The advancement of CEB into the construction

industry has been driven by manufacturers of

FRENTS TECHNOLOGY
the mechanical presses, a small group of eco-
. friendly contractors and by cultural acceptance
of the medium in areas where it is seen as
General Description superior to adobe.
✓ Frents Block an interlocking hollow blocks, a The advantages of CEB are in the wait time for
non-load bearing wall material manufactured by material, the elimination of shipping cost, the
Frents Housing Settlement, Inc. ..Technical low moisture content, and the uniformity of the
Information block thereby minimizing, if not eliminating the
✓ use of mortar and decreasing both the labor
and materials cost.
Production capacity: 500 pieces per day.

Compressive strength at 28 days curing time: ⚫ CEB can be pressed from humid earth.
217 psi Flexural strength at 28 days curing time: Because it is not wet, the drying time is much
11 psi shorter. Some conditions permit the block to go
straight from the press onto the wall. A single
✓ Diagonal shear strength at 28 days curing mechanical press can produce from 800 to over
time: 13 psi 5,000 blocks per day, enough to build a 110
Construction time of 8 to 9 square meter wall: square meter house in one day.
1.89 hours Shipping cost: Suitable soils are often available
✓ Direct Cost per square meter as of 1991: P at or near the construction site. Adobe and CEB
217.49 per square meter are of similar weight, but distance from a source
supply gives CEB an advantage. Also, CEB can be
✓ Frents Block came out to be the most cost- made available in places where adobe
efficient. It used the least amount of materials manufacturing operations are non- existent.
and the second least labor cost to build a 1
square meter wall. Uniformity: CEB can be manufactured to a
predictable size and has true flat sides and 90
COMPRESSED EARTH BLOCKS degree angle edges. This makes design and
costing easier. This also provides the contractor
Compressed Earth Block often referred to simply
the option of making the exterior look like
as CEB, are a type of manufactured construction
conventional stucco houses.
material formed in a mechanical press that
forms an approximate mix of dirt, non- CEB had very limited use prior to the 1980s. It
expensive clay, and an aggregate into a was known in the 1950s in South America,
compressed block. CEB blocks are installed onto where the Cinva Ram was developed by a
the wall by hand and slurry made of a soupy Colombian Engineer. The Cinva Ram is a lever-
version of the same dirt/clay mix, sand action, manual press that makes one block at a
aggregate, is spread or brushed very thinly time.
between the blocks for bonding. There is no use
of mortar in the traditional sense. During the 1980s, soil-pressing technology
became widespread. France, England, Germany
and Switzerland began to write standards. The
peace Corps, USAID, Habitat for Humanity and stucco wire/ stucco cement and or lime plaster.
other programs began to implement it into Stabilized blocks create a brick wall that if
housing projects. properly stabilized can be left exposed with no
outer plaster finish.
Construction method is simple. Less skilled
labor is required; wall construction can be done Foundations: Standards for foundations are
with unskilled labor encouraging self- sufficiency similar to those for brick walls. A CEB wall is
and community involvement. If the blocks are heavy. Footings must be at least 10" thick, with
stabilized with cement and or fly ash, they can a minimum width that is 33% greater than the
be used as bricks and assembled using standard wall width. If a stem wall is used, it shall extend
masonry techniques of brick-laying. to an elevation not less than 8" (203mm) above
the exterior finish grade. Rubble-filled
Soil mix conditions: The soil mix is 15% - 40%
foundation trench designs with a reinforced
non-expansive clay, 25%-40% silt powder, and
concrete grade beam above are allowed to
sharp sand to small gravel content of 40% -70%.
support CEB construction.
The more modem machines do not require
aggregate (rock) to make a strong soil block for The CEB code is different from the adobe code
most applications. Soil moisture content ranges in numerous aspects. For instance, the CEB code
from 4% to 12% by weight. Clay with a plasticity allows slip mortars and permit blocks ejected
index (PI) of up to 25 or 30 would be acceptable from a press to go directly to the wall.
for most applications. The Pl of the mixed soil
CEB Strength: Using ASTM D1633-00
(clay, silt and sand/gravel combined) should not
stabilization standard, a pressed and cured
exceed 12 to 15; that is the difference between
block must be submerged in water for four
the Upper and Lower Atterburg Limits, as
hours. It is then pulled from the water and
determined by laboratory testing.
immediately subjected to a compression test.
The blocks must score at least 300 pound-force
per square inch (psi) minimum. This is a higher
Other Advantages standard than for adobe, which must score an
✓ Non-toxic: materials are completely natural average minimum of 300 psi.
and do not out-gas toxic materials. It must be emphasized that the compressive
strength minimums for code compliance are
✓ Sound resistant: an important feature in high-
nothing like the true strength of CEB blocks.
density neighborhoods, residential areas
New Mexico only sought to assure that CEB
adjacent to industrial zones
would be at least as strong as adobe. The blocks
Fire resistant: earthen walls do not burn are strong. CEB can have a compressive strength
as high as 2000 psi. Blocks with compressive
Insect resistant: the walls are solid and very
strengths of 1200 psi to 1400 psi are common.
dense, discouraging insects
Thermal advantages: Also, due to the enormous
Mold resistant: there is no cellulose material
mass, these are monolithic walls CEB has
such as in wood, oriented strand board or
excellent thermal performance, reducing
drywall that can host mold. Completed walls
heating and cooling costs.
require either a reinforced bond beam or a ring
beam on top or between floors (8") and if the Thermal testing" From May 31 to June 3, 2004,
blocks are un-stabilized a plaster finish, usually the Biology Department of Southwest Texas
Junior College, Del Rio, Texas, conducted tests Use:
for thermal change on three structures:
Exterior and Interior Facing Panels
concrete blocks, adobe and compressed earth
block. Results indicate the interior temperature Wall Type:
of the adobe and CEB modules were
significantly lower than for concrete blocks. Masonry, metal framed.
With a minimum ambient temperature of 107° F •
(42°C), the interior temperatures were:
Size:
Concrete Module: 111° F (44° C) (4° F above
ambient) •

Adobe Module: 95° F (35° C) •

CEB Module: 91° F (33° C) 1.20 meters x 2.40 meters x 1⁄2 inch thickness

The CEB module was consistently cooler inside Exterior Face:

than the adobe by approximately 3° Finish Options: Integral Finish in porcelain
CEB's strongest market in the USA is probably enamel, siliconized polymers in anodized color.
New Mexico, which has incorporated the Backing:
method into its Earth Building Code Family. The
first CEB Code Development meeting in New Integral with face of Rigid Boards: plywood,
Mexico took place last December 12, 2001. hardboard, cement-bound mineral fiber.
Code work was completed in June 10, 2002, and Insulation commonly used: urethane,
molded into New Mexico's new section, R1100 isocyanurate, polystyrene; perlite.
Earthen Building Materials.
Joints:

Framed or moldings.
CEMENT WOOD Type: .
Composite: Laminated Method of Attachment:

⚫ Description:
Face: Screws or nails. Back: Clips or screws

Remarks:
•
Edges of cement-bound mineral fiber board
Facing Panel: Rigid Boards or heavier gauge faced panels commonly open. Edges of metal
metal sheets laminated to an insulating core of faced panels generally closed and formed to:
various thicknesses. May be made interlock; to receive gaskets; or to fit a curtain
sufficiently rigid to function as wall panels; or wall grid system.
sufficiently thin to be used as glazing panels. NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN CONSTRUCTION
Edges may be formed or open. MATERIALS

⚫ Roofing System
Exterior Face:

Base Material: Cement-Bound Mineral Fiber

✓ Tensile Structure The concept was later pioneered by German
Architect and Engineer Frei Otto, who first used
A tensile structure is a construction of elements the idea in the construction of the German
carrying only tension and no compression or Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. Otto next used
bending. The term tensile should not be the idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for
confused with tensegrity, which is a structural the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.
form with both tension and compression
elements. Membrane Materials

Most tensile structures are supported by some Common materials for doubly-curved fabric
form of compression or bending elements, such structures are PTFE coated fiberglass and PVC
as masts (as in The O2, formerly the Millenium coated polyester. These are woven materials
Dome), compression rings or beams. with different strengths in different directions.
The warp fibers (those fibers which are
Tensile membrane structures are most often originally straight-equivalent to the starting
used as roofs as they can economically and fibers on a loom) can carry greater load than the
attractively span large distances. History weft or fill fibers, which are woven between the
This form of construction has only become well warp fibers.
understood and widespread in large structures Cables
in the latter part of the 20th century. Tensile
structures have long been used in tents, where Cables can be of mild steel, high strength
the guy ropes provide pre-tension to the fabric (drawn carbon steel), stainless steel polyester or
& allow it to withstand loads. Russian Engineer aramid fibers. Structural cables are made of a
Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to develop series of small strands twisted or bound
practical calculations of stresses and together to form a much larger cable. Steel
deformations of tensile structures, shells and cables
membranes. Shukhov designed 8 tensile
are either spiral strand, where circular rods are
structures and thin-shell structures exhibition
twisted together and "glued" using polymer, or
pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1986
locked coil stand, where individual interlocking
covering an area of 27,000 square miles. A very
steel strands form the cable (often with a spiral
early large-scale use of a membrane-covered
strand core).
tensile structure is the Sidney Myer Music Bowl,
constructed in 1958. ✓ Pretension

Pretension is tension artificially induced in the

structural elements in addition to any self-
✓ weight or imposed loads they carry. It is used to
Antonio Gaudi used the concept in reverse to ensure that the normally very flexible structural
create a compression-only structure for the elements remain stiff under all possible loads.
Colonia Guell Church. He created a hanging BIRDAIR
tensile model of the church to calculate the MILLENIUM DOME (zakgollop)
compression forces and to experimentally
determine the column and vault geometries. Building Type Exhibition Space Architectural
Style Structural

System Steel & Tension Fabric

Location: Drawdock Road, Millenium Way sanitation processes human waste to recover
nutrients that would otherwise be discharged.
Greenwich Peninsula, London
The Ecosan Waterless Toilet Solution
England Construction Completed 1999
Affordable water free toilet system
Design Team: Architect Rogers
No sewage pipe network and sewage treatment
Structural Engineer: Buro Happold Services
plants required No effluent seepage into
Prices: Royal Academy of Engineering underground water resources Minimum
MacRobert Award monthly operating costs

PTFE or polytetrafluoroethylene, is a Teflon®- How does it work?

coated woven fiberglass membrane that is
The following is a brief description of the
extremely durable and weather resistant. The
ECOSAN toilet concept as well as it's main
woven fiberglass gives the PTFE membrane its
features.
mechanical strength. The principal element that
differentiates PTFE membrane from The human excrement falls down a vertical
conventional glazing is its advantageous shading chute (2) and into one end of a specially
coefficient. Since the company's inception more designed helical screw conveyor (3). Every time
than 50 years ago, Birdair has been committed the toilet lid (1) is lifted, a mechanism rotates
to technological development of structural the conveyor. With each rotation the human
fabric projects. excrement slowly moves along, taking
approximately 25 days before falling into a
Birdair's fabric membranes are reaping the
reusable collection bag (4). It takes six months
benefit of its inherent flexibility, the membranes
for the bag to fill with dry odorless waste.
acts like an exterior skin, it provides building
envelopes with weather-proof protection not Through the uniquely designed ventilation (5),
normally associated with such lightweight adequate airflow is provided for the
engineering. dehydration/evaporation, deodorizing process.
Human excrement consists of roughly 95%
Birdair has been creating spectacular tensile
moisture. As the solids dry in the conveyor the
architecture systems and steel cable structures
urine and moisture is vented into the
for more than 50 years.
atmosphere. The solid waste then dries into a
compost-like material, roughly 5-10% of its
original mass
Plumbing Fixture: Waterless Toilet
The dry waste is manageable and can be
Ecosan (Pit Toilet or Outdoor Toilet) Ecological processed in the following ways. - Use it in the
sanitation, also known as Ecosan or Eco-San, is a making of compost
modern alternative to conventional sanitation
techniques. The objectives are to offer - Dispose of it by using municipal waste services
economically and ecologically sustainable and - Use it as a source of fuel
culturally acceptable systems that aim to close
the natural nutrient and water cycle. Unlike INSTALLATION DIAGRAM OF ECOSAN
most traditional sanitation methods, ecological DIAGRAM OF OW ECOSAN WORKS
- Completely closed system LDPE-Low Density Poly-Ethylene

- No obnoxious odors 90 kilograms

- Indoor or outdoor installation - Plumbing free The toilet's main features are:

⚫ Relatively lightweight and easy to move into

solution

n
position during installation. Does not require
Large objects like beverage cans, disposable any type of flushing mechanism, no mechanical
nappies or other objects accidentally dropped risk failure No water, no plumbing, no sewer
down the chute will not block the system. It is connections, no use of chemical
however not advisable to do this.

