole ration and is capable of maintaining life and/ or
promoting production without any additional substance, except water, being consumed.

Concentrate: A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and
intended to be further diluted and mixed to produce a supplement or a complete feed.

Supplement: A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and
intended to be:

iv. Fed undiluted supplement to other feeds.

v. Offered free- choice with other parts of the ration separately available or
vi. Further diluted and mixed to produce a complete feed.
Premix: A uniform mixture of one or more micronutrients with diluent and / carrier.
Premixes are used to facilitate uniform dispersion of the micronutrients in a large mix.

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 PROCESSING OF FEEDS AND FORAGES
Primary reasons for processing feeds:
i. To alter particle size: Some feeds need to be reduced in size by grinding them to increase
their intake or digestibility. In some cases, particle size is increased by pelleting or cubing to
overcome dust problem, to avoid selective feeding and to improve handling efficiency.
ii. To change density of feed: Bulky or low-density feeds reduce feed intake. Such feeds are
prepared for the purpose of limiting energy intake. Grains are flaked rather than ground or
pelleted.
iii. To change palatability: Feeds are processed to increase acceptability and intake. Molasses,
flavouring agents or fats are added to enhance feed palatability. Processing may be used to
decrease palatability and limit feed intake e.g. by adding salt feed mixtures.
iv. To increase nutrient availability: Availability of starch and protein is low in jowar seed than
other grains. Gelatinization of the starch granules enhances their digestibility. Pelleting of
feeds increases utilization of phosphorus in chicken and pigs.
v. To detoxify or remove undesirable factors:
a. Gossypol (toxic for simple stomached animals) a yellow pigment of cotton seed can be
detoxified by heating. Addition of iron salts ruptures pigment gland and thus protects against
egg discoloration.
b. Heating soybeans destroys the factors that inhibit the digestive enzymes, trypsin
chymotrypsin.
c. Toxicity of linseed seed meal can be removed by adding two or three parts of water to the
meal and allowing it to stand for 12 hours at a temperature between 22 to 370C
vi. To lesson moulds, salmonella and other harmful substances: Propionic and acetic acids
inhibit mould growth. They are used in the preservation of high moisture grains. Treatment
with ammonia or ammonium hydroxidedetoxify feeds.
vii. To improve keeping quality: High moisture grains may be preserved by either drying or
chemical treatment e. g. adding an organic acid. They may also be stored in oxygen limiting
silos. Green fodders are also conserved as silage or hay.
Commonly used mills in feed industry
1. Hammer mills:These mills use impact grinding principle to reduce the particle size of
feeds. These are used for grinding of both concentrates and forages. Hammer mills may be of
the single, double or triple reduction type with either rigid or swinging hammers.
2. Roller mills: These are used for the crimping or crushing of grains. These are preferred for
grinding of feeds for efficient grinding and uniform particle size. The roller mill consists of

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two rolls rotating in opposite directions at the same or different speeds. Rolls are usually
corrugated or serrated (saw like). Roller mills may have one, two or three pairs of rolls in a
strand.
Feed mixing

The Mixing is the blending of a number of fed ingredients together so that any sample of the
resulting mixture should have the same proportion of a given ingredient or nutrient as any
other sample. If these were exactly so, this would be perfect mixing.

Common problems associated with mixing:

Particle size and mixing problems:

Particle size reduction in order to obtain a uniform mix is essential.

Grinding and particle size:

Several problems associated with grinding are critical to the economical production of feeds. The
feed particles should be as homogeneous as possible to ensure consistent nutritional content
throughout the feed pellet or crumble. Particle size must be in the range of 177-850 microns.

Raw ingredient considerations:

Ingredients in the formulations which are high in oil content tend to clog the fine mesh
hammer mill screens used to obtain fine particle size feeds. In grinding the oil content should be
below 13% with an optimal level of about 6%. Using bulk cereal grains e. g.whole wheat, corn or
any other grains is economical and lowers the oil content.

Pregrinding and postgrinding:

Pregrinding is the system in which the ingredients are ground prior to batch blending. This has the
advantage of allowing the equipment to be tailored separately for each ingredient.

In a postgrinding system, the blending of ingredients is done before grinding which means that the
grinding equipment has to be set for the hardest ingredient in the blend. This often causes some of
the softer materials to be overground. Pregrinding solves such problems but it does not work well
with the ingredients that are high in oil, such as fishmeal. Blending high oil ingredients with grain
carriers can however, help to some extent.

