PHY 102/112: GENERAL PHYSICS II

Part 3 Modern Physics

• PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 X-rays
 Compton’s effect
 Wave particle duality
 The Bohr atom
 Examples
 Practice questions
 Assignment
Introduction
An atom is the basic unit of matter which consists of a
dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons. The nucleus is a combination of
positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons
(except hydrogen which is the only known stable nuclide with
no neutrons). Likewise, a group of atoms are bound to each
other by chemical bonds as a result of the same
electromagnetic force, forming a molecule. An atom is said
to be electrically neutral if it contains an equal number of
protons and electrons, otherwise it is positively or negatively
charged and is called an ion. While the number of protons
determines the chemical element, the number of neutrons
determines the isotope of the element.
•Emission of Electrons
An electron emission is the process when an electron escapes from a metal surface. Every
atom has a positively charged nuclear part and negatively charged electrons around it. In
most cases, these electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus. hence, a little push or taps sets
these electrons flying out of their orbits. An example of such emission is a hot cathode which
is used to produce a supply of electrons. The (fig1) shows a tungsten filament (the cathode)
inside a vacuum. The filament is heated to a high temperature when a low voltage source is
connected to it. The thermal velocities of the free electrons in the metal will increase as the
temperature of the metal is raised. Some of these electrons will escape from the attraction of
the positive ions, fixed in the lattice. This process is called thermionic emission. The electrons
travel unhindered through the vacuum to the anode. The electrons are attracted by the
positive potential on the anode. The electrons are also called cathode rays because they
came from the cathode inside the tube producing them.

The properties of the cathode rays or electrons include:

1.They travel in a straight line.
2.They produce heat when incident on a metal. Which means they have energy.
3.Electrons are particles which carry a negative charge.
Fig. 1: Thermionic emission
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other
free carriers when light shines on a material. Electrons emitted
in this manner can be photoelectrons. This phenomenon is
commonly studied in electronic physics as well in fields of
chemistry.

Alkali metals such as sodium, potassium and caesium can be

made to emit electrons by visible light. Other materials require
light of higher frequency(ultraviolet).

This occurs when light shines on a metal and electrons are

found to be emitted from the surface. Light is incident on a
metal surface known as photocathode.
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

• The photoelectric effect is explained by

assuming that light is emitted in discrete packets
called quanta or photons. The energy (E) carried
by a quantum of radiation is proportional to its
frequency(f), i. e
E = hf ………….(1)
where the proportionality constant h, called planck’s
constant has the value 6.63x 10-34 Js. If an electron
of mass M receives an amount of energy which is
greater than the work function (ɸ) from incident
radiation of frequency F,
the balance of the energy is converted into kinetic energy of
the emitted electron, i.e
Energy of incident radiation = work function + maximum K.E
of electron, or
hf= ɸ+1/2Mvm2 ……………..(2)

Where Vm is the maximum velocity of an ejected electron.

Equation 2 is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Note that the maximum velocity of the photoelectron is

independent of the intensity of incident radiation. However,
the number of ejected electrons increases with increasing
intensity of radiation.
• Properties of the photoelectric effect
1. Light shined on some metals emits electrons
2. Electrons are ejected immediately, there is no significant delay
3. The distribution of energies of emitted electrons does not depend on the
intensity of the light.
4. Whether electrons are emitted at all depends on the frequency of the light
being high enough.
5. The maximum kinetic energy depends only on the frequency of the light.

• Note that Einstein’s submission on photoelectric effect is that light

consists of bundles of energy, photons. the maximum energy of an
emitted electron is equal to the energy of a photon for frequency f i.e E
=hf, minus the energy required to eject an electron from the metal’s
surface, this means that it takes only one photon to eject an electron, so
the intensity of photons is not the main thing but if the energy of not one
of the photons is great enough. For an electron to be ejected to be
ejected from the surface of a metal, enough energy must be applied to
break its bond with the atom from which it originates.
Examples
• The metal of work function 500x10-9 m is
incident on the surface of a metal in a
photoelectric cell. The metal has a work
function of 2.0ev. Calculate
I. The maximum energy of the emitted
photoelectrons
II. The velocity of these electrons.
III. The smallest potential difference applied
to the cell just to prevent photo emission
of electrons.
I. From equation 2 we can also write Einstein’s
photoelectric equation as
E=1/2mv2=hf- wo in terms of wavelength,
where C= ʎf
E=hc/ʎ - wo
h=6.6x10-34Js,
e=1.6x10 10-19C, m=9.1x 10-31, wo =2x1.6x 10-19
E=0.76x10 10-19J

ii. From 1/2Mv2= 0.76x10-19

V=√2x0.76x10-19/m= 4.1x105ms-1

iii. Stopping potential Vs is given by: eVs=max energy of

electrons
Vs=0.76 x 10-9/ 1.6 x10-19 = 0,48 volts
2. Calculate the frequency and wavelength
of photons having an energy of a. 1.80ev
b. 2.5kev.
a. f= E/h = 4.34 x1014 Hz
ʎ=c/f= 6.91x10-7m

b. f= 2.5x103 x 1.6x10-19/6.63 x10-34 =6.0X

1017Hz
ʎ=c/f =5.0 x10-10
Assignment
• If a photoemission surface has a
threshold wavelength of 0.65 μm ,
calculate its threshold frequency and the
maximum speed of the electron emitted
by violet light of wavelength 0.4 μm.
• The kinetic energy of photoelectrons
emitted by ultraviolet light of wavelength
1.0x10-7m from the surface of aluminium
is 1.34x10-18 J. Determine the energy of
the photons of Ultraviolet light and the
work function of aluminium.
• calculate the frequency of the photon
whose energy is required to eject a
surface electron with a kinetic energy of
1.97x 10 10-16ev if the work done of the
metal is1.33x 10-6ev.