Features

Extractor Fans • Wind Turbine

Introduction to Ecological Sanitation
0
Ecological sanitation (Ecosan) offers a new
. No plumbing required
philosophy of dealing with what is presently
No drains, No Pipes regarded as waste and wastewater. Ecosan is
based on the systematic implementation of
• Solar Turbine
reuse and recycling of nutrients and water as a
• Water free hygienically safe, closed-loop and holistic
alternative to conventional sanitation solutions.
. Low odor levels
Ecosan systems enable the recovery of nutrients
o Chemical free from human faeces and urine for the benefit of
. Relatively light and easy to install agriculture, thus helping to preserve soil
fertility, assure food security for future
ECOSAN Waterless Toilet Specifications generations, minimize water pollution and
. Wind Turbine recover bio-energy. They ensure that water is
used economically and is recycled in a safe way
Length: greatest possible extent for purposes such as
irrigation or groundwater recharge. History of
2450 mm
Reuse Oriented Sanitation Approaches
Width:
The recovery and use of urine and faeces has
630 mm been practiced over millennia by almost all
cultures. The uses were not limited to
Height:
agricultural production, like the Romans who
750 mm above floor level - Toilet bowl were well aware of the disinfecting attributes of
urine and also used it for washing clothes. The
Material:
most widely known example of diligent
Weight: collection and use of human excreta in
agriculture is China.
1120 mm-Height of catchment drum at back
Elaborate systems were developed in urban Panglao Island Bohol Province
centers in Yemen enabling the separation of
The Ecosan Project in Panglao Island, Bohol
urine and excreta even in multi-storey buildings.
Province is implemented by the Water,
Faeces were collected from toilets via a vertical
Sanitation and Solid Waste Program of the
drop shafts while urine did not enter the shaft
German Technical Assistance (GTZ). Its urine
but passed instead along a channel leading
diverting toilet and wash bowl are made of
through the wall to the outside where it
cement.
evaporated. Faeces were not used in agriculture
but were dried & burnt as fuel. In Mexico & Balit Infirmary Hospital Agusan del Sur
Peru, the great Aztec & Inca cultures collected
human excreta for agricultural use. In the The Balit Infirmary Hospital, a 15- bed hospital
middle ages the use of excreta & grey water was in Agusan del Sur, where Ecosan toilets are also
the norm. The practice of using the nutrients in installed.
excreta & wastewater for agriculture continued Bgy. San Agustin
in Europe till the middle of the 19th century.
Increasing number of researches carried out in Bgy. Nagyubuyuban
Sweden as well as in Zimbabwe, Netherlands, Province of Negros Oriental
Norway & Germany. ✓ Where to Find Ecosan in
the Philippines Panglao Island

In the Philippines, Ecosan is becoming a by-word Balit Infirmary

among sanitation practitioners and advocates. Ecosan toilets are also installed in Bayawan City
Ecosan was first introduced by the Center for and Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. The
Advanced Philippine Studies (CAPS) in a pilot Ecosan Projects in these cities are implemented
scale in Tingloy, Batangas at the beginning of with assistance from the GTZ-Water Program
the new millennium. Since then several and the Ceneter for Advanced Philippine Studies
programs and initiatives were pursued. (CAPS).
Successful projects under the Integrated Cagayan de Oro
Support for Sustainable Urban Environment
(ISSUE) supported by WASTE of the Netherlands The Peri-Urban Vegetable Project (PUVEP) in
through CAPS and the Philippine-German Cagayan de Oro uses the collected by-products
Cooperation; Water Program towards an from the ecosan toilets for its demo-farm.
Integrated Water Resources Management
Project Examples Globally
implemented Ecosan Technology in various
places in the Philippines. Gunaxi Province, China. Large scale project of
urine diverting dehydration toilets with the
Province of La Union
support of UNICEF, SIDA and the RED CROSS and
San Fernando City has been expanded to 17 provinces until the
year 2003.
The Ecosan Project in San Fernando City is
implemented by the ISSUE Program of the KW, Frankfurt, Germany. Vacuum toilets +
WASTE, The Netherlands. It is implemented in greywater treatment. Sanitation concept of the
two pilot barangays, San Agustin and modern office building "Ostakarde" KfW
Nagyubuyuban. Bankengruppe in Frankfurt is based on a
separate excreta & greywater collection.
 In the UK, Green Roofs are often used in built up
city areas where residents and workers often
don't have access to gardens or local parks.
Green Roof They have also been used by companies such as
Rolls Royce, who have one of the biggest green
A green roof is a roof of a building that is roofs in Europe to help their factory blend into
partially or completely covered with vegetation its countryside surroundings.
and soil, or a growing medium, planted over a
waterproofing membrane. This does not refer to Growing Medium
roofs which are merely colored green, as with Damage Aeration er krage Fox Ferr
green roof shingles. It may also include
additional layers such as a root barrier, drainage Membrane Ped
and irrigation systems. Green Roofs has becoming common in Chicago,
Container garden on roofs where plants are as well as Atlanta, Portland and other United
maintained in pots are not generally considered States Cities, where their use is encouraged by
to be true green roofs, although this is an area regulations to combat the urban heat island
of debate. Rooftop ponds are another form of effect. In the case of Chicago, the city has
green roofs which are used to treat greywater. passed codes offering incentives to builders who
Finally the term "green roof may also be used to put green roofs on their buildings.
indicate roofs that utilize some form of "green" The Chicago City Hall green roof is one of the
technology, such as solar panels or a earliest and most well- known examples of
photovoltaic module. Green Roofs in the United States; it was planted
Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs, as an experiment to determine the effects a
vegetated roofs, living roofs and greenroofs. green roof would have on the microclimate of
the roof.
Costs
Following this and other studies, it has now
A properly designed and installed Green Roof been estimated that if all the roofs in a major
system can cost 5 to 35 dollars per square city were "greened", urban temperatures could
meter. The cost depends on what kind of roof it be reduced by as much as 7 degrees Celsius.
is, the structure of the building and what plans
to grow on the material that is on top of the Finally, green roofs provide habitat for plants,
roof. In the Spring 2007 of the Green Roof insects and animals that otherwise have limited
Infrastructure Monitor, Jörge Breuning reflects natural spaces in cities. Even in high-rise urban
the wind and fire loads of green roofs and how settings as tall as 19 storeys, it has been found
German insurance companies handle extensive that green roofs can attract beneficial insects,
Green Roofs. birds, bees and butterflies.

In Egypt, soil-less agriculture is used to grow

plants on the roofs of buildings. No soil is placed
directly on the roof itself, thus eliminating the
need for an insulating layer. Instead plants are Design solutions for houses in countries of
grown on wooden tables. Vegetables & fruit are warm humid tropics
the common candidates, providing a healthy
source of pesticide-free food.
Earth has been a sustainable building material to the earth once the inhabitants discontinued
since prehistoric times. In hot, arid regions, the maintenance.
insulating value of mud was suitably efficient.
Traditional solutions in the Philippines setting
The tools and supplies necessary for the
provide large sliding windows with wall
simplest of buildings were minimal - hands,
openings in the form of sliding partitions below.
intelligence, sunshine, and an abundance of
The use of wooden exterior and interior single
mud produced a strong structure. The Dogon
partitions is common. High ceiling are provided
people of Mali still live in villages of mud
for a sense of space and minimal furniture's are
housing in a desert climate.
often adapted. Ground floor is in stone exterior
In the American Southwest, the Anasazi people and second floor in wooden walls.
built high-mass, adobe dwellings in south-facing
Modern Solutions
cliff caves that took advantage of passive solar
heat gain in the winter but that blocked heat The desire of a sustainable dwelling is affected
and sun in the summer. Kivas, or family units by aspects that extend from site planning to
built into existing pueblo structures or partially construction. A sustainable dwelling must not
underground, were fairly comfortable year- only have little environmental impact but must
round, were well ventilated and relied on the also increase the inhabitant's quality of life as
thermal mass of the enclosing earth. Traditional such homes are healthy, comfortable and
Solutions adaptable. Four major components are
incorporated to achieve green buildings.
Subterranean homes were used in traditional
towns and villages in the Chinese loess belt in First, the design must minimize environmental
the provinces of Honnan, Shansi, and Kansu. impacts by using building materials with low
Loess is silt that has been transported and embodied energy and high durability that do
deposited by wind. Soft and porous, it is not compromise the occupant's health or
suitable for carving. The pits of these structures standard of living.
were about one-eighth of an acre (one-
twentieth of a hectare), carved 25 to 30 feet Second, the building envelope (the building
(7.6 to 9 meters) deep. shell through which thermal energy can be
transferred to or from the exterior,
Subterranean buildings in the loess belt of China unconditioned spaces or the ground) must be
conceal structures that, due to the insulative efficient, requiring minimal energy for heating,
properties of the ground, remained warm in the cooling and lighting.
winter and cool in the summer. Apartments of
about 30 feet (9 meters) in depth and 15 feet Third, the use of natural resources, such as
(4.5 meters) in width were accessed through an water and fuel, must be minimal within the
L-shaped staircase from a central courtyard. home; this is a priority that can be
accomplished by incorporating technologies and
The Caribou Inuit, created conical tents of designs such as low-flow toilets and high-
animal hide during the summer, and other efficiency coolers that rely on alternative
northern indigenous cultures, such as the sources of power.
Tareumuit, lived in semi-subterranean houses of
sod or stone. All structures were transportable Lastly, generated waste during construction
or easily re-created and constructed from local should be reduced by building with materials
and often abundant materials that could return that are recyclable or recycled during
production, reducing the environmental impacts and house operating requirements are growing,
and costs associated with waste management. especially in very hot and very cold climates.

Solar Energy By changing unit dimensions, configurations and

size and by grouping homes, the buyer and
Incorporating passive design strategies had
builder's material needs, energy requirements,
active solar features for solar gains in residential
costs and time can all be decreased. This is
design yields a reduction in utility expenses and
accomplished by increasing the ratio of floor
an increase in the occupant's level of comfort.
area to perimeter, which not only reduces
Buildings oriented for maximum sun exposure
inherent heating costs but leads to a simpler
will benefit from greater amounts of daylight,
design that requires less corners, skin and
passive gain in walls and floors, and additional
framing.
benefits from active solar systems such as
photovoltaic's and collectors. Conserving resources and improving the
thermal performance of the envelope through
The most well-known component of active solar
simple, efficient, modular design helps reduce
system is the photovoltaic (PV) panel, which can
energy consumption and waste in any home. By
be installed on any surface with maximum
designing for modular configuration of building
exposure to the sun. Photovoltaic is a renewable
material, such as studs, joists, plywood, and
form of energy obtained by the conversion of
sheetrock, waste from off-cuts is reduced.
light into voltage between two layers of
semiconducting materials, an effect first Vertical stacking, grouping and joining units, and
discovered in the 19th century. size reduction all increase energy efficiency in
the home by limiting the perimeter area,
Solar collectors are popular, less expensive, and
building footprint, and cost per square meter.
even simpler alternatives to capturing the
Vertical stacking also reduces the excavation,
power of the sun. Unlike photovoltaic panels,
foundation requirements, and basement and
solar collectors do not generate electricity.
roof sizes. It also improves energy efficiency as
Instead, they collect the heat of solar radiation
lower levels heat the upper ones.
in air and water for space heating, hot water,
pool Estimated heat loss (kWh)

Roof

Walls

heating, desalination, solar cooking and crop Doors/Windows

drying. They require no pumps or motors to Basement
distribute hot air or water, relying instead on
the building's orientation and the hardware. Infiltration

Home Perimeter and Form Total

At present, construction, renovation and Internal & Solar Heat Gain (kWh)
demolition of housing account for a large
One Floor (Bungalow)
amount of material consumption and direct or
embodied energy required to produce, or One-and-a-half Floor (split-level)
dispose of them. In addition, heating, cooling,
Two Floors (Cottage)
3011 Single Family Detached

2259 Semi-detached

1506 Rowhouse

3505 Roof

4740 1506

5209 1506

6907 1506

6907 Walls

6907 5209

10601 3261

8812 1313

6852 Doors/Windows

13257 6907

12529 6907

10085 6907

37282 Basement

12824 6852

35246 5002

12355 3156

30599 Infiltration

11754 10085

Grouping and joining units also promotes 10085

savings in both construction and energy, as
10085
repetition of design reduces construction time
and sheathing requirements. Heat loss is Total
reduced by 21% when two dwellings are
attached and a further 26% for a middle unit Internal & Solar Heat Gain (kWh)
when three or more units are joined. In Building Materials
addition, utilizing an open plan that minimizes
hallways & little used circulation path will more 30559
use the interior efficiently. 26760
Estimated heat loss (kWh) 11754
11291 the total indoor space is replaced every hour
through leaks in the house membrane,
22967
accounting for about 25% of the dwellings heat
10761 loss.

In examining a building's environmental Although most leakage occurs at areas where

impacts, designers need to consider the energy building materials are joined - such as around
and resources required to produce, use and windows or doors or at intersections of walls,
dispose of building materials. A lifecycle floors and roofs-energy savings can be assured
analysis, also referred to as cradle to grave, of by using proper insulation on either side of the
each product examines energy efficiency, waste structural framing members. Insulating walls will
generation, natural resource pollution, recycled reduce heat flow through leakage,
content, sustainability and costs during infiltration/exfiltration, and thermal bridging, a
acquisition. process by which as much as 10% of the total
heat lost through the envelope is lost via
conduction.

Prefabricated Wall Systems

Minimizing waste of non-recyclable, non- Prefabrication methods can offer many
renewable or toxic building materials and advantages over conventional construction
replacing them with natural, healthier materials methods. The assembly of units, panels, or
is an effective way of reducing the components under factory-controlled conditions
environmental impacts of construction. Many yields a higher quality product that generally
healthier building materials consume less results in more energy efficient homes. Clean up
energy within their lifecycles. Replacing time and material costs are also reduced with
plywood walls with strand board reduces less waste.
embodied energy or sum of all energy
requirements by 59%. Panel Systems

Such improvements illustrate the potential Numerous types of prefabricated systems,

savings and reduction of environmental impact subsystems, ands components can be combined
that a carefully designed and efficient home can at various levels to provide a complete system
achieve using alternative building products such package. Nine types of panel systems are
as linoleum, stone, low-voltaic organic applicable to wood frame residential
compound (VOC) paints, and recycled wallboard construction, which can be divided into 3
(sheetrock). "Greening" the home is becoming categories: Open-Sheathed panels; Structural
more accessible and profitable for the average Sandwich Panels, and; Unsheathed Structural
builder. Panels.