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Physical properties of the ingredients:

When the physical properties of the ingredients are uniform, the mixing becomes fairly simple.
However, as the physical characteristics of the ingredients vary, blending and segregation problems
are compounded. Some of the physical characteristics contributing to such problems are:

Particle size, Particle shape, Density or specific weight, Static charge

Hygroscopicity and Adhesiveness

The first three characteristics are the most important. Large and small particles do not mix well. A
better mix can be achieved if the range of particle size is small. High-density particles, such as
minerals, tend to segregate to the bottom of the mixer or bin.

Another physical characteristic of the ingredients is hygroscopy which is the tendency to attract or
take up water. A very hygroscopic material may absorb enough water from the atmosphere to cause
caking or lumps in the feed mix. Some ingredients particularly vitamins and drugs may possess a
static charge, causing them to stick them to bin walls and the walls of the mixer if it is not
electrically grounded. This can result in mixtures failing to meet nutrient requirement levels or poor
dosage level and also cause drug contamination of the subsequent mixes. Appropriate use of
grinders or pulverizers can, however, produce the desired particle size.

Ingredient addition sequence:

While adding ingredients to the mixer, the smaller amounts should be added last.
Feed ingredients such as vitamins, minerals and medicated premixes, which are added at low
inclusion rates, should not be put into an empty mixer. Major ingredients should be added to the
mixer first and thoroughly combined before the minor ingredients are added.

Some feeds may require inclusion of some liquids such as oils. These should preferably be sprayed
through a spray bar installed at the top of the mixer. When moist ingredients are to be incorporated,
they should be added after the dry and liquid ingredients have been mixed.

So, our aim should be adequate mixing. Mixing is the single operation that is required in a
plant to define it as a feed mill.

Type of mixers

Two type of mixers are generally used:

1. Vertical mixers

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 The vertical mixers or screw type mixer are relatively inexpensive and blend well most of
the ingredients. They are slower than horizontal mixers and are not generally used in large
feed mill.

2.Horizontal mixers

The horizontal mixers convey the material from one end of the mixer to the other, and
tumbled within the mixer. These types of mixers have two advantages as compared to the
vertical mixer.

i. Shorter mixing cycles and

ii. liquids may be added at higher levels.
Premix

It is now the general practice to fortify feeds with vitamins, minerals and medicines to
aid nutrition,which are used in small quantity so they are generally blended before
incorporation into main feed lot. These preblends are commonly referred as premix. By
definition premix is a uniform mixture of one or more micro-ingredients with one or more
diluents and/or carries. Premixes are essential to facilitate uniform dispersion of the micro
ingredients in the final feed

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 CHAPTER-14

VARIOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS TO IMPROVE THE

QUALITY OF INFERIOR QUALITY ROUGHAGES

Poor quality roughages are mainly straws and stovers. These are the residue left after any cereal
grain has been harvested at maturity for its seed. The major components of straw include structural
carbohydrates such as cellulose, non–starch polysaccharides and lignin. Ligninis the major
indigestible component in the plants. When lignin surrounds the cellulose, it effectively prevents
bacterial attachment and reduces digestibility both through its own inert properties and by encasing
the digestible cellulose.

Lignin content (%) of some of the crop residues:

Wheat straw 16.0

Rice straw 12.7

Barley straw 15.0

Maize stovers 15.3

A number of methods have been tried for processing such roughagesfor improving their voluntary
intake and nutritive value. The common methods are:

1. Physical methods:

a.Grinding:Grinding of roughages like straw decreases the digestibility due to increase in rate of
passage of the digestabut increases the intake.

b. Chaffing: Chaffing of the green fodders, grasses and straws also increases the intake by the
animals with minimum wastage.

c. Soaking: Soaking of wheat straw increases the intake but has no effect on the digestibility of the
nutrients. Soaking of paddy straw removes some of the soluble oxalates and may improve its
nutritive value.

2. chemical methods:

a.Alkali treatment of cereal straws:

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 The straws do not certain any DCP (or negligible) and are poor in energy, mineral and vitamins.
Wheat and paddy straws can be treated with dilute castic soda (1.25 % NaOH) solutionin which they
are socked overnight. The excess alkali is washed with H2O. This process leads to:

i. Loss of dry matter from 22% to 30% alongwith some soluble nutrients.

ii. Dry matter digestibility and carbohydrates digestibility of the treated straws is improved by 30-35%.

iii. In case of paddy straw, major portion of oxalates is also washed out.

b. Urea -ammoniation of crop residues:

