Skin and Body Membranes o Construction

▪ Simple squamous epithelium

Body Membranes
▪ Areolar connective tissue
▪ Functions of body membranes
▪ Specific serous membranes
o Cover body surfaces
o Peritoneum
o Line body cavities
▪ Abdominal cavity
o Form protective sheets around
o Pleura
organs
▪ Around the lungs
▪ Classified according to tissue types
o Pericardium
Body Membranes ▪ Around the heart
▪ Epithelial membranes
Connective Tissue Membranes
o Cutaneous membranes
▪ Synovial membranes
o Mucous membranes
o Loose areolar connective tissue only
o Serous membranes
(no epithelial tissue)
▪ Connective tissue membranes
o Line fibrous capsules surrounding
o Synovial membranes
joints
Epithelial Membranes ▪ Line bursae
▪ Epithelial membranes are simple organs ▪ Line tendon sheaths
▪ Also called covering and lining membranes o Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion
▪ These membranes contain: organs moving against each other
o Epithelial tissue layer during muscle activity
o Connective tissue layer
Integumentary System
▪ Integumentary system consists of the:
▪ Cutaneous membrane = skin
o Skin (cutaneous membrane)
o Dry membrane
o Skin appendages
o Outermost protective boundary
▪ Sweat glands
o Construction
▪ Oil glands
▪ Epidermis is composed of
▪ Hair
keratinized stratified
▪ Nails
squamous epithelium
▪ Dermis is mostly dense
(fibrous) connective tissue Functions of the Integumentary
▪ Mucous membranes (mucosae) System
o Moist membranes
▪ Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
o Line all body cavities that open to the
▪ Protects the entire body from:
exterior body surface
o Mechanical damage (bumps and
o Adapted for absorption or secretion
cuts)
o Construction
o Chemical damage (acids and bases)
▪ Epithelium type depends on
o Thermal damage (heat or cold)
site
o Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
▪ Loose connective tissue
o Microbes (bacteria)
(lamina propria)
o Desiccation (drying out)
▪ Serous membranes (serosae)
▪ Aids in loss or retention of body heat as
o Line open body cavities that are
controlled by the nervous system
closed to the exterior of the body
▪ Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
o Occur in pairs, separated by serous
▪ Synthesizes vitamin D
fluid, with a visceral and parietal layer

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Structure of the Skin the palms of hands and soles of feet
▪ Two kinds of tissue compose the skin ▪ Stratum corneum
o Epidermis o Outermost layer of epidermis
o Dermis o Shingle-like dead cells are filled with
▪ Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) keratin (protective protein prevents
o Anchors the skin to underlying organs water loss from skin)
o Not technically part of the
integumentary system
o Composed mostly of adipose tissue Structure of the Skin
o Serves as a shock absorber and ▪ Melanin
insulates deeper tissues o Melanin is a pigment produced by
▪ Epidermis—outer layer melanocytes
o Capable of being hard and tough o Melanocytes are mostly in the
o Stratified squamous epithelium stratum basale of the epidermis
o Keratinocytes (the most common cell) o Color is yellow to brown to black
produce a fibrous protein called o Melanin accumulates in membrane-
keratin bound granules called melanosomes
o Avascular o Amount of melanin produced
o Composed of five layers (strata) depends upon genetics and exposure
▪ Summary of layers of the epidermis from to sunlight
deepest to most superficial ▪ Epidermal dendritic cells
o Stratum basale o Alert and activate immune cells to a
o Stratum spinosum threat (bacterial or viral invasion)
o Stratum granulosum ▪ Merkel cells
o Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin o Associated with sensory nerve
only) endings
o Stratum corneum o Serve as touch receptors called
Merkel discs
▪ Dermis
Layers of the Skin o Connective tissue
▪ Stratum basale (stratum germinativum) o Underlies the epidermis
o Deepest layer of epidermis ▪ Two layers of the dermis
o Lies next to dermis o Papillary layer (upper dermal region)
o Wavy borderline with the dermis contain projections called dermal
anchors the two together papillae
o Cells undergoing mitosis ▪ Indent the epidermis above
o Daughter cells are pushed upward to ▪ Many projections contain
become the more superficial layers capillary loops, and others
▪ Stratum spinosum house pain and touch
o Cells become increasingly flatter and receptors
more keratinized ▪ On palm and sole surfaces,
▪ Stratum granulosum papillae increase friction and
▪ Stratum lucidum gripping ability
o Formed from dead cells of the deeper
strata
▪ Fingerprints are identifying
o Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of
films of sweat