Construction Details Open-Sheathed Panels (OSP) OSP's are available

in many variations. The most common systems
A basic consideration of an energy-efficient are built either with a 1.5 x 5.5 inch studs with
home is the effectiveness of its building plywood or wafer board sheathing, or with 1.5 x
envelope. In addition to protection from the 3.5 inch studs and extruded polystyrene
elements, a building envelope must also provide sheathing.
structural support. In a typical home, about 1⁄2 of
Structural Sandwich Panels (SSP) Also know and Coupled with edge losses from the glazing unit,
foam core panels, SSPS consists of a core rigid conductive heat loss through the window can
foam insulation that is laminated between two account for up to 20% of the total heat losses
facing materials. In its most basic form, the from the window unit. The selection of an
sheathing materials may be plywood or wafer appropriate framing material is, therefore not
board. simply a question of appearance. Wood, for
instance is a good insulator, but easily damaged
Unsheathed Structural Panels (USP) USPS or
and requires higher maintenance.
composite panels, are built using a combination
of wood or metal structural elements combined Metal (aluminum) requires much less
with rigid foam insulation infill, usually maintenance but is a good conductor. Plastic
expanded polystyrene. Horizontal chases for (vinyl) frames are maintenance free but, like
electrical wiring are often cut into the metal frames, are susceptible to temperature
insulation. Quality and Energy Efficiency changes. Combining these materials take
advantage of the thermal qualities of wood
One of the biggest advantages of prefabricated
while protecting it with either vinyl or aluminum
panel systems is the superior level of quality
and reducing maintenance requirements.
that can be achieved through the manufacturing
process. The quality of prefabricated wall
systems can be evaluated in terms of three
interrelated characteristics: craftsmanship,
technical performance and durability. Effect of Frame Material on Energy
The system's craftsmanship governs its potential Consumption
to achieve consistent levels of performance Frame Material
from one application to another. The wall's
technical performance, particularly with respect Thermal
to its air tightness, will affect the rate of
Resistance
deterioration due to condensation. Fire and
sound resistance, critical for partition walls, will Heat Loss
contribute to the quality of the unit's interior
R-Value (RSI)
environment. The panel's durability depends on
the various materials' resistance to elements (W)
and on the probability of exposure to these
given the panels' designs. ⚫Thermally broken aluminum
Windows
2.8 (0.49)
Heat loss through the building envelope can
1307
occur via conduction, convection and radiation.
In all three cases, windows are the weakest Wood or wood clad
links, and as such, they represent the most
important investment in the construction or 3.4 (0.59)
renovation of any dwelling. Three factors should 1093
be considered in selecting window units: the
frame type and material, the glazing unit, and Vinyl
the spacer bar.
3.9 (0.69) 2599

442 2.7 (0.47)

Glazing assumed to be double, with Low-E 1363

coating, argon, and insulative spacer.
1991
Energy Consumption (KWh)
3.0 (0.52)
1909
1232
1597
1799
646
3.4 (0.59)
The problem that remains is one of radiative
1093
heat transfer, both across the airspace and
through the glass to the interior. The addition of 1597
a low-emittance (Low-E) coating reflects heat
back outside in summer and back inside in The function of the space bar is to seal the
winter. The result of combining a Low-E coating glazing unit so that no air or moisture enters the
with argon gas is a thermal resistance close to airspace. It consists of a hollow metal section
that of a triple-glazed unit, which tends to be sealed with and organic compound. To ensure
heavy, cumbersome, and expensive, not only that no moisture is allowed in. a chemical drying
because of the extra glazing, but because of the agent is added into the spacer bar and small
heavy-duty operating mechanisms that are holes are drilled so that any moisture that gets
required. into the airspace can be absorbed. Since much
of a window's heat loss occurs at the edges,
Effect of Type of Glazing on Energy Consumption insulative spacer bars, such as those made of
butyl metal, can be used to reduce conductive
Glazing Type Frame Material
heat loss along the glazing unit's perimeter.
Double, air, aluminum spacer Green Roofs

+ Low-E coating A green roof is a roofing system made of

vegetation and plant material as an alternative
+ argon gas
to conventional roofs made of shingles, tiles,
+ insulative paper gravel or membrane. The basic components of a
green roof include a waterproofing membrane,
Window frame assumed to be wood a root barrier, insulation, and a drainage layer
Thermal Resistance and filter fabric, and growing medium and
plants.
Heat Loss
Green roofs can be grouped into two categories:
R-Value (RSI) extensive and intensive. Extensive green roofs
Energy Consumption (KWh) consist of a continuous layer of low-growing
vegetation such as different varieties of grasses
2.0 (0.36) and herbs. The substrate's depth is between 2
and 6 inches. Due to the small scale of extensive
1780
green roofs, they commonly do not require
additional reinforcement on pre-existing roofs, 2. Improve access to financial services for home
and they rarely require irrigation. improvement and livelihood;

Intensive green roofs are designed for more 3. Help decentralize shelter activities and
complex planting systems. They may contain strengthen the capacity of LGUs to meet their
several feet of substrate and can support a wide sector mandates as set out in the Local
variety of vegetation, such as large shrubs or Government Code.
small trees. The benefits of green roofs range
DPUCSP is comprised of three components.
from the various ecological considerations, to
economic paybacks, as well as their contribution 1.
to the general well-being of the users and the
community. 2.

Although green roofs are widely used in 3.

commercial and institutional sectors, they are Part A, new and existing sites will be developed
making their way onto home rooftops as well. to provide affordable secure tenure and
infrastructure services for urban families in the
lowest five income deciles.

Part B, shelter finance mechanisms are

Decentralized Shelter and Urban Development established using MFIs and other intermediaries

Program ⚫ Decentralized Shelter Program

to support house construction and home
improvement as well as microenterprise credit.

✓ Provides decent housing to low income Part C, provides capacity building and project
families ✓ Program of the National Shelter implementation support programs for the
Program national government, LGUs and other
stakeholders to improve decentralized shelter
✓ Providing loans to local government units delivery.

National Shelter Program DPUCSP has been formulated based on the

need for a socialized housing delivery
✓ Emphasizes on decentralized shelter delivery
mechanism that can be scaled up and sustained.
for low income families. The design features of the DPUCSP incorporate
Development of Poor Urban Communities lessons learned from past housing programs
Project (DPUCSP) and the development strategies set out in the
Medium Term Development Plan. These
✓ The DPUCSP is a sector loan Project with the features include:
ADB which was implemented in 2004 and has
three fundamental objectives: 1.

1. Improve the access of poor urban households Market-based interest rates;

to secure land tenure, affordable shelter, basic 2.
municipal infrastructure services and
community facilities; High level of community and LGU ownership of
housing projects;

3.
Greater private sector involvement through c. Development of urban areas conducive to
participation of MFIs and other financing commercials and industrial activities which can
intermediaries; and generate more economic

4. Use of non-traditional schemes for shelter

finance.

DPUCSP is also supported by the IMPACT Project

a technical assistance provided by the Cities ✓
Alliance, implemented by UN- Habitat, for
3.
capacity building for shelter upgrading. IMPACT
aims to develop the capabilities of the LGUS and opportunities for the people.
the urban poor communities to work together
d. Reduction in urban dysfunctions, particularly
for shelter projects that can access investment
those that adversely affect public health, safety,
financing through DPUCSP.
ecology; and

⚫ Urban Development Program e. Access to land and housing by the under

privileged and homeless citizens.
✓ Republic Act No. 7279. An act to provide for a
Adopt workable policies to regulate and direct
comprehensive and continuing Urban
urban growth and expansion towards a
Development and Housing Program, Establish
dispersed urban net and more balanced urban-
the mechanism for its implementation, and for
rural interdependence;
other purposes. This Act shall be known as the
"Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992". 4. Provide for an equitable land tenure system
that shall guarantee security of tenure to
✓ Program Objectives Program beneficiaries but shall respect the
1. Uplift the conditions of the underprivileged rights of small property owners and ensure the
and homeless citizens in urban areas and in payment of just compensation;
resettlement areas by making available to them 5. Encourage more effective people's
decent housing at an affordable cost, basic participation in the urban development process;
services and employment opportunities; and
2. Provide for the rational use and development 6. Improve the capability of local government
of urban land in order to bring about the units in undertaking urban development and
following: housing programs and projects. Definition of
a. Equitable utilization of residential lands in Terms for purposes of this Act
urban and urbanizable areas with particular 0
attention to the needs and requirements of the
underprivileged and homeless citizens and not D
merely on the basis of market forces;
Affordable Cost refers to the most reasonable
b. Optimization of the use and productivity of price of land and shelter based on the needs
land and urban resources; and financial capability of Program beneficiaries
and appropriate financing schemes.
Areas for Priority Development refers to those of protection afforded to qualified Program
areas declared as such under existing statutes beneficiaries against infringement or unjust,
and pertinent executive reasonable and arbitrary eviction or disposition,
by virtue of the right of ownership, lease
issuances.
agreement, usufruct and other contractual
Blighted Areas refers to the areas where the arrangements.
structures are dilapidated, obsolete and
Small Property Owner refers to those whose
unsanitary, tending to depreciate the value of
only real property consists of residential lands
the land and prevent normal development and
not exceeding three hundred square meters
use of the area.
(300 sqm.) in highly urbanized cities and eight
Idle Lands refers to non-agricultural lands in hundred square meters (800 sqm.) in other
urban and urbanizable areas on which no urban areas. Socialized Housing refers to
improvements, as herein defined, have been housing programs and projects covering houses
made by the owner, as certified by the city, and lots or home lots only undertaken by the
municipal or provincial assessor. Government or the private sector for the
underprivileged and homeless citizens that shall
Improvements refers to all types of buildings include sites and services development, long-
and residential units, wall, fences, structures of term financing, liberalized terms on interest
constructions of all kinds of a fixed character or payments, and such other benefits in
which adhered to the soil but shall not include accordance with the provisions of this Act.
trees, plants and growing fruits and other
fixtures that are mere superimpositions on the Urban Areas refers to all cities regardless of
land, and the value of improvements shall not their population density and to municipalities
be less than 50% of the assessed value of the with a population density of at least five
property. hundred (500) persons per square kilometer.

Land Use Plan refers to the rational approach of Zonal Improvement Program or ZIP refers to the
allocating available land resources as equitably program of the National Housing Authority of
as possible among competing user groups and upgrading and improving blighted squatter
for different functions consistent with the areas within the cities and municipalities of
development plan of the area and the Program Metro Manila pursuant to existing statutes and
under this Act. pertinent

On-Site Development refers to the process of executive issuances.

upgrading and rehabilitation of blighted and
Coverage and Exemptions
slum urban areas with a view of minimizing
displacement of dwellers in said areas, and with The program shall cover all lands in urban and
provisions for basic services. urbanizable areas, including existing areas for
priority development, zonal improvement sites,
Resettlement Areas refers to areas identified by
slum improvement and resettlement sites and
the appropriate national agency or by the local
in other areas that may be identified by the
government unit with respect to areas within its
local government units as suitable for socialized
jurisdiction, which shall be used for the
housing.
relocation of the underprivileged and homeless
citizens. Security of Tenure refers to the degree
0 The following lands shall be exempt from the usufruct, the same shall be transitory and the
coverage of this Act beneficiaries must be encouraged to become
independent from the Program within a given
a. Those included in the coverage of Republic
period of time, to be determined by the
Act No. 6657, otherwise known as the
implementing agency concerned.
comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law; b. Those
actually used for national defense and security Eligibility Criteria for Socialized Housing Program
of the state; Beneficiaries. To qualify for the socialized
housing program, a beneficiary: a. Must be a
c. Those used, reserved or otherwise set aside
Filipino Citizen;
for government offices, facilities and other
installations, whether owned by the National b. Must be an underprivileged and homeless
Government, its agencies and instrumentalities, citizen;
including government-owned or controlled
c.
corporations, or
Must not own any real property whether in the
urban or rural areas; and
By the local government units: Provided, d. Must not be a professional squatter or a
however, that the lands mentioned, or portions member of squatting syndicates.
thereof, which have not been used for the
purpose for which they have been reserved or Balanced Housing Development. The Program
set aside for the past ten (10) years from the shall include a system to be specified in the
effectivity of this Act, shall be covered by this Framework plan whereby developers of
Act, proposed subdivision projects shall be required
to develop an area for socialized housing
d. Those actually and primarily used for equivalent to at least twenty percent (20%) of
religious, charitable or educational purposes, the total subdivision area or total subdivision
cultural and historical sites, hospitals and health project cost, at the option of the developer,
centers, and cemeteries or memorial parks. within the same city or municipality, whenever
The exemptions herein provided shall not apply feasible, and in accordance with the standard
when the use of purpose of the set by the Housing and Land Use Regulatory
abovementioned lands has ceased to exist. Board and other existing laws. The balanced
Socialized Housing housing development as herein required may
also be complied with by the developers
0 concerned in any of the following manner:
D a. Development of new settlement;
0 b. Slum upgrading or renewal of areas for
0 priority development either through zonal
improvement programs or slum improvement
Policy. Socialized housing shall be the primary and resettlement programs;
strategy in providing shelter for the
underprivileged and homeless. However, if the c. Joint-venture projects with either the local
tenurial arrangement in a particular socialized government units or any of the housing
housing program is in the nature of leasehold or agencies; or
d. Participation in the community mortgage loans shall give priority to the beneficiaries of
program. the Program.

Basic Services. Socialized housing and abitat for Humanity

resettlement areas shall be provided by the
Habitat Transforms Lives
local government unit or the National Housing
Authority in cooperation with the private ✓ Habitat for Humanity Philippines is a non-
developers and concerned agencies with the profit, Christian Housing Ministry that works
following basic services and facilities: both to eliminate poverty housing and to make
a. adequate housing a matter of conscience and
action.
Potable water,
It builds and rehabilitates simple, decent houses
b. Power and electricity and an adequate power with the help of homeowners, known as "home
distribution system; partner", families, volunteer labor, and
donations of money and materials. Building
c. Sewerage facilities and an efficient and
Homes: Is the Habitats Core Competency.
adequate solid waste disposal system; and
Vision
d. Access to primary roads and transportation
facilities. ✓ A world where everyone has a decent place
to live.
The provision of other basic services and
facilities such as health, education,
communications, security, recreation, relief and
welfare shall be planned and shall be given
priority for implementation by the local
Beginnings of Habitat
government unit and concerned agencies in
cooperation with the private sector and the ✓ Habitat for Humanity was founded in 1976 by
beneficiaries themselves. Millard Fuller and his wife Linda. Its
headquarters is located in Americus, Georgia,
The local government unit, in accordance with
USA Today, it has a presence in nearly 100
the concerned national agencies, shall ensure
countries and territories, and has built more
that these basic services are provided at the
than 175,000 houses, providing nearly 900,000
most cost-efficient rates and shall set a
people in more than 3,000 communities with
mechanism to coordinate operationally the
safe, decent and affordable shelter.
thrusts, objectives and activities of other
government agencies concerned with providing In the Philippines, the first local affiliates of
basic services to housing projects. Habitat for Humanity International were
established in 1988. Today, Habitat for Humanity
Livelihood Component. To the extent feasible,
Philippines has built more than 15,000 houses
socialized housing and resettlement projects
in more than 100 communities, and has a
shall be located near areas where employment
presence in 20 provinces and 29 cities with 25
opportunities are accessible. The government
affiliates and 21 satellites.
agencies dealing with the development of
livelihood programs and grant of livelihood Why Habitat is Needed
Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. and man power for constructing houses.
Teach him how to fish and you feed him for life. Building communities through product alliances.
At Habitat for Humanity, we also transform lives
Building Homes
by creating proper homes. A home is more than
a safe, secure structure. A proper home is the ✓ Because Habitat does not give houses away,
gateway to improved family, health, better their homes should be affordable to the poor. At
schooling for children and the chance to earn the same time, they should be decent and
extra income. durable they should last for a lifetime. These
The need for decent housing is real. Habitat for requirements compel Habitat to constantly
Humanity works to provide the solution, a world innovate both in how to build houses and how
where everyone has a decent place to live. home partners acquire.