Ingredients:
i. Wheat straw/grass hay (chopped) 100kg
ii. Urea 4 kg
iii. Water 65 lit.
Method:
i. Prepare a solution of 4 kg urea in 65 liters of water.
ii. Evenly sprinkle the urea solution on the straw/ chaffed hay.
iii. Thoroughly mix the material, taking care that no lumps are formed.
iv. Cover the treated material with black polythene sheet. Press sides of the sheet with
mud and ensure that it is air tight.
v. Open the material 21days, thoroughly aerate in the open to facilitate the escape of
free ammonia. Store the ammoniated straw.
Note:
 Treated straw should not be fed to calves below six months of age.
 Feed the material by gradually increasing the level of feeding day after day.
 Vinegar/ cold water is a helpful emergency treatment for urea poisoning if the animal is
treated before tetany develops.
 Feeding of urea ammoniated straw should be immediately stopped if signs of toxicity are observed.
c. Urea- molasses impregnation:
Ingredients:
i. Wheat straw/Paddy straw 100 kg
ii. Molasses/ flour (wheat/maize/barley) 10 kg
iii. Urea 1 kg
iv. Mineral mixture 2 kg

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v. Water 5 lit.
Method:
i. Spread wheat straw in a pile of ¾” to 1” thickness.
ii. Make solution of urea in about 2 lit. of water.
iii. Add mineral mixture, then add the remaining water and finally mix molasses/ flour.
iv. Spray this solution on the straw/dry fodder/chopped grasses carefully and mix the
material thoroughly.
v. This material can be fed as such or may be dried, stored and fed as and when required.
Note:Urea should be thoroughly dissolved before mixing other materials.
3. Biological methods
In the recent years’ efforts have been made to improve the quality of lignocellulosic
materials. Fungi e. g. Coprinus fimetarius, lenzitestrabea, are the most studied organisms for
lignin degradation with limited success. The main problem is that these organisms alongwith
lignin remove a significant amount of cellulose and hemicellulose which are well utilized by
the ruminants.

……………………………………

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 CHAPTER-15 CONSERVATION OF FORAGES FOR LIVESTOCK FEEDING
When the green forages are in excess of daily requirement, they should be conserved
for use during lean period.These are normally conserved through ensiling or sun curing (Hay
making).
1. Silage Making
Silage is the material produced by the fermentation of high moisture crops under
anaerobic conditions Ensiling is the name given to the process and the container is called silo.
Silage can be prepared in silo pits, bunkers, silo towers or plastic bags. In India the silo pits
are generally mud plastered or cemented depending up on the economic status of the farmer.
Advantages of silage making:
 Crops can be ensiled when weather does not permit curing them into hay.
 It can be prepared from the plants which have thick stems and thus not suitable for hay
making e.g. maize, jowar, etc.
 Weeds can also be utilized along with the main fodder crop while making silage. Thus, it
helps in destroying weed seeds.
 The organic acids produced in the silage are similar to those normally produced in the
digestive tract of the ruminants, therefore, are utilized in the same manner.
 Silage provides nutritious fodder during the lean months.
 During silage making the entire plant is consumed which can otherwise be a problem with
crops having coarse stems thus wastage of the fodder is reduced.
 Early removal of crops from the fields for silage making, enough time is available for
preparing land for the next crop.
Disadvantages of silage making:
 It requires a silo which means a higher cost.
 It incurs an added expenditure when preservatives are essential.
 Additional labour is needed for filling the silo.
 Its vitamin-D content is lesser than sun-cured hay.
Crops suitable for silage making:
Crops rich in soluble carbohydrates are most suitable for ensiling e.g. maize, jowar,
bajra, Napier, oats etc. Leguminous fodder crops e.g. lucerne, berseem, cowpea are not
suitable for silage making however, after giving some treatments they may also be converted
into good quality silage.

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 Stage at which the forage is cut besides its physical state profoundly influences the
quality of the silage produced. The packing of chaffed forage will be better than the unchaffed
one. There is also much more rapid lactic acid production due to early release of cell sap.
Suitable stages of crops for ensiling:
Crop Stage
Maize Dough stage
Oats, jowar, bajra Milk or dough stage
Teosinte 50% bloom
Berseem, lucerne 25-50% bloom
Natural grasses Flowering stage
Pre-requisites of ensiling:
1. The crop should have dry matter content between 30-40%
2. It should contain adequate sugars (8-10% soluble carbohydrates).
3. As far as possible there should be complete anaerobic conditions within the silo pit.
Some common additives and preservatives:
 Molasses
 Urea
 Limestone
 Sodium metabisulphite
 Organic acids
 Bacterial cultures

Carbohydrate additives:Some forages like, berseem and grasses are low in soluble sugars,
therefore, addition of carbohydrate sources like molasses has been found to be effective in
preparing good quality silage by promoting lactic acid production in the ensiled mass.
Molasses should be added @ 3-4% by weight, diluted with equal parts of water and then
sprayed over the material. Silage of good quality has been obtained with dried whey, dried
beet pulp. Addition of starch in the form of cereal grains has also given good results.