• Einstein’s photoelectric equation can be

written as E=hf- hfo what does each
symbol represent?
 X-rays
• x-rays are electromagnetic radiation of
wavelength of the order of 10-10m .They are
produced when fast moving electrons hit a
metal target in a high voltage vacuum tube.
The fast moving electrons are slowed down
in the target ,thus releasing part of their
energy as photons(x-rays) of variable
energy and frequency. X-rays can penetrate
many materials of considerable thickness,
pass through electric or magnetic fields
undeflected, and are detected by their
effects on a flourescent screen or
photographic plate.
• The maximum frequency of x rays produced by
moving electrons depends on the kinetic energy of
the electrons at the moment of impingement on
the target. For electrons of mass m moving with
velocity v, x rays of maximum frequency f are
produced such that the energy of the x ray
photons = k.e of the electrons , i.e
• hf= 1/2mv 2…………….3

In an x ray tube, the electrons upon being emitted

from the cathode must be accelerated to the
target(anode) through the potential difference . The
work done on the electron is equal to the electronic
charge x p.d, and this must be equal to the K.E of the
electron at the moment it hits the target, i.e
eV= 1/2mv2……………………..4
• Like light waves, x-rays can be diffracted
when they encounter obstacles whose
dimensions are comparable to the x-ray
wavelength. In particular, x-rays of
wavelength are diffracted by atomic planes
in crystals in accordance with the Bragg
equation.
• nλ = 2dsinθ ………5
where d is the distance between the
reflecting planes, θ is the angle between the
planes and the incident ray beam and n= 1,2,
3…….. Is an integer which indicates the order
of reflection .
 USES OF X-RAYS
• In medicine for examining bones, teeth
and various internal organs.

• In industry for revealing flaws in metals

and welded joints.

• For identifying the internal structure of

solids.
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
• Suppose a beam of x-rays of wavelength λ
are made to make an impact on a particle,
such as an electron, of mass m.
Scattered electron

Incident photon
Φ
Point of collision
Scattered photon, wavelength
ʎ′

It is observed that some of the radiation is scattered ,i.e Φ

deflected at an angle from the original direction .fig above.
•
 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
•
•
•
 F=1e2/4π εor2 …..b2
while the centripetal force is mv2/r2……..b3
Hence,
1e2/4π εor2 =mv2/r2 combining the
equation above with eq (a) gives radius of the nth
orbit as
rn = εоn2h2/mπe2 ………..(c) .The energy of the
electron in the nth orbit is the sum of its k.e and
its p.e and is given by
En= - 1/ε2o me4/8n2h2 ……..(d)
• Substituting for the values of ε ,m,e and h o

gives

En= - 13.6/n2 eV…………..(e)

The lowest energy level, n=1 is called the ground state

which corresponds to the smallest possible orbit (i.e.
smallest r). Higher energy levels (n=2,3,4…..) are referred to
as excited states.
• EXAMPLES
1. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons
emitted by ultraviolet light of wavelength 1.0
x10-7m from the surface of aluminium is 1.34
x 10-18 J .Determine the energy of the
photons of ultraviolet light and the work
function of aluminium.
Solution
 Energy of UV photons=hc/λ=12.4eV
 k.E of the photoelectrons=
1.34x10-18/1.6x10-19= 8.35ev,work
function=energy of UV photons-k.e of
photoelectrons=12.4-8.35=4.05eV
2. A tungsten arc emitting radiation of wavelength
3000A is employed to eject photoelectrons from a
silver surface having a work function of 2.3eV .
calculate the value of the potential needed to stop
the fastest moving photoelectrons.
Solution
Energy of the emitted radiation is E=hc/λ=4.14eV
Maximum K.E of the photoelectrons=E-ɸ=1.84Ev
If the potential V is needed to stop the electrons,
then eV=max.K.E of the electrons
eV=1.84x1.6x10-19J
V= 1.84x1.6x10-19J/1.6x10-19=1.84V
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A metal having a work function of 5.76eV is
illuminated with a radiation of 7.88eV. The K.E of
the electrons emitted from the metal is ………….
2. Calculate the threshold wavelength of caesium.
The work function is 1.9eV.
3. The stopping potential for electrons ejected by
6.8x1014 Hz electromagnetic radiation incident
on a certain sample is 1.8V. The kinetic energy
of the most energetic electrons ejected and the
work function of the sample is …….
4. What is the frequency of a light wave whose
wavelength is 5x10-7 m and velocity is 1x108m/
s.
 ASSIGNMENT
• A metal with a work function of 2eV when illuminated with light
produces photoelectrons which have a stopping potential of 3
volts. Calculate the wavelength of the light used.

• The anode to cathode potential difference of an x-ray tube is

maintained at 40kV, calculate minimum wavelength of the
continuous x-ray spectrum produced.

• Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for a proton of

mass1.67x10-27kg moving with a speed of 4x105m/s and the
wavelength of a ball of mass 80g moving with a speed of 25m/s.

• Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron which has

fallen through a potential difference of 100v.