How Habitat Works Families Chosen on Need

✓ Habitat houses are sold to home partner ✓ An affiliate chooses homeowners based on
families at no profit. Home partners repay their level of need, their ability to repay the loan
through affordable zero-interest, inflation- and their willingness to work in partnership with
adjusted mortgage loans. These monthly Habitat. Affiliates follow a non-discriminatory
mortgage payments are pooled into a Fund for policy of family selection. Religion is not a factor
Humanity so that the amortization of one house in choosing the families to become Habitat
will help build another. A House for a House homeowners.
principle. Funding Habitat's Work
✓ Habitat for Humanity is not a "giveaway" ✓ Donors may choose to sponsor one-third of a
program. In addition to an initial down payment home partner's house costs; the home partner
of one-third of the house cost and monthly saves up the one-third while the International
mortgage repayments, homeowners invest Habitat Community provides the rest. Thus a 25
hundreds of hours of their own labor, "sweaty to 30 sqm. concrete house that costs P 70,000
equity", into building their Habitat house and today can be built for a donation of only P
the houses of others. 25,000. This funding scheme called "Save and
Build" helps potential home partners better
✓ Additional "muscle" for construction comes
afford a house and to promote a savings culture
from volunteers from local affiliates, partner
among them.
corporations and organizations, universities,
school and youth groups. Volunteers even come Habitat Programs
from other countries as far as Europe and the
United States. Working with Others, Achieving "I've never known a Habitat volunteer who
More bought one's own tools and traveled at one's
own expense and worked hard without
✓ Habitat for Humanity's work is accomplished payment, that wasn't convinced that at the end
by affiliates; independent, locally-run, non-profit of that challenge that their sacrifice had been
volunteer groups. Each affiliate's coordinates all relatively insignificant to the blessing that they
aspects of Habitat home building in its areas. have received."-Former US President Jimmy
The affiliate selects prospective partner families Carter.
and secures suitable sites. It organizes mortgage
services, fund-raising and donations of materials
Since 1988, thousands of volunteers have joined With some schools and colleges, service with
Habitat building events. People are excited Habitat can be credited with the requirements
because they can see that they are making a of the National Service Training Program.
difference. Habitat's builds take place in over (NSTP).
100 communities across the Philippines.
Building on Faith with Families
Volunteers of all ages and backgrounds team up
for a common purpose: to provide simple, 0
decent, affordable houses for low-income
families. These builds are made possible Ever since Millard and Linda Fuller started
through the aid of sponsors, resources and building houses with the poor through a
volunteers. "partnership ministry' at Koinonia Farm, a
Christian Community in Georgia, USA, and the
✓ Youth Build work of Habitat for Humanity has been carried
out by various churches and faith-based
It is not how much you do, but how much you
communities worldwide.
Love you put into the doing that matters." -
Mother Theresa As the Articles of Incorporation of Habitat for
Humanity International state, the first purpose
of the organization is to "witness to the gospel
of Jesus Christ throughout the world by working
in cooperation with God's people in need to
✓ create a better habitat in which to live and
work."
0
In the Philippines, the involvement of churches
o
and faith-based communities with the housing
0 ministry has been called "Building on Faith with
Families." Through Habitat, churches and faith-
Youth Build is Habitat's program to involve the
based organizations can give tangible expression
youth in the ministry of ending poverty housing.
to the love of God through the work of
Through Youth Build, thousands of youth high
eliminating poverty housing, and mobilize
school and college students, out of school
families to bring hope and transform the lives of
youth, young professionals, and church youth
needy families.
groups have been helping needy Filipino
families build decent, durable and affordable What can churches and faith based
homes. organizations do?

Other volunteers help at affiliate offices and at 0

the Philippine National Office to help in various
.
tasks, such as encoding volunteer and financial
information in database, designing information Pray. The housing ministry is difficult, so Habitat
materials and administrative systems, sorting needs prayers.
files, etc. Originally an annual event, Youth Build
is now a year-round program, although a special a
build is usually held at the start of summer Volunteer to build. Organize a team from your
vacation during March or April. church, parish or group to build a Habitat site.
Donate. Give cash or in kind. Building materials, country; they can also be good team-building
electrical or bathroom fixtures, tools, even exercises for employees. Many corporations
empty wooden crates (which can be have even chosen to donate a number of
transformed into doors, windows and sleeping houses to mark anniversaries or other corporate
lofts) are most welcome. milestones.

Adopt a community. Regularly visit a Habitat Among the business corporations that have held
community to share the word of God and corporate builds with Habitat for Humanity
discuss how it applies to their everyday lives, as Philippines are ING Bank which sponsored one
persons, families, or as a community. Nurture hundred houses to mark their 15h year in the
families and help promote God-centered values. country, Dole Asia, the Ayala Group of
Designs programs for livelihood, primary health Companies, the Philippine Daily Inquirer, and
care, proper waste management, etc. Caltex Philippines. Business groups have also
held builds, such as the Makati Business Club
Coordinate volunteer efforts & donations.
and the Young Presidents Organization.
Designate someone from the church, parish or
community to handle inquiries on volunteering, Community Build
or to accept donations in Habitat's name for
0
transmittal to Habitat Philippines.
Local governments or community specific
Raise Funds. Hold a special or second collection;
associations or non-government organizations
out up a donation box; organize a fund-raising
can initiate build projects for residents or
activity to raise funds for a Habitat house.
neighbors living in poverty housing, and obtain
Educate and advocate. Raise the consciousness the assistance of Habitat for Humanity
of other people in church, parish or community, Philippines.
or even at work on the difficulties faced by the
An example is the BASECO Project, which was
poor in finding decent, durable and affordable
initiated by the local government of Manila.
shelter. Advocate the Habitat ministry as a
Another example is the Dreamland Heights
response to the problem of poverty housing in
Project, which was initiated by the Muntinlupa
your area whether it be building or renovating
Development Foundation, a non-government
homes.
organization composed of concerned citizens of
Corporate Build Muntinlupa, to resettle Muntinlupa residents
who lived in informal-settler
0

Corporate build is a high-impact event that

promotes Corporate Social Responsibility and
Employee Team Building. Business firms can be
involved with the Habitat ministry by sponsoring ✓
houses or donating construction materials. Their
communities along a railroad that passed
employees and executives can also volunteer to
through the city. While it was funded by the
build these houses, either on weekends or
Japanese Government through the Asian
during a designated working day. Corporate
Development Bank and National Government
builds are an excellent avenue for businesses to
Agencies, the actual house construction was
act as responsible corporate citizens of the
managed by the Habitat Philippines.
Global Village Languages Spoken. Filipino, English and about
80 local languages and dialects.
Magbayanihan Tayo! Let's build together!
Religions. Roman Catholic (83%), Protestant
0 40% of the Philippines' 80 million people live
(9%) and Muslim (5%)
below the poverty line, with an estimated 4.2
million families in need of decent shelter. Adopt a Community
Clustered shacks dominate Manila; families live
0
crowded together under bridges, or dangerously
close to railway tracks. Urban slum dwelling are 0
pieced together from scrap wood to rusty metal
sheets, while families in rural areas construct Responding to the need for urban renewal.
huts made from bamboo and palm leaves. With the rising cost of land and the lack of
These homes offer neither protection from livelihood opportunities in the countryside,
pollution nor access to clean water and resettlement is usually not a viable option for
sanitation, and are threatened by annual millions of Filipino families in urban areas who
monsoon floods. continue to live in communities and houses that
0 are unhealthy and unsafe. A more workable
option is to improve the communities they now
Facts at a Glance live in an effort that requires the contributions
of all sectors of society, government, churches,
.
civil society, business, etc.
Building Activities. Team's assists local volunteer
Habitat for Humanity Philippines invites all
and home partners with a variety of unskilled
people and organizations of compassion to
tasks such as mixing and passing cement,
Adopt a Community by helping in one or more
carrying and laying blocks, digging and
of the following components:
landscaping. No prior construction experience is
necessary. ■Community organizing and values formation
Hosting History. Since 1996 HFH Philippines has Working for Land Tenure
hosted about 200 GV teams including youth
teams from Japan, Korea and New Zealand; JET House renovation or rebuilding
(Japan Exchange Teaching) teams from Japan; Community infrastructure
corporate teams from the Netherlands and
adult teams from Northern Ireland and the Livelihood health and the environment
U.S.A. Promoting a culture of savings
Hosting Capacity. The Philippines has trained Community Development
and qualified affiliate hosts nationwide that best
fits the team's interest and convenience. Land Tenure: Non-government organizations
working with the urban poor could organize a
Team Sizes Hosted. Teams of 10 to 30 people community and assists in acquiring ownership
can be accommodated. over the land the residents have settled on, or
Age Requirements. Fourteen and above. Adult by acquiring other land that they could relocate
chaperone are required for minor volunteers. to, through the government's Community
Mortgage Program.
Community Infrastructure: Local governments Muslim and Christian victims of the armed
could build needed infrastructure, such as conflict, including ex-MNLF fighters. These
concrete roads and pathways. Drainage systems, projects have been dubbed "Peace Builds", and
septic tanks or clean up creeks or esteros in the they help contribute to the improvement of
area. Utility companies could establish Christian-Muslim relations, with Filipinos of
electrical, water and even telephone or internet both faiths, including government soldiers and
connections. Other partners could build multi- ex-combatants, rebuilding houses and
purpose halls, day-care centers, clinics, etc. communities together.

Values formation: Churches and faith-based Aleosan, Cotabato.

organizations are welcome to spread the word
The first Peace Build was at Barangay Pagangan
of God and assist community members in
in the town of Aleosan, Cotabato. It was
applying their faith to their daily lives, including
implemented by the Midsayap affiliate. Land for
the problems they face as a community.
the site was donated by an ex-MNLF
Other Programs: Other Friends of Habitat could commander, who envisioned a community for
initiate in the community other programs, such both Muslim and Christians.
as on livelihood, skills training, savings and
Various government and non-government
micro-finance, preventive health care and
organizations partnered with Habitat in
herbal medicine, garbage recycling and the
developing the community, including the
environment. Peace Build
Cotabato Rural Uplift Movement (CORUM),
0 Integral Development Services Philippines (IDS),
and the local government of Aleosan.
"When before, MNLF combatants can be seen
cleaning their firearms at the end of the day, At the end of 2001, 58 houses had been
after Peace Build, they can still be seen cleaning, constructed. Further construction could not
this time their construction tools in preparation continue because of the deterioration of the
for another day of work as Habitat construction peace and other situation in the areas
workers." surrounding the community.

Tupi, South Cotabato

A more recent Peace build project has been

started in Barangay Bunao, Tupi, South
0 Cotabato. Ex-MNLF combatants had formed a
0 cooperative named the Bunao Farmers Multi-
Purpose Cooperative (BUFAMCO), which
0 mobilized their savings to purchase a three-
fourth hectare of land for housing. The General
Quoted from the President of Bunao Farmers
Santos City Habitat affiliate helped the
Multi-Purpose Cooperative (BUFAMCO).
BUFAMCO build the houses. Using the "Save
Amid the intermittent armed conflict between and Build" approach, eighteen houses were
the government and Muslim-led groups fighting constructed beginning in July 2004. The other
for self-determination, Habitat for Humanity two-thirds of the funds for house construction
affiliates in Mindanao sought to contribute to came from the Presidential Social Fund, two
the cause of peace by building houses for both petroleum companies, and from the
repayments of the affiliate's other home Project Name:
partners.
Project Location:
The affiliate also mobilized volunteers from the
Land Acquisition:
greater community, including the Philippine
Army soldiers, municipal and village officials, Site Development
peace and developmental advocates from
nearby provinces, churches and other faith- Project Duration:
based organizations, civic groups, students, Target No. of Houses:
other organizations and even the home partners
of the affiliate. Total Land Area: Average Lot Size:

Volunteers also came from a formerly Average Floor Area: Project Type: Technology:
antagonistic community made up of a largely Balatas Relocation Housing Site
Christian indigenous people/cultural community
known as the B'laan. Today, the two Barangay Balatas, Naga City
communities are at peace with one another.
Donated by Local Government Unit of Naga City
Furthermore, with the construction skills Local Government of Naga City Fiscal Year 2007-
learned by the BUFANCO home partners, they 2008
have now found work in other construction
100 units
projects in the municipality.
8.920 square meters
Future Peace Builds: The Proposed Habitat Build
for Peace in Mindanao 50.00 square meters