AIV( Artturi Ilmari Virtanen) method:The principle underlying AIV method is to check
undesirable fermentation by reducing the pH to less than 4.0. AIV acid consists of a mixture
of H2SO4 and HCl and is applied to the silage after dilution with water (1-part acid per 6-parts
water) to give 2N solution. This solution is used @ about 7 lit./100 kg green. In practice this
method is not popular, as the farmers do not like to handle acids.

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 Other additives: Several salts e.g. sodium sulphite, calcium formate, sodium sulphate,
ammonium bisulphate, sodium metabisulphite have been used @ 0.5-1.0% but the results
were inconsistent probably due to the problem of proper mixing.

Addition of urea and other nutrients to silage

Corn silage is especially low in protein and several minerals. To partially correct the
protein deficiency, addition of urea at the time of ensiling @1.5% (on dry matter basis or
0.5% on fresh basis) has been recommended. Addition of urea at the time of ensiling has
several advantages including a way to feed urea more uniformly throughout the day than
when it is fed with the concentrates. Likewise, the corn silage supplies the readily fermentable
carbohydrates needed for efficient urea utilization.
Silage from legumes:
When ensiled alone, most legumes tend to produce unsatisfactory silage, if ordinary methods
are followed. This is due to the following reasons:
i. Lack of sufficient sugars in legumes.
ii. High moisture content.
iii. High buffering capacity due to high protein.
Legumes can, however, be ensiled successfully by the following methods:
 Wilting: Silage can be prepared from legumes if they are wilted to a dry matter content of
about 35-45 per cent. Wilting consequently increases the sugar content in the forages.
 Mixing with non-leguminous forages: Non-leguminous forages i.e. maize, sorghum and oats
are rich in soluble sugars, when mixed legumes, they supply the required quantity of sugars
for proper fermentation. This type of silage will be rich both in energy and proteins.
Characteristics of good silage:

Physical characteristics:Good quality silage should have an acceptable aroma with no mould
growth. It should keep greenish/yellow/golden colour, acidic in taste and highly palatable to
the animals. The colour of the silage is due to the action of organic acids on the chlorophyll,
which convert chlorophyll into brown magnesium free pigment called phaeophytin. Dark
brown colour indicates excessive heating.
Chemical characteristics:
 pH value should be 3.5-4.2
 Ammonia nitrogen content should be less than 10-12 per cent of the total nitrogen.
 Acetic acid concentration should be 0.7-4 per cent.

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 Lactic acid concentration should be 8-12 per cent of the dry matter.
Chemical changes in the ensiled mass:

When green crops are cut and ensiled in the silo, the respiration continues for a short time
till the oxygen into the packed material is used up. Sugars are oxidized to CO 2 and H2O with
the production of heat. CO2 present in the mass leads to the production of carbonic acid. Acid
forming bacteria multiply in the mass, which attack the sugars and produce lactic and acetic
acid. When pH of the mass is about 3.7 the bacterial fermentation is checked and inhibits
bacterial growth. Due to the fermentation of soluble sugars lactic acid is produced. That’s
why crops rich in soluble carbohydrates are best for preparing silage.
Proteins (60-80%) in the ensiled mass are broken down to amino acids and in badly
preserved silage to amines like tryptamine, histamine, etc. The principle products of
putrefaction are betain, adenine, etc. In addition to the acids some amount of alcohol is also
formed which combines with acids and gives a characteristic aroma. In well-preserved silage
butyric acid is not produced and at pH 5.0 or more it is a predominant acid. Minerals like Na,
Ca, K and Mg present in the green fodder form salts with volatile fatty acids.
Classification of silage:
Parameter Very good Good silage Fair silage *Poor silage
silage
pH 3.5-4.2 4.2-4.5 4.5-4.8 >4.8
Butyric acid - <0.2% > 0.2 Predominating
acid
Ammonia-N < 10 10-15 15-20 >20
(% of total N)
*Silages give bad smell due to butyric acid and high proteolysis. It is infested with moulds
and should not be fed to the animals.
According to German system of classifying silages, silages are given score called Fleig’s
value/index.
Silage microbiology:

Green forages carry a large number of aerobic fungi and bacteria. The activity of aerobic
microbes gradually ceases with the development of anaerobic conditions. The situation is
further favoured by rise of temperature in the ensiled mass. The temperature inside the silo
could be as high as 100oF for about 15 days and then gradually decreases. The heat is