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▪ Two layers of the dermis (continued) palms and soles
o Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) o Produce sebum (oil)
▪ Blood vessels ▪ Makes skin soft and moist
▪ Sweat and oil glands ▪ Prevents hair from becoming
▪ Deep pressure receptors brittle
(lamellar corpuscles) ▪ Kills bacteria
▪ Other dermal features o Most have ducts that empty into hair
o Cutaneous sensory receptors follicles; others open directly onto
o Phagocytes skin surface
o Collagen and elastic fibers o Glands are activated at puberty
o Blood vessels

Appendages of the Skin

Skin Color ▪ Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
▪ Three pigments contribute to skin color o Produce sweat
1. Melanin o Widely distributed in skin
▪ Yellow, reddish brown, or black ▪ Two types of sudoriferous glands
pigments 1. Eccrine glands
2. Carotene 2. Apocrine glands
▪ Orange-yellow pigment from ▪ Eccrine glands
some vegetables o Open via duct to sweat pores on the
3. Hemoglobin skin’s surface
▪ Red coloring from blood cells o Produce acidic sweat
in dermal capillaries ▪ Water, salts, vitamin C, traces
▪ Oxygen content determines of metabolic waste
the extent of red coloring o Function in body temperature
▪ Redness (erythema)—due to regulation
embarrassment, inflammation, hypertension, ▪ Apocrine glands
fever, or allergy o Ducts empty into hair follicles in the
▪ Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress armpit and genitals
(such as fear), anemia, low blood pressure, o Begin to function at puberty
impaired blood flow to an area o Release sweat that also contains
▪ Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver fatty acids and proteins (milky or
disorder yellowish color)
▪ Bruises (black and blue marks)— o Play a minimal role in body
hematomas temperature regulation

Appendages of the Skin ▪ Hair

▪ Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands o Produced by hair follicle
o Sebaceous glands o Root is enclosed in the follicle
o Sweat glands o Shaft projects from the surface of the
▪ Hair scalp or skin
▪ Hair follicles o Consists of hard keratinized epithelial
▪ Nails cells
▪ Sebaceous (oil) glands o Melanocytes provide pigment for hair
o Located all over the skin except for color