Projects 20 square meters

n Full House/ Duplex with Loft provision Steel

Frame
B

Habitat for Humanity is now preparing a project

that will cover fifty-seven peace and
development communities (PDCs), which are
communities of ex-MNLF combatants as well as .
Christian sympathizers in eighteen local Innovations in House Construction
government units in the province of Cotabato,
South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Saranggani and ✓
General Santos City.
One way to keep house costs low is to use
It is hoped that this project will result not just in appropriate technology. Some of these are:
decent, durable and affordable houses and in Concrete Interlocking Blocks (CIB)
decent communities where the former victims
0
of the armed conflict can share in the fruits of
development but also in helping build a just and 0
lasting peace in Mindanao.
Resembling Lego® blocks, they are more
Balatas Relocation Housing Site volunteer friendly than the usual concrete
hollow blocks (CHB). While CIB are more the following elements of a house: A strong
expensive per piece than CHB, they use less Roof
cement, and therefore a house built with them
Four Sturdy Walls
also costs less than one built with CHB. The
houses in San Pedro, Laguna that Habitat build 0 A decent Bathroom
for the Muntinlupa Development Foundation
cost P 2,475.00 per square meter or P 60,000.00 Individuals and organizations can take part in
per unit. helping needy Filipino Families transform their
existing homes into decent, durable and
Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB) affordable shelter through the Save and Build
Method. This is a house financing scheme
Where soil conditions allow, houses can also be
wherein the families in need and Friends of
made with compressed earth blocks. Although
Habitat become full program partners. Other
CEB houses cost roughly the same as CIB, they
support is obtained from the international
look prettier.
family of Habitat organizations
Steel Frames
worldwide.
Piloted in BASECO, a project of the City of
Manila, these are light-alloy steel frames that
are pre-cut by computer guided equipment,
assembled on-site and bolted on to a concrete
slab. Walls are fiber-cement boards and the roof CONCEPT
is made of Galvalume T. Volunteer friendly, a
A hazard poses the threat that an unwanted
row of eight units can be finished in 15 days.
event, possibly a catastrophe, may occur. Risk is
These houses cost P 2,200 per square meter or
the probability that the event will occur.
P 40,000 per unit.
Inasmuch as all buildings are subject to hazards
Medium-Rise Buildings (MRB) such as hurricanes, earthquakes. Flood, fire and
lightning strikes, both during and after
This project in Taguig is a showcase of construction, building designers and contractors
appropriate building technologies. These three- have the responsibility of estimating the risks
storey buildings, with 18 units in each building, these hazards and the magnitude of the
were built at a cost of P 2.2 million or around P consequences should the vents be realized.
3,613 per square meter.
Risk Management
Building Stages
After the risk of a hazard has been assessed, the
✓ Another way of making Habitat houses building designers and contractors, guided by
affordable to poor is Building in Stages. Instead building code, design standards, zoning code
of a full house, home partners can opt to have a and health-agency specifications and exercising
house made partly with durable materials, their best judgment, should decide on an
partly with a light material like sawali. When the acceptable level for the risk. With this done,
home partner can afford it, the sawali can be they should then select a cost-effective way of
replaced with durable materials like CIB or CEB. avoiding the hazard, if possible, or protecting
against it so as to reduce the risk of hazard's
✓ Families in need may choose to rebuild their
occurring to within acceptable level.
houses or renovate them. Renovations focus on
Studies of building failures provide information Structures containing extremely valuable
that building designers should use to prevent contents or critical equipment justifying design
similar catastrophes. Many of the lessons for even the most extreme events may require
learned from failures have led to establishment special hardened rooms or areas.
of safety rules in building codes. These rules,
Design Life of Buildings
however, generally are minimum requirements
and apply to ordinary structures. Building For natural phenomena, design criteria may be
designers, therefore, should use judgment in based on the probability of occurrence of
applying code requirements and should adopt extreme conditions, as determined from
more stringent design criteria where conditions statistical studies of events in specific localities.
dictate. These probabilities are often expressed as mean
recurrence intervals.
Such conditions are especially likely to exist for
buildings in extreme climates or in areas A mean recurrence interval of an extreme
exposed to natural hazards, such as high winds, condition is the average time, in years, between
earthquakes, floods, landslides, and lightning. occurrences of a condition equal to or worse
Stricter criteria should also be used for buildings than the specified extreme condition. For
that are tall and narrow, are low but very large, example, the mean recurrence interval of a
have irregular or unusual shapes, house wind of 60 mph or more may be recorded for
hazardous material or critical functions, or are Los Angeles as 50 years. Thus after a building
of novel construction. Furthermore, building has been erected in Los Angeles, chances are
codes may not contain provisions for some that in the next 50 years it will be subjected only
hazards against which building designers once to a wind of 60 mph or more.
nevertheless should provide protection. Consequently, if the building was assumed to
Examples of such hazards are vandalism, have a 50 year life, designers might logically
trespass, and burglary. In addition, designers design it basically for a 60 mph wind, with a
should anticipate conditions that may exist in safety factor included in the design to protect
buildings in emergencies and provide for against low-probability faster winds. Mean
occupants or safe evacuation routes. recurrence intervals are the basis for the
minimum design loads for high winds, snowfall
Building designers also should use judgment in
and earthquake in many building codes. Safety
determining, the degree of protection to be
Factors
provided against specific hazards. Costs of
protection should be commensurate with Design of buildings for both normal and
probable losses from an incident. In many cases, emergency conditions should always
for example, it is uneconomical to construct a incorporate a safety factor against failure. The
building that will be immune to extreme magnitude of the safety factor should be
earthquakes, high winds or tornadoes, arson, selected in accordance with the importance of a
bombs, burst dams, or professional burglars. building, the extent of personal injury or
Full protection, however, should always be property loss that may result if a failure occurs,
provided against hazards with a high probability and the degree of uncertainty as to the
of occurrence accompanied by personal injuries magnitude or nature of loads and the properties
or high property losses. Such hazards include and behavior of building components.
hurricanes and gales, fires and vandals.
 For practical design, wind and earthquakes may
be treated as horizontal or lateral loads.
As usually incorporated in building codes, a
Although wind and seismic loads may have
safety factor for quantifiable system variables is
vertical components, these generally are small
a number greater than unity. The factor may be
and readily resisted by columns and bearing
applied in either two ways.
walls. Vertical earthquake components can be
One way is to relate the maximum permissible important in the design of connections as in
load, or demand, on a system under service precast concrete structures. Wind often
conditions to design capacity. This system generates significant uplift forces that require
property is calculated by dividing by the safety special attention to vertical restraint and lateral
factor the ultimate capacity, or capacity at support for members in reverse bending.
failure, for sustaining that type of load. For
The variation with height of the magnitude of a
example, suppose a structural member assigned
wind load for a multi-storey building differs from
a safety factor of 2 can carry 1000 lb before
that of a seismic load. Nevertheless, provisions
failure occurs. The service load then is
for resisting either type of load are similar.
1000/2=500 lb.
In areas where the probability of either a strong
The second way in which codes apply safety
earthquake or a high wind is small, it is
factors is to relate the ultimate capacity of a
nevertheless advisable to provide in buildings
system, to a design load. This load is calculated
considerable resistance to both types of load. In
by multiplying the maximum load under service
many cases, such resistance can be incorporated
conditions by a safety factor, often referred to as
with little or no increase in costs over designs
a load factor. For example, suppose a structural
that ignore either high wind or seismic
member assigned a load factor of 2 is required
resistance.
to carry a service load of 500 lb. Then, the
member should be designed to have a capacity ✓ Wind Characteristics
for sustaining a design load of 500 x 2 = 1000 lb,
without failing. ✓

While both methods achieve the objective of Because wind loads are considered horizontal
providing reserve capacity against unexpected forces, wind pressure, for design purposes,
conditions, use of load factors offers the should be assumed to be applied to the gross
advantage of greater flexibility in design of a area of the vertical projection of that portion of
system for a combination of different loading, that building above the average level of the
because a different load factor can be assigned adjoining round. Although the loads are
to each type of loading in accordance with assumed to be horizontal, they may
probability of occurrence and effects of other nevertheless apply either inward pressures or
uncertainties. suctions to inclined and horizontal surfaces. In
any case, wind loads should be considered to
Safety factors for various building systems act normal to the exposed building surfaces.
DISASTER RESISTANT BUILDINGS Furthermore, wind should be considered to be
likely to come from any direction unless it is

⚫ Wind Protection
known for a specific locality that extreme winds
may come only from one direction. As a
consequence of this assumption, each wall of a
rectangular building should be considered in the magnitude, direction, and duration of the
design to be the subject to the maximum wind maximum wind loads that may be imposed on
load. any portion of a specific building.

Winds generally strike a building in gusts.

Consequently, the building is subjected to
dynamic loading. Except for unusually tall or
narrow buildings, it is common practice to treat Consequently, numerous assumptions, based to
wind as a static loading, even though wind some extent on statistical evidence, generally
pressures are not constant. High velocity winds are made to determine design wind loads for
can cause considerable vibrations, particularly in buildings. Minimum requirements for wind
lighter more flexible structures. Therefore, loads are presented in local and model building
connections that tend to loosen under heavy codes.
vibration should be avoided.
✓ Failure Modes
Estimation of design wind pressures is
complicated by several factors. One factor is the Consideration of the ways in which winds may
effect of natural and man-made obstructions damage or destroy buildings suggests provisions
along the ground. Another factor is the variation that should be made to prevent failures. Past
of wind velocity with height above the ground. experience with building damage by winds
Still another factor complicating wind-pressure indicates buildings are likely to fail by
calculation is the effect of building or building overturning; sliding; separation of components;
component shape or geometry (relationship of excessive sway, or drift, or structural collapse.
height or width to length) on pressures. For Light weight and open-sided structures may be
important buildings, it is advisable to base subject to failure either partially, or whole, due
design wind pressures on the results of wind to uplift
funnel tests of a model building, neighboring
Resistance to overturning may be increased by
buildings, and nearby terrain.
securely anchoring buildings to foundations.
Wind Pressure and Suctions When this is done, the weight of earth atop the
footings and pressing against foundation walls
Pressures are considered positive when they
may be included with the weight of the building.
tend to push a building component toward the
building interior. They are treated as negative In addition to the danger of overturning, there
suctions or uplifts, which tend to pull is the risk of a building being pushed laterally by
components outward. high winds. Sliding is resisted by friction at the
base of the footings and earth pressure against
If there are openings on the wall, the wind will
foundation walls. Consideration should be given
impose internal pressures on the walls, floor
to the possibility that soil that is highly resistant
and roof. The net pressure on any building
to building movement when dry become weak
component, therefore, is the vector sum of the
when wet. Another danger is that a building
pressures acting on opposite faces of the
may be pushed by wind off the foundations.
component.
Consequently, to prevent this, a building should
Because of the wind characteristics and the be firmly anchored to its foundations. Buildings
dependence of wind pressures on building may also be damaged by separation of other
geometry, considerable uncertainty exists as to components from each other. It is therefore,
essential that all connections between Three basic methods are commonly used,
structural members and between other separately or in combination with each other, to
components and their supports be capable of prevent collapse of buildings under lateral loads,
resisting design wind loads. The possibility of limit drift and transmit the loads to the
separation of components by uplift or suction foundations. One method is to incorporate
should not be overlooked. Such pressures can shear walls in a building. A shear wall is a
slide a roof laterally or lift it from its supports, vertical cantilever with high resistance to
tear roof coverings, rip of architectural horizontal loads parallel to its length. A pair of
projections, and suck out windows. Failure of a perpendicular walls can resist wind from any
roof diaphragm or bracing can result in failure of direction, because any wind load can be
the entire structure. resolved into components in the planes of the
walls. Diaphragms developed from wall, floor
Another hazard is drift (sway) or collapse
and roof sheating can function similar to solid
without overturning or sliding. Excessive drift
shear walls when properly attached and laterally
when the wind rocks a building can cause
supported.
occupant discomfort, induce failure of structural
components by fatigue, or lead to complete A second method of providing resistance to
collapse of the structure. The main resistance to lateral loads is to incorporate diagonal structural
drift usually is provided by structural members to carry lateral forces to the ground.
components, such as beams, columns, bracing Under lateral loads, the braced bays of a
and walls that are also assigned the task of building act like cantilever vertical trusses.
supporting gravity loads. Some means must be
A third method or providing resistance to lateral
provided to transmit wind or seismic loads from
loads is to integrate the beams, girders, and
these members to the foundations and thence
columns into rigid frames. In a rigid frame,
to the ground. Otherwise, the building may
connections between horizontal and vertical
topple like a house of cards.
components prevent any change of angle
Consideration should also be given to the between the members under loads. (Drift can
potential for wind-blown debris impacting s occur only if beams and columns bend.) Such
structure and damaging critical lateral force joints are often referred to as rigid, moment, or
resisting elements. wind connections. They prevent the frame from
collapsing until the loads are so large that the
✓ Limitation of Drift strength of the members and connections is
There are no generally accepted criteria for exhausted. Note that in a rigid frame, leeward
maximum permissible lateral deflections of columns are subjected to bending and axial
buildings. Some codes limit drift of any storey of compression and windward columns are
a building to a maximum of 0.25% of the storey subjected to bending and axial tension.
height for wind and 0.50% of the storey height In addition to using one or more of the
for earthquake loads. Drift of buildings of preceding methods, designers can reduce drift
unreinforced masonry may be restricted to half by proper shaping of buildings, arrangement of
of the preceding values. The severe limitation of structural components, and selection of
drift caused by wind loads is applied principally members with adequate dimensions and
because they are likely to occur more frequently geometry to withstand changes in dimension..
than earthquakes and will produce motions that Shape is important because low, squat buildings
will last much longer. have less side-sway than tall, narrow buildings,
and buildings with circular or square floor plans comprise several volumes containing numerous
have less side-sway than narrow rectangular standards, updated annually. (These are also
buildings with the same floor area per storey. available separately.) The standards are
supplemented by the NFPA "Fire Protection
Handbook," which contains comprehensive and
detailed discussion of fire problems and much
valuable statistical and engineering data.
Protection Against Fire Underwriter Laboratories, Inc. (UL), 333
Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062, publishes
There are two distinct aspects of fire protection:
testing laboratory approvals of devices and
life safety and property protection. Although
systems in its "Fire Protection Equipment List,"
providing for one aspect generally results in
updated annually and by bi-monthly
some protection for the other, the two goals are
supplements. The publication outlines the tests
not mutually inclusive. A program that provides
that devices and systems must pass to be listed.
for prompt notification and evacuation of
The UL "Building Materials List describes and
occupants meets the objectives for life safety,
lists building materials, ceiling-floor assemblies,
but provides no protection for property.
wall and partition assemblies, beam and column
Conversely it is possible that adequate property
protection, interior finish materials, and other
protection might not be sufficient for protection
pertinent data. UL also publishes lists of
of life.
"Accident Equipment," "Electrical Construction
Absolute safety from fire is not attainable. It is Materials," "Hazardous Location Equipment,"
not possible to eliminate all combustible "Gas and Oil Equipment," and others.
materials or all potential ignition sources. Thus,
Separate standards for application to properties
in most cases, an adequate fire protection plan
insured by the Factory Mutual System are
must assume that unwanted fires will occur
published by the Factory Mutual Engineering
despite the best efforts to prevent them. Means
Corporation (FM), Norwood, MA 02062 FM also
must be provided to minimize the losses caused
publishes a list of devices and systems it has
by the fires that do occur.
tested and approved.
The first obligation of designers is to meet legal
The Federal Occupational Safety and Health Act
requirements while providing the facilities
(OSHA) sets standards for protecting the health
required by the client. In particular, the
and safety of nearly all employees. OSHA
requirements of the applicable codes must be
defines employer as "a person engaged in a
met. The code will contain fire safety
business affecting commerce who has
requirements, or it will specify some recognized
employees, but does not include the United
standard by reference. Many owners will also
States or and State or political subdivision of a
require that their own insurance carrier be
State."
consulted, to obtain the most favorable
insurance rate, if for no other reason. An employer is required to "furnish to each of
his employees employment and a place of
✓ Fire Protection Standards
employment which are free from recognized
The standards most widely adopted are those hazards that are causing or are likely to cause
published by the National Fire Protection death or serious physical harm to his
Association (NFPA), Batterymarch Park, Quincy employees." Employers are also required to
MA 02269. The NFPA "National Fire Codes"
"comply with occupational safety and health 2. Provide means for prompt detection of fires,
standards promulgated under the Act." with warnings to occupants who may be
affected and notification of the presence of fire
Building Codes consist of a set of rules aimed at
to firefighters.
providing reasonable safety to community, to
occupants of buildings, and to the buildings 3. Communication of instruction to occupants as
themselves. The codes may adopt the standards to procedures to adopt for safety, such as to
mentioned previously and other standards staying in place, proceeding to a
concerned with fire protection by reference or
adopt them to specific requirements of the
community. designated refuge area, or evacuating the
Obtaining optimum protection for life and building.
property can require consultation with the 4. Provide means for early extinguishment of
owner's insurance carrier, municipal officials, any fire that may occur, primarily by automatic
and the fire department. If the situation is sprinklers but also by trained firefighters.
complicated enough, it can require consultation
with a specialist in all phases of fire protection 5. Make available also for fire fighting an
and prevention. In theory, building codes are adequate water supply, appropriate chemicals,
designed for life safety and for the protection of adequate size-piping, conveniently located
the public, whereas insurance-oriented codes valves on the piping, hose, pumps and other
(except for NFPA 101, "Life Safety Code") are equipment necessary.
designed to minimize property fire loss. Since
6. Prevent spread of fire from building to
about 70% of any building code is concerned
building, either through adequate separation or
with fire protection, there are many
by enclosure of the building with incombustible
circumstances that can best be resolved by a fire
materials.
protection
7. Partition the interior of the building with fire
consultant.
barriers, or divisions, to confine a fire to a
✓ Fire Protection Concepts limited space.