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 generated by the bacterial fermentation Anaerobic species present in the silage are mainly
Escherichia, Bacillus, Clostridium, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostocks, Pedicoccus,
etc. Yeasts also occur in the silage which being facultative organism can survive and
proliferate in silage. In the initial stages, Coliforms dominate the micro flora but are soon
replaced by Leuconostocks and Streptococci. However, finally Lactobacilli and Pedicocci
dominate. They reduce the pH to about 4.0 and preserve the silage from Clostridial activity.
Types of fermentation:
There are two types of fermentation in the ensiled mass
i. Lactic acid fermentation: This type of fermentation takes place when the fodder contains
65-70 per cent moisture and sufficient sugars.
ii. Butyric acid fermentation: When the forage is too rich in proteinaceous substances, butyric
acid type fermentation predominates. Clostridia break the proteins and produce butyric acid.
General about the silo:
i. Silo should be located near the animal farm so that labour is not wasted in transporting the
material to the target point.
ii. Silo pit should be located at an elevated point so that rain or drainage water cannot enter the
pit.
iii. While filling the silo, it should be filled layer wise which should be properly pressed to
remove maximum air from the mass and the silo should be given dome shape because when
the fermentation starts the contents of the silo settle down.
iv. Size of the silo depends upon the number of animals. Ten kg. material requires one cubic ft
space
Hay Making
When green plant material is dried to moisture content not exceeding 20% it is called hay
and the process is called hay making. In general, crops with thick stems are preserved in the
form of silage and those having thin stems as hay.

Principle of hay making:

The primary objective in hay making is to reduce the moisture content of green plants enough
so that they can be safely stored without undergoing fermentation or becoming moldy. The
objective should be accomplished in such a manner that the hay is not bleached unduly by
exposure to sun or bleached by rains and the loss of leaves is minimum. Well cured hay
besides being an excellent fodder, hay making destroys some of the toxic principles e.g.
alkaloids, saponins and glycosides.

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 Requisites of hay making:

Good hay should be leafy because of higher food value of leaves as compared to other plant
parts. The leaves are generally rich in carotene, protein and minerals.
 It should be prepared from the crops cut at proper stage of maturity.
 It should be green in colour.
 It should be soft and pliable.
 It should be free from dust or moulds.
 It should have the colour and aroma characteristic of the crop from which it is made.
Stage of harvesting the crop for hay making:
The nutritive value of the fodder goes down as the plant matures. At a very early stage the
protein and energy content of the fodder is very high but total yield of nutrients per unit area
is low. At the later stages when the crop is in full bloom the protein value goes down and the
digestibility of the nutrients is also reduced. In order to get more nutrients per unit area the
crop should be harvested just at pre flowering stage or when about 10% of the crop is in
bloom’

Types of hay:

i. Legume hay:Good legume hay has many characteristics that make it of special value to the
dairy cattle. It has got a higher percentage of digestible nutrients. It is rich in protein; carotene
and vitamin E. Berseem, Lucerne and cowpea are preferred for haymaking.
ii. Non-legume hay: Non-legume hays made from grasses are not as good as legjume hays.
They are less palatable and contain less proteins, minerals and vitamins than the legume hays.
Oats and other grasses are used for hay making.
iii. Mixed hay: Hay prepared from mixed crops of legumes and non-legumes is called mixed
hay. The composition and nutritive value of such hays will depend on the proportion of the
different crops used for hay making.
Curing of hay:
Drying out begins soon after the plant is harvested. The rate of drying depends upon:
i. Temperature
ii. Concentration of dissolved substance
iii. Movement of water within the tissues and
iv. The air movement