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 o Hair grows in the matrix of the hair hair follicles
bulb in stratum basale ▪ Carbuncles are clusters of
▪ Hair anatomy boils caused by bacteria
o Central medulla o Cold sores (fever blisters)
o Cortex surrounds medulla ▪ Caused by human herpesvirus
o Cuticle on outside of cortex 1
▪ Most heavily keratinized region ▪ Blisters itch and sting
of the hair ▪ Infections and allergies (continued)
▪ Associated hair structures o Contact dermatitis
o Hair follicle ▪ Caused by exposure to
▪ Composed of an epithelial root chemicals that provoke allergic
sheath and fibrous sheath responses
▪ Dermal region provides a ▪ Itching, redness, and swelling
blood supply to the hair bulb of the skin
(deepest part of the follicle) o Impetigo
▪ Arrector pili muscle connects ▪ Caused by bacterial infection
to the hair follicle to pull hairs ▪ Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions
upright when we are cold or around mouth/nose
frightened o Psoriasis
▪ Nails ▪ Triggered by trauma, infection,
o Heavily keratinized, scale like hormonal changes, or stress
modifications of the epidermis ▪ Red, epidermal lesions
o Stratum basale extends beneath the covered with dry, silvery scales
nail bed, which is responsible for that itch, burn, crack, or
growth sometimes bleed
o Lack of pigment makes nails ▪ Burns
colorless o Tissue damage and cell death
▪ Parts of a nail caused by heat, electricity, UV
o Free edge radiation, or chemicals
o Body is the visible attached portion o Associated dangers
o Nail folds are skin folds that overlap ▪ Protein denaturation and cell
the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the death
proximal edge ▪ Dehydration and electrolyte
o Root of nail is embedded in skin imbalance
o Growth of the nail occurs from nail ▪ Circulatory shock
matrix o Result in loss of body fluids and
infection from the invasion of bacteria
▪ Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin of nines
▪ Infections and allergies o Body is divided into 11 areas for
o Athlete’s foot quick estimation
▪ Caused by fungal infection o Each area represents about 9
(Tinea pedis) percent of total body surface area
▪ Itchy, red peeling skin between ▪ The area surrounding the
the toes genitals (the perineum)
o Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles represents 1 percent of body
▪ Caused by inflammation of

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 surface area invaded other body areas
▪ First-degree burn (superficial burn) ▪ Most common types of skin cancer
o Only epidermis is damaged o Basal cell carcinoma
o Skin is red and swollen o Squamous cell carcinoma
▪ Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn) o Malignant melanoma
o Epidermis and superficial part of ▪ Basal cell carcinoma
dermis are damaged o Least malignant and most common
o Skin is red, painful, and blistered type of skin cancer
o Regrowth of the epithelium can occur o Arises from cells in stratum basale
▪ Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) that are altered so that they can no
o Destroys epidermis and dermis; longer make keratin
burned area is painless o Lesions appear as shiny, dome-
o Requires skin grafts, as regeneration shaped nodules that develop a
is not possible central ulcer
o Burned area is blanched (gray-white) ▪ Squamous cell carcinoma
or black o Believed to be induced by UV
▪ Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn) exposure
o Extends into deeper tissues (bone, o Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
muscle, tendons) o Lesions appear as scaly, reddened
o Appears dry and leathery papules that gradually form shallow
o Requires surgery and grafting ulcers
o May require amputation o Early removal allows a good chance
of cure
o Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin removed
▪ Criteria for deeming burns critical (if anyone ▪ Malignant melanoma
is met): o Most deadly of skin cancers, but
o Over 30 percent of body has second- accounts for only 5 percent of skin
degree burns cancers
o Over 10 percent of the body has o Arises from melanocytes
third- or fourth-degree burns o Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and
o Third- or fourth-degree burns of the blood vessels
face, hands, or feet, or genitals o Detection uses ABCDE rule for
o Burns affect the airways recognizing melanoma
o Circumferential (around the body or ▪ Malignant melanoma (continued)
limb) burns have occurred o A = Asymmetry
▪ Skin cancer ▪ Two sides of pigmented mole
o Most common form of cancer in do not match
humans o B = Border irregularity
o Most important risk factor is ▪ Borders of mole are not
overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) smooth
radiation in sunlight and tanning beds o C = Color
▪ Different colors in pigmented
▪ Cancer can be classified two ways area
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) o D = Diameter
has not spread ▪ Spot is larger than 6 mm in
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has

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 diameter
o E = Evolution
▪ One or more of the ABCD
characteristics is evolving

Developmental Aspects of Skin and

Body Membranes
▪ Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by
the fifth or sixth month of fetal development
but disappears by birth
▪ Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is
apparent at birth
▪ Milia, small white spots, are common at birth
and disappear by the third week
▪ Acne may appear during adolescence

Developmental Aspects of Skin and

Body Membranes
▪ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well
hydrated
▪ With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
▪ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin
exposed to excessive sunlight
▪ Balding and/or graying occurs with aging;
both are genetically determined; other
factors that may contribute include drugs
and emotional stress

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