Although fires in buildings can be avoided, they 8. Enclose with protective materials structural
nevertheless occur. Some of the reasons for this components that may be damaged by fire
are human error, arson, faulty electrical (fireproofing).
equipment, poor maintenance of heating 9. Provide refuge areas for occupants and safe
equipment, and natural causes, such as evacuation routes to outdoors.
lightning. Consequently buildings should be
designed to minimize the probability of a fire 10. Provide means for removal of heat and
and to protect life and property damage if a fire smoke from the building as rapidly as possible
should occur. The minimum steps that should be without exposing occupants to these hazards,
taken for the purpose are as follows: with the air-conditioning system, if one is
present, assisting the removal by venting the
1. Limit potential fire loads, with respect to both building and by pressurizing smoke-proof
combustibility and ability to generate smoke towers, elevator shafts, and other exits.
and toxic gasses.
11. For large buildings, install standby so they will not spread from building to
equipment for operation in emergencies of building.
electrical system and elevators.
One way that building codes try to achieve this
Fire Loads and Resistance Ratings objective is to establish fire zones or fire limits
that restrict types of construction or occupancy
The nature and potential magnitude of fire in a
that can be used. Additional zoning regulations
building are directly related to the amount and
establish minimum distances between buildings.
physical arrangement of combustibles present,
Another way to achieve the objective is to
as contents of the building or as materials used
specify the type of construction that can be
in its construction. Because of this, all codes
used for enclosing the exterior of the building.
classify buildings by occupancy and
The distance between adjoining buildings, fire
construction, because these features are related
rating, and stability when exposed to fire of
to the amount of combustibles.
exterior walls, windows, and doors, and percent
The total amount of combustibles is called the of window area are some factors taken into
fire load of the building. Fire load is expressed in account in building codes for determination of
pounds per square foot (psf) of floor area, with construction classification of a building. The
an assumed calorific value of 7000 to 8000 prevent spread of fire from roof to roof, building
Btulb. (This Btu content applies to organic codes also often require that exterior walls
materials similar to wood and paper. Where extend as a parapet at least 3 ft. above the roof
other materials are present in large proportions, level. Parapets are also useful in shielding
the weights must be adjusted accordingly. firefighters who may be hosing a fire from roofs
of buildings adjoining the one on fire. In
National Institute of Standards and Technology addition, building should be topped with roof
burnout tests presented in Report BMS92 coverings that are fire resistant.
indicate a relation between fire load and fire
severity. The Underwriters Laboratories ✓ Fire Divisions
"Building Materials List" tabulates fire ratings for
To prevent spread of fires vertically in building
materials and assemblies it has tested. Every
interiors, building codes generally require that
building code specifies required fire-resistance
floor-ceiling and roof-ceiling assemblies be fire
ratings for structural members, exterior walls,
resistant. The fire rating of such assemblies is
fire divisions, fire separations, ceiling-floor
one of the factors considered in determination
assemblies, and any other constructions for
of the construction classification of a building.
which a fire rating is necessary.
Also, openings in floors and roofs should be fire-
Building codes also specify the ratings required protected, although building codes do not
for interior finish of walls, ceilings and floors. usually require this for one-storey or two-storey
These are classified as to flame spread, fuel dwellings. For the purpose, an opening such as
contributed, and smoke developed, determined that for a stairway may be protected with a fire-
in standard tests performed according to ASTM resistant enclosure and fire doors. In particular,
E84 or ASTM E119. Fire and Smoke Barriers stairways and escalator and elevator shafts
should be enclosed, not only to prevent spread
A major consideration in building design is
of fire and smoke but also to provide a
safety of the community. Hence, buildings
protected means of egress from the building for
should be designed to control fires and smoke
occupants and of approach to the fire source by
firefighters.
To prevent spread of fire and smoke horizontally Openings between floors for pipes, ducts,
in building interiors, it is desirable to partition wiring, and other services should be sealed with
interiors with fire divisions. A fire division is any the equal of positive firestops. Partitions
construction with the fire-resistance rating and between each floor and a suspended ceiling
structural stability under fire conditions above are not generally required to be extended
required for the type of occupancy and to the slab above unless this is necessary for
construction of the building to bar the spread of required compartmentation. But smoke stops
fire between adjoining buildings or between should be provided at reasonable intervals to
parts of the same building on opposite sides of prevent passage f smoke to non-involved areas.
the division. A fire division may be an exterior
Height and Area Restrictions
wall, fire window, fire door, fire wall, ceiling, or
firestop. Limitations on height and floor areas included
between fire walls in an storey of a building are
given in every building code and are directly
related to occupancy and construction. From
the standpoint of fire protection, these
A fire wall should be built of incombustible provisions are chiefly concerned with safety to
material, have a fire rating of at least 4 hour, life. They endeavor to ensure this through
and extend continuously from foundations to requirements determining minimum number of
roof. Also, the wall should have sufficient exits, proper location of exits, and maximum
structural stability in a fire to allow collapse of travel distance (hence escape time) necessary to
construction on either side without the wall reach a place of refuge. The limitations are also
collapsing. Building codes restrict the size of aimed at limiting the size of fires.
openings that may be provided in a fire wall and
require the openings to be fire- protected. Unlimited height and area are permitted for the
most highly fire-resistant type of construction.
To prevent spread of fire through hollow spaces, Permissible heights are decreased with
such spaces should be fire-stopped. A firestop is decrease in fire resistance of construction.
a solid or compact, fight closure set in a hollow,
concealed space in a building to retard spread Installation of automatic sprinklers increases
of flames, smoke or hot gases. All partitions and permissible heights and areas in all classes,
walls should be firestopped at every floor level, except those allowed unlimited heights and
at the top-storey ceiling level, and at the level of areas. Permissible unlimited heights and areas
support for roofs. Also, very large unoccupied in fire-resistive buildings considered generally
attics should be subdivided by firestops into satisfactory in the past may actually not be safe.
areas of 3000 ft or less. Similarly, any large A series of fires involving loss of life and
concealed space between a ceiling and floor or considerable property damage opened the fire
roof should be subdivided. For the purpose, safety of such construction to question. As a
firestops extending the full depth of the space result, building code regulations applicable to
should be placed along the line of supports of high-rise buildings has been made more
structural members and elsewhere, if necessary stringent. Many building codes prohibit floor
to enclose areas not exceeding 1000 ft2 when areas of unlimited size unless the building is
situated between a floor and ceiling or 3000 ft2 provided with sprinklers. Without automatic
when located between a ceiling and roof. sprinklers, floor areas must be subdivided
(compartmentalized) into fire wall protected
areas and the enclosing fire walls must have a 1 2. Class B fires involve flammable liquids where
or 2 hour fire ratings, depending on occupancy smothering is effective & where a cooling agent
and construction. ("Life Protection Handbook" must be applied with care. 3. Class C fires are
and "Fire Protection Handbook," National Fire those in live electrical equipment where the
Protection Association) extinguishing agent must be non-conductive.
Since a continuing electrical malfunction will
✓ Fire-Resistance Classification of Buildings keep the fire source active, circuit protection
Although building codes classify buildings by must operate to cut off current flow, after which
occupancy and construction, there is no an electrically conductive agent can be used
universal standard for number of classes of with safety.
either occupancy or construction. For specifics, 4. Class D fires involve metals that burn such as
refer to the Philippine National Building Code, magnesium, sodium and powdered aluminum.
Chapter 4: Types of Constructions". Note
Special powders are
however, that codes do not relate life-safety
hazards to the actual fire load, but deal with
them through requirements for exit
arrangements, interior finishes, and ventilation. necessary for such fires, as well as special
training for operators. These fires should never
✓ Extinguishment of Fires be attacked by untrained personnel.

Design of all buildings should include provisions Automatic Sprinklers. The most widely used
for prompt extinguishment of fires. Apparatus apparatus for fire protection in buildings is the
installed for the purpose should take into automatic sprinkler system. In one or more
account the nature and amount of combustible forms, automatic sprinklers are effective
and smoke-producing materials that may be protection in all occupancy classes. Special
involved in a fire. Such apparatus may range treatment and use of additional extinguishing
from small, hand-held extinguishers for small agents, though, may be required in many high-
fires to hoses attached to a large, pressurized hazard, industrial, and storage occupancies.
water supply and automatic fire sprinklers. Also Basically, a sprinkler system consists of a
desirable are fire and smoke detectors and a network of piping installed at the ceiling or roof
protective signaling system that sounds an and supplied with water from a suitable source.
alarm to alert building occupants and calls fire On the piping at systematic intervals are placed
fighters. heat-sensitive heads, which discharge water
when a predetermined temperature is reached
. Classes of Fires. For convenience in defining
at any head. A gate valve is installed in the main
effectiveness of extinguishing media,
supply and drains are provided. AN alarm can be
Underwriter Laboratories, Inc., has developed a
connected to the system so that local and
classification that separates combustible
remote signals can be given when the water
materials into four types;
flows. Sprinkler systems are suitable for
1. Class A fires involve ordinary combustibles extinguishing all Class A fires and, in many cases,
and are readily extinguishable by water or also Class B and Class C fires. For Class B fires, a
cooling, or by coating with a suitable chemical sealed (fusible) head system may be used if the
powder. flammable liquid is in containers or is not
present in large quantity. Sprinklers have a good
record for extinguishing fires in garages, for
example. AN oil-spill can be extinguished or Foamed chemicals, mostly masses of air-filled or
contained when the water is applied in the form gas-filled bubbles, formed by chemical or
of spray, as from a sprinkler head. When an oil mechanical means, may be used to control fires
spill or process-pipe rupture can release in flammable liquids. Foam is most useful in
flammable liquid under pressure, an open-head controlling fires in flammable liquids with low
(deluge) system may be required to apply a flash points and low specific gravity, such as
large volume of water quickly and to keep gasoline. Three distinct types of foam are
surrounding equipment cool. suitable for fire control: chemical foam, air foam
(mechanical foam), and high expansion foam.
For Class C fires, water can be applied to live
electrical equipment if it is done in the form of a Chemical Foam was the first foam developed for
non-conducting fog-like spray. This is usually the fire fighting. It is formed by the reaction of
most economical way to protect outdoor oil- water with two chemical powders, usually
filled transformers and oil circuit breakers. sodium bicarbonate and aluminum sulfate. The
reaction forms carbon dioxide, which is the
Fire protection should be based on complete
content of the bubbles. This foam is the most
coverage of the building by the sprinkler system.
viscous and tenacious of the foams. It forms a
Partial coverage is rarely advisable, because
relatively tough blanket, resistant to mechanical
extinguishing capacity is based on detecting and
or heat disruption. Chemical foam is sensitive to
extinguishing fires in their incipiency, and the
the temperature at which it is formed, and the
system must be available at all times in all
chemicals tend to deteriorate during long
places. Systems are not designed to cope with
storage periods. It is not capable of being
fires that have gained headway after starting in
transported through long pipe lines.
unsprinklered areas.
Air Foam (mechanical foam) is made by
• Standpipes. Hoses supplied with water from
mechanical mixing of water and a protein-based
standpipes are the usual means of manual
chemical concentrate. Air foam can be
application of water to interior building fires.
conducted through pipes and discharged
Standpipes are usually designed for this use by
through a fixed chamber mounted in a bulk fuel
the fire department, but they can be used by
storage tank, or it can be conducted through
building fire fighters also. Standpipes are
hoses and discharged manually through special
necessary in buildings higher than those that
nozzles. This foam can also be distributed
ground-based fire department equipment can
through a sprinkler system of special design to
handle effectively. The Standard Building Code
cover small equipment, such as process vessels,
requires standpipes in buildings higher than 50
or in multi-system applications, over an entire
feet. The Uniform Building Code requirement
airplane hangar.
starts at four storeys or occupancies over 5000
ft in area and depends on whether automatic High-expansion foam was developed for use in
sprinklers are installed. coal mines, where its extremely high expansion
rate allowed it to be generated quickly in
Chemical Extinguishment. Fires involving some
sufficient volume to fill mine galleries and reach
materials may not be readily extinguished with
inaccessible fires. High-expansion foam is useful
water alone. When such materials may be
for extinguishing fires by totally flooding indoor
present in a building, provision should be made
confined spaces, as well as for local application
for application of appropriate chemicals.
to specific areas. It extinguishes by displacing air
units from the fire and by the heat-absorbing
effect of converting the foam water content into spaces where flammable liquid and/or gas
steam. The foam forms an insulating barrier for release could occur in the oil, gas,
exposed equipment or building components. petrochemical and military sectors; manned
High-expansion foam is more fragile than communication centers of the armed forces or
chemical or air foam. Also, it is not generally other places essential for national security, or
reliable when used outdoors where it is subject for the protection of spaces where there may be
to wind currents. High-expansion foam is not a risk of dispersion of radioactive material. Dry
toxic, but it has the effect or disorienting people chemical extinguishing agents were used
who may be trapped in it. originally to extinguish Class B fires. One type
consisted of sodium bicarbonate base with
Carbon dioxide is useful as an extinguishing
additives to prevent caking and to improve fluid
agent, particularly on surface fires, such as
flow characteristics. Later, multi-purpose dry
those involving flammable liquids in confined
chemicals effective on Class A, B, and C fires
spaces. It is non-conductive and is effective on
were developed. These chemical are distinctly
live electrical equipment. Because carbon
different from the dry powder extinguishing
dioxide requires agents used on combustible metals. Dry
chemicals are effective on surface fires,
especially on flammable liquids. When used on
clean-up, it is desirable on equipment such as Class A fires, they do not penetrate into the
gasoline or diesel engines. The gas can be used burning material. The major effect of dry
on Class A fires. But when a fire is deep-seated, chemical is due almost entirely the ability to
and extended discharge period is required to break the chain reaction of combustion. A minor
avoid rekindling. Carbon dioxide is not effective effect of smothering is obtained on Class A fires.
on fires involving burning metals, such as Dry chemicals can be discharged in local
magnesium, nor is it effective on oxygen- applications by hand-held extinguishers,
containing materials, such as nitrocellulose. wheeled-portable equipment, or nozzles on
Hazard to personnel is involved to the extent hose lines. These chemicals can also be used for
that a concentration of 9% will cause suffocation extinguishing fires by total flooding, when they
in a few minutes, and concentration of 20% can are distributed through a piped system with
be fatal. When used in areas where personnel special discharge nozzles. The expellant gas is
are present, a time delay before discharge is usually dry nitrogen..
necessary to permit evacuation. For use in total
flooding systems, carbon dioxide is available in Dry powder extinguishing agents are powders
either high-pressure or low-pressure effective in putting out combustible-metal fires.
equipment. Halon 1301 is one of a series of There are several proprietary agents effective on
halogenated hydrocarbons, several metals, but none should be used
bromotrifluoromethane (CBrF2), used with without proper attention to the manufacturer's
varying degrees of effectiveness as a fire instructions and the specific metal involved.
extinguishing agent and was included in the Fire Detection
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer signed in September 16, 1987. Every fire-extinguishing activity must start with
It is currently limited to "critical uses" and is detection. To assist in this, many types of
planned to be phased out by 2002. The types of automatic detectors are available, with a wide
uses currently defines as critical spaces are variety of sensitivity and operations that can be
performed by the detection system. It can
initiate an alarm, local or remote, visual or being disconnected when normal temperature
audible; notify a central station; actuate an is restored.
extinguishing system; start or stop fans or
Thermostatic cable consists of two sheathed
processes; perform any other operation capable
wires separated by a heat-sensitive coating
of automatic control.
which melts at high temperature, allowing the
There are five general types of detectors, each wires to contact each other. The assembly is
employing a different physical means of covered by a protective sheath. When any
operation. The types are designated fixed section has functioned, it must be replaced.
temperature, rate-of-rise, photo-electric,
Continuous detector tubing is a more versatile
combustion-products, and ultraviolet or infrared
assembly. This detector consists of a small-
detectors. A wide variety of detectors has been
diameter Inconel tube, of almost any length,
tested and reported by Underwriters
containing a central wire, separated from the
Laboratories, Inc.
tube by a thermistor element. At elevated
. Fixed-Temperature Detectors. In its approval of temperatures, the resistance of the thermistor
any detection device, UL specifies the maximum drops to a point where a current passes
distance between detectors to be used for area between the wire and the tube. The current can
coverage. This spacing should not be used be monitored, and in this way temperature
without competent judgment. In arriving at the changes over a wide range, up to 1000° F, can
permitted spacing for any device, UL judges the be detected. The detector can be assembled to
response time in comparison with that of locate temperature changes of different
automatic sprinkler heads spaced at 10 feet magnitude over the same length of detector. It
intervals. Thus, if a device is more sensitive that is self-restoring when
a sprinkler head, the permitted spacing is
increased until the response times are nearly
equal. If greater sensitivity is desired, the 0
spacing must be reduced.
0
0
normal temperature is restored. This detector is
With fixed-temperature devices, there is a useful for industrial applications, as well as for
thermal lag between the time the ambient fire detection.
temperature reaches rated temperature and the
device itself reaches that temperature. For Fusible links are the same devices used in
thermostats having a rating of 135° F, the sprinkler heads and are made to operate in the
ambient temperature can reach 260° F. same temperature range. Melting or breaking at
a specific temperature, they are used to restrain
Disk Thermostats are the cheapest and most operation of a fire door, electrical switch, or
widely used detectors. The most common type similar mechanical functions such as operation
employs the principle of unequal thermal of dampers. Their sensitivity is substantially
expansion in a bimetallic assembly to operate a reduced when installed at a distance below a
sna-action at a pre-set temperature, to close ceiling or other heat-collecting obstruction.
electrical contacts. These thermostats are
compact. The disk 1⁄2 in diameter, is mounted on Rate-of-Rise Detectors. Detectors and detector
a plastic base 1%4 inches in diameter. The systems are said to operate on the rate-of-rise
thermostats are self-resetting, the contacts principle when they function on a rapid increase
in temperature, whether the initial temperature combustion when combustion products are still
is high or low. The devices are designed to invisible. These devices are sensitive in some
operate when temperature rises at a specified degree to air currents, temperature, and
number of degrees, usually 10° or 15° F, per humidity, and should not be used without
minute. They are not affected by normal consultation with competent designers.
temperature increases and are not subject to
Flame Detectors. These discriminate between
thermal lag, as are fixed-temperature devices.
visible light and the light produced by
Photoelectric Detectors. These indicate fire combustion reactions. Ultraviolet detectors are
condition by detecting the smoke. Sensitivity responsive to flame having wavelengths up to
can be adjusted to operate when obscuration is 2850 A. The effective distance between flame
as low as 0.4% per feet. In these devices, a light and detectors is about 10 feet for a 5 inch
source is directed so that it does not infringe on diameter pan of gasoline, but a 12 inch square
a photo- electric cell. When sufficient smoke pan fire can be detected at 30 feet.
particles are concentrated in the chamber, their
Infrared detectors are also designed to detect
reflected light reaches the cell, changing its
flame. These are not designated by range of
resistance and initiating a signal.
wavelength because of the many similar sources
These detectors are particularly useful when a at and above the infrared range. To identify the
potential fire is likely to generate a substantial radiation as a fire, infrared detectors usually
amount of smoke before appreciable heat and employ the characteristic flame flicker, and have
flame erupt. A fixed-temperature, snap-action a built-in time delay to eliminate accidental
disk is usually included in the assembly. similar phenomena.