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 Plants differ in response to drying out. Leaves of leguminous crops dry more quickly than the
stems, which contribute to shattering and thus loss of more nutritious part of the plants.
Commonly used methods of curing of hay are:
Field curing:
a. Barn drying with or without heated air
b. A less commonly used procedure involves dehydration at higher temperature for a short
period.
Percentage of dry matter recovered through different methods is as follows:
Quick drying in oven 90
Barn drying with heated air 87
Barn drying without heated air 85
Field curing (if no rains) 76
Field curing (if rains are there) 50-76
A technique for making berseem or lucerne hay without loss of leaves has also been
developed in the Dept. of Animal Nutrition, CCSHAU, Hisar – India which involves the
following steps:
 Harvest the crop at pre bloom or bud stage
 Chop the wet forage and spread it in thin layer (4”-5” thick) on a smooth clean surface.
 Stir the material frequently to hasten drying
 Gather the leaves and chopped stems together.
Factors affecting the nutritive value of hay
 Losses due to late cutting: Late cutting means greater lignifications and lower carbohydrate
and protein digestibility while cutting early suffers from low yield and high moisture content
of the forages meant for hay making.
 Losses due to shattering of leaves: Loss of leaves is more common in leguminous crops
because in these crops the leaves dry earlier than the stem portion. If the drying is prolonged
without turning the leaves become brittle and shatter. Leguminous crops should be transported
from the field early in the morning so that with dew on the crop the loss could be minimized.
 Losses due to fermentation: After the crop is harvested the plant enzymes act on the soluble
carbohydrates forming CO2 and H2O. Some of the nutrients viz. Soluble carbohydrates are
lost resulting into higher crude fiber content of the dry matter. Some of the proteins are
hydrolysed into amino acids.

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 Losses due to oxidation: If the green fodder is exposed to sun for a longer period without
turning, nearly all the carotene is lost due to the action of lipoxidase. Rapid drying makes this
enzyme inactive and protects loss of carotene. However, due to irradiation of ergo sterol
vitamin D3 is formed.
 Losses due to leaching: If there are prolonged heavy rains, severe losses due to leaching
would occur. It causes loss of proteins, NFE and soluble minerals, thus consequently crude
fiber content is increased. It also encourages growth of moulds.
Haylage:
Haylage is a less moisture silage (40-45% moisture) and is made from grass/legume that is
wilted to 40-45% moisture content before ensiling. It is similar to silage except it is lower in
moisture.
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 CHAPTER-16 HARMFUL NATURAL CONSTITUENTS OF FODDERS

Harmful natural plant constituents or anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) may be

defined as those substances present in the natural feed stuffs by themselves or their
metabolic products arising in the system. They interfere with feed utilsation, reduce
production or affect the health of the animal.

They diminish animal productivity but may also cause toxicity during periods of
scarcity or confinement when the feed rich in these substances is consumed by animals in
large quantities.

The ANFs include non-protein amino acids, glycosides, phytohemagglutinins,

polyphenolics, alkaloids, triterpenes, oxalic acid (Oxalates), nitrate, and phytic acid
(Phytates).

Anti-nutritional factors in some important forage crops

Anti-nutritional substances Species

1 Non-protein Amino acids

Mimosine Leucaena leucocephala
(Subabool/mimosa)
Causes alopecia in wool and
fur animals

2 Glycosides

a. Cyanogens Sorghum vulgare (Jowar)

b. Saponins Medicago sativa (Green

lucern)

Bassia latifolia (Mahua)-

Mowrin

3 Phytohemagglutinins

Ricin Ricinus communis

(Castor bean)

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 4 Polyphenolic compounds

(A) Tannins All vascular plants

(B) Lignins
All vascular plants

5 Alkaloids

N-methyl-B-phenethylamine Acacia berlandieri (Subabool)

Sesbania vesicaria

Sesbanine S. drummondii

S. punicea

6 Triterpenes

Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica

Nimbidin (Neem)

7 Oxalate Acacia aneura

8 Phytic acid Most cereal crops

9 Nitrate Oat (Green feed)

Ingredient Anti-nutritional factors

Molasses High potassium, problem of
diarrhoea
Raw soybean meal Trypsin inhibitor
Groundnut meal Trypsin inhibitor, goiterogen
Mustard or rape seed and its meal Goiterogens (glucosinolates),
tannic acid, erucic acid
Sunflower seed meal Chlorogenic acid, quinic acid
and Fibre
Mahua cake Mowrin (Saponin) and
Tannins
Karanja cake Karajnjin and pongamol
(Flavanoids)
Sesame cake Phytate and oxalates
Copra meal Fibre, Oestrogen activity
Linseed and its cake Linamarin (cyanogenic
glucoside), antipyridoxine
(Linatin) factor
Cotton seed and its meals Gossypol (phenol like

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 compound)
Raw guar meal/korma Gum (18-20%), trypsin
inhibitor, antivitamin E
Castor seed and its meal Ricin (toxalbumin)-Ricinine
(Toxic-alkaloid)
Neem seed and its meal (Azadirachta indica) Nimbin, azadirachtin

MIMOSINE

Mimosine, similar to tyrosine, occurs in a few species of Mimosa. The level of

mimosine in the leaf is about 2–6%.