Combustion-Products Detectors. Two physically Smoke and Heat Ventilating

different means, designated-ionization type and
In extinguishment of any building fire, the heat-
resistance-bridge type, are used to operate
absorption of water is the principal medium of
combustion-products detectors.
reducing the heat release from the fire. When,
The ionization type, most generally used, however, a fire is well developed, the smoke
employs ionization of gasses by alpha particles and heat must be released from confinement to
emitted by a small quantity of radium or make the fire approachable for final manual
americium. The detector contains two ionization action. If smoke & heat venting is not provided
chambers, one sealed the other open to in the building design, holes must be opened in
atmosphere, in electrical balance with a cold- the roof or building sides by the fire
cathode tube or transistorized amplifier. When department. In many cases, it has been
sufficient combustion products enter the open impossible to do this, resulting to property
chamber, the electrical balance is upset, and the losses. Large-area, one-storey buildings can be
resulting current operates a relay. provided with venting by use of monitors, or a
distribution of smaller vents. Multi-storey
The resistance-bridge type of detector operates
buildings present many problems, particularly
when combustion products change the
since life safety is the principal consideration in
impedance of an electrical bridge circuit
these buildings. Ventilation facilities should be
deposited on a glass plate.
provided in addition to the protection afforded
Combustion-products detectors are designed by automatic sprinklers and hose stations.
for extreme early warning of impending
Large One-Storey Buildings. For manufacturing return-air ducts with suitable damper control of
purposes, low buildings are frequently required smoke movement, so that smoke from any floor
to be many hundreds of feet in each horizontal can be directed into the shaft. The fan and
dimension. Lack of automatic sprinklers in such dampers should be actuated by smoke
buildings has proven to be disastrous where detectors installed in suitable locations at each
adequate smoke and heat venting has not been inlet to return-air ducts. Operation of smoke
provided. Owners generally will not permit fire detectors also should start the smoke-vent shaft
division walls, because they interfere with fan and stop supply-air flow. Central-station
movement and processing of materials. With supervision should be provided for monitoring
the whole content of a building subject to the smoke-detector operations. Manual override
same fire, fire protection and venting are controls should be installed in a location
essential to prevent large losses in windowless accessible under all conditions. Windows with
buildings underground structures, and buildings fixed sash should be provided with means of
housing hazardous operations. emergency opening by the fire department.
Pressurizing stair towers to prevent the
High-Rise Buildings. Building codes vary in their
entrance of smoke is highly desirable but
definition of high-rise buildings, but the intent is
difficult to accomplish. Most standpipe
to define buildings in which fires cannot be
connections are usually located in stair towers,
fought successfully by ground-based equipment
and it is necessary to open the door to the fire
and personnel. Thus, ordinarily, high-rise means
floor to advance the hose stream toward the
buildings 100 feet or more high. In design for
fire. A more desirable arrangement would be to
smoke and heat venting, however, any multi-
locate the riser in the stair tower, if required by
storey building presents the same code, and place the hose valve adjacent to the
door to the tower. Some codes permit this, and
it is adaptable to existing buildings. Emergency
Because smoke inhalation has been the cause of Egress
nearly all fatalities in high-rise buildings, some
building codes require that a smoke venting In addition to providing means for early
system be installed and made to function detection of fire, preventing its spread, and
independently of the air-conditioning system. extinguishing it speedily, building designers
Also, smoke detectors must be provided to should also provide the appropriate number,
actuate exhaust fans and at the same time wam sizes, and arrangements of exits to permit quick
the fire department and the building's control evacuation of occupants in fire or other
center. The control center must have two-way conditions dangerous to life occur. Buildings
voice communications, selectively, with all floors should be designed to preclude development of
and be capable of issuing instructions for panic in emergencies, especially in confined
occupant movement to a place of safety. areas where large number of persons may
assemble. Hence, the arrangement of exit
Because the top floor is the only one that can be facilities should permit occupants to move
vented through the roof, all other floors must freely towards exits that they can see clearly
have the smoke conducted through upper floors and that can be reached by safe, unobstructed,
to discharge safely above the roof. A separate uncongested paths. Redundancy is highly
smoke shaft extending through all upper floors desirable; there should be more than one path
will provide this means. It should be provided o safety, so that loss of a single path will not
with an exhaust fan and should be connected to prevent escape of occupants from a danger
area. The paths should be accessible to and serve as an exit passageway if it is sufficiently
usable by handicapped persons, including those wide to accommodate the probable number of
in wheelchairs, if they may be occupants. evacuees from all spaces at the lobby level. Exit
doors, doors providing access to streets or to
0
stairs or exit passageways. Those at stairs or
Egress Components. Many building codes define passageways should have a fire rating of at least
an exit as a safe means of egress from the 4 hour.
interior of a building to an open exterior space
Horizontal exit, passageway to a refuge area.
beyond the reach of a building fire. Other codes
The exit may be a fire door through a wall with a
consider an exterior door or a stairway leading
2 hour fire rating, a balcony providing a path
to access such a door to be an exit. To prevent
around a fire barrier, or a bridge or tunnel
misunderstanding, the "Life Safety Code"
between two buildings.
defines a means of egress is a continuous,
unobstructed path for evacuees from any point Interior stairs, stairs that are inside a building
in a building to a public way. Its three parts are: and that serves as an exit. Stairway enclosures
generally should have a 2-hr fire rating.
Exit Access, that portion that leads to an
entrance to an exit. Exterior stairs, stairs that are open to the
outdoors and that serve as an exit to the ground
Exit, the portion that is separated from all other
level. The stairs should be protected by a fire-
building spaces by construction or equipment
resistant roof and should be built of non-
required to provide a protected path to the exit
combustible materials.
discharge.

Exit discharge, the portion that connects the

termination of an exit to a public way.

Means of egress may be provided by exterior Smokeproof tower, a continuous fire-resistant

and interior doors and enclosed horizontal and enclosure protecting a stairway from fire or
vertical passageways, including stairs and smoke in a building. Escalators or moving stairs.
escalators. (Elevators and exterior fire escapes Building codes may permit their use as exits if
are not generally recognized as reliable means they meet the safety requirements of interior
of egress in a fir.) Exit includes the space from stairs & if they move in the direction of exit
which evacuation starts and passageways and travel or stop gradually when an automatic fire-
doors that must be traversed to reach an exit. detection system signals a fire. Moving walks,
Types of Exits. Building codes generally horizontal or inclined conveyor belts for
recognize the following as acceptable exits passengers.
when they met the codes' safety requirements:
Refuge Areas. A refuge area is a space protected
Corridors, enclosed horizontal or slightly against fire and smoke. When located within a
inclined public passageway, which lead from building, the refuge should be at about the
interior spaces toward an exit discharge. Codes same level as the areas served and separated
may require corridor enclosures to have a fire from them by construction with at least a 2-hr
rating of 1 or 2 hours. fire rating. Access to the refuge areas should b
Exit passageways, horizontal extensions of protected by fire doors with a fire rating of 1%
vertical passageways. A street-floor lobby may hr or more.
Location of Exits. Building codes usually require that will start automatically when normal power
a building to have at least two means of egress is cut off. The emergency power supply should
from every floor. Exits should be remote from be capable of operating all emergency electric
each other, to reduce the chance that both will equipment at full power.
be blocked in an emergency. All exit access
In high-rise buildings, at least one elevator
facilities and exits should be located so as to be
should be available for control by fire fighters
clearly visible to the building occupants or signs
and to give them access to any floor from the
should be installed to indicate the direction of
street-floor lobby. Also, elevator control should
travel to exits.
be designed to preclude elevators from stopping
Required Exit Capacity automatically at floors affected by fire.