In non-ruminants, mimosine causes poor growth, alopecia, eye cataracts and

reproductive problems. The main symptoms of toxicity in ruminants are poor growth,
loss of hair and wool, swollen and raw coronets above the hooves, lameness, mouth and
oesophageal lesions, depressed serum thyroxine level and goiter. The effect of Leucaena
and mimosine can be reduced by heat treatment or with metal ions such as Fe2+, and Zn+2.

CYANOGENS

Feed Cyanogenic glucoside

Bitter almond Amygdalin
Immature sorghum Dhurrin
Lotus Lotaustralin
Linseed cake/meal Linamarin

Cyanogens are glycosides of a sugar, or sugars, and cyanide containing glycogen.

Cyanogens can be hydrolyzed by enzymes to release HCN which is volatile gas. The
hydrolytic reaction can take place in the rumen by microbial activity. Hence ruminants
are more susceptible to CN toxicity than non-ruminants.

Cyanide can cause goitrogenic effects due to thiocyanate produced during

detoxification. Post-harvest wilting of cyanogenic leaves may reduce the risk of cyanide
toxicity. Animals suffering from cyanide must be immediately treated by injecting a
suitable dose of sodium nitrate and sodium thiosulphate.

SAPONINS

Saponins are glycosides containing a polycyclic aglycone moiety. They are

widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Saponins are characterized by a bitter taste and

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foaming properties. Erythrocytes lyse in saponin solution and so these compounds are
toxic when injected intravenously.

In poultry and pigs, retardation of growth rate, primarily due to reduction in feed
intake has been observed.

Studies in ruminants indicate that, saponins inhibit microbial fermentation

Symptoms include listlessness, anorexia, weight loss and

PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS

Phytohemagglutinins, also referred to as lectins, are proteins which agglutinate

red blood cells. The highest concentrations of lectins are found in seeds. In fodder trees,
the lectins of interest are robin and ricin.

Robin, a lectin from Robinia pseudoacacia, has been reported to cause symptoms
of anorexia, lassitude (tiredness), weakness and posterior paralysis in cattle.

Ricin occurs in castor beans which have been reported to cause poisoning in all classes of
livestock. Due to ricin, deoiled castor seed cake (CP 35%) is seldom used as a livestock
feed. However, the mature leaves have been found suitable for feeding to sheep. Castor
bean meal can be detoxified by autoclaving at 20 psi for 60 minutes.

TANNINS

Tannins are water soluble phenolic compounds with the ability to precipitate
proteins from aqueous solution. They occur almost in all vascular plants. Hydrolysable
tannins and condensed tannins are two different groups of tannins. Generally, tree and
shrub leaves contain both types of tannins. The two types differ in their nutritional and
toxic effects. The condensed tannins have a more profound digestibility-reducing effect
than hydrolysable tannins, whereas the latter may cause varied toxic manifestations due
to hydrolysis in rumen. Tannins may form a less digestible complex with dietary proteins
and bind and inhibit the endogenous protein, such as digestive enzymes

In ruminants, dietary condensed tannins (2–3%) have been shown to impart

beneficial effects because they reduce the wasteful protein degradation in the rumen by
the formation of a protein-tannin complex The complex appears to dissociate post-
ruminally at a low pH.

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 ------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-17 FEED ADDITIVES IN THE RATIONS OF LIVESTOCK AND

POULTRY
Feed Additives:

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 Feed additive refers to non-nutritive products that affect utilization of the feed or
productive performance of the animal.

Whereas feed supplements are feedstuffs that are used to enhance the nutritive value of
basal feeds. They may be protein, mineral, vitamin or individual amino acid supplements.
Feed additives are generally added to the basal feed in small quantities for the purpose of
fortifying it with certain stimulants or medicines. Feed additives can be classed according to
their mode of action as follows:
a. Additives that Enhance Feed Intake
i. Antioxidants:
Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of fats. Rancidity may cause
destruction of vitamins viz. A,D and E besides several B complex vitamins. Breakdown
products of rancidity may react with epsilon (5 th) amino groups of lysine and thus affect
protein value of the ration. Ethoxyquin or butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) can be used as
antioxidants in feed. These are however unable to prevent peroxidation within the cell.
ii. Flavouring agents:

Flavouring agents are normally used to enhance palatability and intake of the feed. They are
generally added when:
 Unpalatable medicants are being mixed,
 There is attack of diseases or
 The animal is under stress or
 Less palatable feed is being fed to the animal.
In general ruminants have a preference for sweet compounds; additionally cattle and goats
respond positively to salts of volatile fatty acids.
b. Additives that enhance colour of the product:
Some people feel that broilers having deep yellow colour are of top quality. To satisfy such
buyers poultry men enhance the yellow colour of their product by incorporating xanthophylls
into the ration. A similar situation exists relative to the egg yolk colour. Among various
additives arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate and roxarsone are commonly used.
c. Additives that aid digestion and absorption:

i. Grit:In poultry grinding of the hard grains takes place in the gizzard. To enhance total surface
area of the feed particles for better digestion and subsequent absorption grit is added along

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 with hard grains or fibrous feeds. Oyster shells, coquina shells or limestone are commonly
used as grit.
ii. Buffers and neutralizers: During the period of maximum production animals are given high
doses of concentrate feeds to meet out their requirements for extra energy and proteins. The
condition however lowers rumen pH, which affects the heterogeneous population of the
rumen as the condition favours only the acidophilic bacteria. It often leads to acidosis thus
affecting normal digestion. Under such conditions addition of feed buffers and neutralizers,
e.g. carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, etc. has been shown to have beneficial effects. Use
of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to give an increase in average daily body weight
gain (10%), feed efficiency (5-10%) and milk production by about 0.5 liter per day.

iii. Chelates: Chelating agents e.g. ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (EDTA) are sometimes used
in poultry rations to increase zinc absorption. Commercial preparations of` various trace
mineral chelates are now available in the market.
iv. Probiotics: Substances which encourage the growth of desirable microorganisms in the
gastrointestinal tract are called probiotics. Molasses, alcohol, ruminal cultures have been tried
in the past. The usefulness of these materials is still questionable as the immediate
environment and the type of feed used are probably the most critical factors in establishing a
population of microorganisms in the ruminants.
D. Additives that promote growth and production:

i. Antibiotics: Antibiotics in small concentration have bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties.

Inclusion of certain antibiotics in small amounts could increase the rate of growth of young
pigs and chicks. Effect is more discernible during the period of rapid growth or when the diet
is slightly deficient in protein, B-vitamins or certain mineral elements. Antibiotics e.g.
penicillin, oxytetracycline (Terramycin), chlortetracycline, bacitracin, streptomycin,
neomycin, flavomycin, etc. have been shown to have growth promoting properties.

Mode of action of antibiotics:

 They have a sparing effect on proteins and amino acids when the protein content of the diet
is 1 to 3 per cent less than the required level.
 Intestinal wall of the animals becomes thinner, leading to enhanced absorption of nutrients.
 They reduce or eliminate the activity of pathogens causing infection.
 They reduce the growth of microbes that compete with the host for nutrients.

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  They alter intestinal bacteria so that urease production is reduced; thus less production of
ammonia which is toxic and growth depressant in non- ruminants.
 They encourage the growth of microbes that synthesize known or unidentified nutrients.
Antibiotics in pig nutrition:
 Beneficial effects of feeding antibiotic feed supplements have been in animals given all-
vegetable protein diets than those receiving protein supplements. The optimum level for most
antibiotics in the diet is 5-15mg/kg. Under normal health conditions addition of Aureomycin
or Terramycin supplements to the rations of growing or fattening pigs increases the growth by
about 15 per cent reducing the feed intake by 2.5 per cent. Higher weight gains are achieved
only during early period of growth.

Antibiotics in poultry feeding:

 In young and growing chicks penicillin is more effective than any other antibiotic. It increases
the growth rate but the marked effect is only one month of age thereafter it diminishes with
age. The results are more pronounced when it is added to rations without animal protein
supplements or vitamin B12. Also, unhygienic conditions favour growth rate (10-15%) and
efficiency of feed utilization. About 5g of procaine penicillin per ton of feed is the suggested
rate of addition. However, to control diseases, 50g or more per ton is the recommended dose.
No effect on egg production has been when antibiotics are added to layers’ rations. Antibiotic
vitamin B12 feed supplementation to all vegetable product rations may increase both egg
production and hatchability.
Antibiotics in the diet of ruminants:
 In disease troubled herds supplementation of aureomycin to calf rations has been found to
result in higher weight gains. Improvement, however, occurs before the calves are eight
weeks of age (30mg aureomycin or terramycin /calf).
 In mature animals’ antibiotics may however have negative effect on the cellulose digesting
bacteria. No effect on the milk production or its quality has been reported so far.
 For mature ruminants ionophore antibiotics may be used (ex. Monensin and Losalosid)
Points to be kept in mind while feeding antibiotics to animals:
 These should be used only for growing and fattening pigs or growing chicks and turkey
pullets
 They should not be used in the feed of cattle, sheep, goats, breeding pigs and breeding and
laying poultry stock.

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 They should be mixed thoroughly in properly balanced ration.
 Antibiotics are no substitute for good management or feeding.
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