Minimum width of a passage way for normal Supervision of emergency operations can be
use is 36 inches. This is large enough to efficiently provided by personnel at a control
accommodate one-way travel for persons on center placed in a protected area. This center
crutches or in wheelchairs. For two-way travel, a may include a computer, supplemented by a
60 inch width is necessary. Building codes personnel performing scheduled maintenance,
however may require greater widths to permit and should be capable of continuously
rapid passage of the anticipated number of monitoring alarms, gate valves on automatic fire
evacuees in emergencies. This number depends sprinklers, temperatures, air and water
on a factor called the occupant load, but the pressure, and perform other pertinent
minimum width should be ample for safe, easy functions. Also the center should be capable in
passage of handicapped persons. Running slope emergencies of holding two-way
should not exceed 1:20, and cross slope, 1:50. communications with occupants and notifying
police and fire departments of the nature of the
0
emergencies.
Occupant load of a building space is the
For economical building operation, the
maximum number of persons that may be in the
emergency control center may be made part of
space at any time. The occupant load of any
a control center used for normal building
space should include the occupant load of other
operation and maintenance. Thus, the control
spaces if the occupants have to pass through
center may normally control HVAC to conserve
their space to reach an exit.
energy, tum lights on and off, and schedule
Building Operation in Emergencies building maintenance and repair. When an
emergency occurs, emergency control should be
For buildings that will be occupied by large activated in accordance with prepared plans for
number of persons, provision should be made handling each type of emergency.
for continuous services essential to safe, rapid

⚫ Lightning Protection
evacuation of occupants in event of fire or other
emergencies and for assisting safe movement of
fire fighters, medical personnel, or other aides.
Lightning, a high voltage, high-current electrical
Standby electric power, for example, should be discharge between clouds and the ground, may
made available in all buildings to replace the strike and destroy life and property anywhere
basic power source if it should fail. The standby thunderstorms have occurred in the past.
system should be equipped with a generator Buildings and their occupants, however, can be
protected against this hazard by installation of a electrical and communication systems. Lightning
special electrical system. Because an incomplete protection usually requires installation of
or poor installation can cause worse damage or electrical conductors that extend from points
injuries than no protection at all, a lightning- above the roof of a building to the ground, for
protection system should be designed and the purpose of conducting to the ground
installed by experts. lightning that would otherwise strike the
building. Such an installation, however,
As an addition to other electrical systems
possesses the potential hazard that, if not done
required for a building, a lightning-protection
properly, lightning may flash from the lightning
system increases the construction cost of a
conductors to other building components.
building. A building owner therefore has to
Hence, the system must ensure that the
decide whether potential losses justify the
lightning distance is diverted away from the
added expenditure. Also the owner should
building and its contents
compare the cost of insurance to cover losses
with the cost of the protection system. The key element in diverting lightning away

⚫ Characteristics of Lightning
from a building is an air terminal or lightning
rod, a conductor that projects into the air at
least 12 inches above the roof. Air terminals
Lightning strikes are associated with should be spaced at intervals not exceeding 25
thunderstorms. In such storms, the base of the feet. Alternatively, a continuous wire conductor
clouds generally develops a negative or a grid of such conductors may be placed
along the highest points of a roof. If the tallest
object on a roof is a metal mast, it can act as an
air terminal. A metal roof also can serve as an
electrical charge, which includes a positive
air terminal, but only if all joints are made
charge in the earth directly below. As the clouds
electrically continuous by soldering, welding, or
moves, the positive charges, being attracted by
interlocking. Arranged to provide a cone of
the negative charges, follow along the surface of
protection over the entire building, all the air
the earth and climb up buildings, antennas,
terminals should be connected by conductors to
trees, power transmission towers, and other
each other and, by the same or other
conducting or semi-conducting objects along
conductors, to the ground along at least two
the path. Current flows in the form of a lightning
separate paths.
flash, when the voltage becomes great enough
to overcome the electrical resistance of the air Protection Against Intruders
between the clouds and the ground or an object
on it. Thus the probability of a building being Prevention of illegal entry into buildings by
struck by lightning depends not only on the professional criminals determined to break in is
frequency of occurrence of thunderstorms but not practical. Hence, the prime objective of
also on building height relative to nearby security measures is to make illegal entry
objects and the intensity of cloud and charges. difficult. If this is done, it will take an intruder
longer to gain entry or will compel the intruder
Methods for Protection against Lightning to make noise, thus increasing the chances of
detection and apprehension. Other objectives
Objectives of lightning protection are life safety,
of security measures are detection of break- in
prevention of property damage, and
attempts and intruders, alarming intruders so
maintenance of essential services, such as
that they leave the premises before they cause
a loss or injury, and alerting building occupants For most types of occupancy, control at the
and the police of the break-in attempt. Also, an entrance may often be provided by receptionist
objective is to safeguard valuable assets by who records names of visitors and persons
placing them in a guarded, locked, secure visited notify the latter and can advise the
enclosure with access limited only to approved police of disturbances. When necessary, the
personnel. receptionist can be augmented by a guard at the
control point or in a security center and, in very
•
large or high-rise buildings, by a roving guard
Security Measures available for emergencies. If a large security
force is needed, facilities should be provided in
Basic security for a building is provided by the building for an office for the security
commonly used walls and roofs with openings administrator and staff, photographic
protected by doors with key-operated locks or identification, and squad room and lockers, all in
windows with latches. The degree of protection or adjoining a security center.
required for a building and its occupants beyond
basic security and privacy needs depends on the Security Center
costs of insurance and security measures
The security center may be equipped with or
relative to potential losses from burglary and
connected to electronic devices that do the
vandalism. For a small building not housing
following:
small items of great value, devices for detecting
break-in attempts are generally the most 1. Detect a break-in attempt and sound an
practical means of augmenting basic security. alarm.
Bells, buzzers, or sirens should be installed to
2. Identify the point of intrusion.
sound an alarm and automatic telephone or
wireless dialer should be used to alert a 3.
monitoring service to notify the police when an

intruder tries to enter the locked building or ⚫

Tum on lights.

4. Display the intruder on closed-circuit

security area. television and record observations on
For a large building or a building requiring tight videotape.
security, defense should be provided in depth.
Depending in the value of assets to be
protected, protection should start at the
boundary of the property, with fences, gates,
5. Notify the police.
controlled access, guard patrols, exterior
illumination, alarms, or remote surveillances by 6. Limit the entry to specific spaces only to
closed-circuit television. This defense should be approved personnel and only at permitted
backed up by similar measures at the perimeter times.
of the building and by security lock and latches
7. Change locks automatically.
on doors and windows. Openings other that
doorways or windows should be barred or made In addition, the security center may be provided
too small for human entry and screened. with emergency reporting systems, security
guard tour reporting systems, fire detection and
protection systems, including supervision of
automatic fire sprinklers, HVAC controls, and by permitting sliding of such components. Thus,
supervision of other life safety measures. partitions and windows should be free to move
in their frames so that no damage will occur
PROTECTION AGAINST EARTHQUAKE:
when an earthquake wracks the frame. Heavy
Earthquake Resistant Construction
elements in buildings, such as water tanks,
Buildings should be designed to withstand should be firmly anchored to prevent them from
minor earthquakes without damage, because damaging critical structural components.
they may occur almost everywhere. For major Displacement of gas hot water heaters is a
earthquakes, it may not be economical to common cause of gas fires following
prevent all damage but collapse should be earthquakes.
precluded.
• Earthquake Characteristics
Because an earthquake and a high wind are not
Earthquakes are produced by sudden release of
likely to occur simultaneously, building codes
tremendous amounts of energy within the earth
usually do not require that buildings be
by a sudden movement at a point called the
designed for a combination of large seismic and
hypocenter. (The point on the surface of the
wind loads. Thus, designers may assume that
earth directly above the hypocenter is called the
full strength of wind bracing is also available to
epicenter.) The resulting shock sends out
resist drift caused by earthquakes.
longitudinal, vertical, and transverse vibrations
The methods of protecting against high winds in all directions, both through the earth's crust
may also be used protecting against along the surface, and at different velocities.
earthquakes. Shaking of buildings produced by Consequently, the shock wave arrives at distant
temblors, however, is likely to be much severe points at different times.
than that caused by winds. Consequently,
As a result, the first sign of the advent of an
additional precautions must be taken to protect
earthquake at a distant point is likely to be faint
against earthquakes. Because such protective
surface vibration of short duration as the first
measures will also be useful in resisting
longitudinal waves arrive at the point. Then,
unexpectedly high winds, such as those from
severe shocks of longer duration occur there, as
tomadoes, however, it is advisable to apply
other wave arrives.
aseismic design principles to all buildings.
Movement at any point of the earth's surface
These principles require that collapse be
during a temblor may be recorded with
avoided, oscillation of buildings damped, and
seismographs and plotted as seismograms,
damage to both structural and non-structural
which show the vibration with time of
components be minimized. Non-structural
displacements. Seismograms of past
components are especially liable to damage
earthquakes indicate that seismic wave forms
from large drift. For example, walls are likely to
are very complex. Ground accelerations are also
be stiffer than structural framing and therefore
very important, because they are related to be
subject to greater seismic forces. The walls, as a
inertial forces that act on building components
result may crack or collapse. Consequently, a
during an earthquake. Accelerations are
seismic design of buildings should make
recorded in accelerograms, which are a plot of
allowance for large drift, for example, by
the variation with time of components of the
providing gaps between adjoining buildings and
ground accelerations. Newton's law relates
between adjoining building components not
acceleration to force.
required to be rigidly connected together and
• Seismic Scales VI

For study of the behavior of buildings in past VII

earthquakes and applications of the information
VIII
collected to contemporary aseismic design, it is
useful to have some quantitative means for IX
comparing earthquake severity. Two scales, the
Modified Mercalli and the Richter, are X
commonly used in the United States. XI
The Modified Mercalli scale compares XII
earthquake intensity by assigning values to
human perceptions of the severity of the Definition
oscillations and extent of damage to buildings. Felt noticeably by many, outdoors by few, at
The scale has 12 divisions. The severer the night some awaken. Windows, dishes, doors,
reported oscillations and damage, the higher is rattle. Standing automobiles rock noticeably.
the number assigned to the earthquake
intensity. See table below. Felt by nearly everyone. Some breakage of
plaster, windows, and dishes. Tall objects
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (Abridged) disturbed.
Intensity Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors.
Definition Falling plaster and damaged chimneys.

I Everyone runs outdoors. Damage of buildings

negligible to slight, depending on quality of
Detected only by seismic instruments. construction. Noticeably to drivers
II of automobiles.
Felt by a few persons at rest, especially on Damage slight to considerable in substantial
upper floors. Delicate suspended objects may buildings, great in poorly constructed
swing. structures. Walls thrown out of frames; walls,
III chimneys, monuments fall, sand and mud
ejected.
Felt noticeably indoors, not always recognized
as an earthquake. Standing automobiles rock Considerable damage to well-designed
slightly. Vibrations similar to that caused by a structures, structures shifted off foundations;
passing truck. buildings thrown out of plumb underground
pipes damaged. Ground cracked conspicuously.

Many masonry and frame structures destroyed;

rails bent, water splashed over banks;
landslides; ground cracked
Intensity
Bridges destroyed; rails bent greatly; most
IV masonry structures destroyed; underground
V
service pipes out of commission; landslides, correspondingly. Inertial forces, or seismic
broad fissures in ground loads, on the building resist the displacements.
Major damage usually is caused by the
Total damage. Waves seen in surface level, lines
horizontal components of these loads, inasmuch
of sight and level distorted, objects thrown into
as vertical structural members and connection
air.
generally have adequate strength to resist the
The Richter scale assigns numbers M to vertical components. Hence, as for wind loads,
earthquake intensity in accordance with the buildings should be designed to resist the
amount of energy released, as measured by the maximum probable horizontal component
maximum amplitude of ground motion. The applied in any direction. Vertical components of
larger the ground displacement at a given force must be considered in design of
location, the higher the value of the number connections in high mass prefabricated
assigned on the Richter scale. A Richter elements such as precast concrete slab and
magnitude of 8 corresponds approximately to a girders.
Modified Mercalli intensity of XI, and for smaller
Seismic forces vary rapidly with time. Therefore,
intensities, Richter scale digits are about one
they impose a dynamic loading on buildings.
unit less than corresponding Mercalli Roman
Calculation of the building responses to such
numerals.
loading is complex and is usually carried out
Effects of Ground Conditions only for important buildings that are very tall
and slender. For other types of buildings,
The amplitude of ground motion at a specific building codes generally permit use of an
location during an earthquake depends not only alternative static loading for which structural
on distance from the epicenter but also on the analysis is much simpler. • Aseismic Design
types of soil at the location. (Some soils suffer a
loss of strength in an earthquake and allow The basic method for providing wind resistance
large, uneven foundation settlements, which - shear walls, diagonal bracing, and rigid frames
cause severe property damage.) Ground motion are also suitable for resisting seismic loads.
is usually much larger in alluvial soils 9sands or Ductile rigid frames, however, are preferred
clays deposited by flowing water) than in rocky because of large energy-absorbing capacity.
areas or diluvial soils (materials deposited by Building codes encourage their use by
glaciers). Reclaimed land or earth fills generally permitting them to be designed for smaller
undergo even greater displacements than seismic loads than those required for shear
alluvial soils. Consequently, in selection of sites walls and diagonal bracings. (Ductility is a
for structures in zones where severe property that enables a structural member to
earthquakes are highly probable during the life undergo considerable deformations without
of the structures, preference should be given to failing. The more a member deforms the more
sites with hard ground or rock to considerable energy it can absorb and therefore the greater is
depth, with sand and gravel as a less desirable the resistance it can offer to dynamic loads.)
alternative and clay as a poor choice.
For tall, slender buildings, use of the basic
Seismic Forces methods alone in limiting drift to an acceptable
level may not be cost-effective. In such cases,
During an earthquake, the ground may move improved response to the dynamic loads may
horizontally in any direction and up and down, be improved by installation of heavy masses
shifting the building foundations near the roof, with their movements restricted
by damping devices. Another alternative is damage to a building. Consequently, designers
installation of energy-absorbing devices at key should protect buildings and their contents
points in the structural framing, such as the against water damage.
bearings of bottom columns or the intersections
Protective measures may be divided into two
of cross bracing.
classes: flood-proofing and waterproofing.
Designers usually utilize floors and roofs, acting Flood-proofing provides protection against
as horizontal diaphragms, to transmit lateral flowing surface water, commonly caused by a
forces to the resisting structural members. river overflowing its banks. Waterproofing
Horizontal bracing, however, may be used provides protection against penetration through
instead. Where openings occur in floors and the exterior enclosure of the buildings of
roofs, for example for floor and elevators, groundwater, rainwater. Buildings adjacent to
structural framing should be provided around large water bodies may also require protection
the openings to bypass lateral forces. form undermining due to erosion and impact
from storm driven waves.
As for wind loads, the weight of the building and

⚫ Flood-proofing
of earth adjoining foundations are the only
forces available to prevent the horizontal
A flood occurs when a river rises above an
elevation, called flood stage, and is not
loads from overtuming the building. Also, as for prevented by enclosures from causing damage
wind loads, the roof should be firmly anchored beyond its banks. Buildings constructed in a
to the superstructure framing, which, in tum, flood plain, an area that can be inundated by a
should be securely attached to the foundations. flood, should be protected against a flood with a
Furthermore, individual footing, especially pile mean recurrence interval of 100 years.
and caisson footing should be tied to each other
to prevent relative movement. Major objectives of flood-proofing are to
protect fully building and contents from damage
Building codes often limit the drift per floor from a 100-year flood, reduce losses from more
under the equivalent static seismic load. devastating floods, and lower flood insurance
Connections and intersections of curtain walls premiums. Flood-proofing, however, would be
and partitions with each other or with the unnecessary if buildings were not constructed in
structural framing should allow for a relative flood prone areas. Building in flood prone areas
movement of at least twice the calculated drift should be avoided unless the risk to life is
in each floor. Such allowances for displacement acceptable and construction there can be
may be larger than those normally required for economically and socially justified.
dimensional changes caused by temperature
variations. Some sites in flood prone areas posses some
ground high enough to avoid flood damage. If
PROTECTION AGAINST WATER: Typhoon such sites must be used, buildings should be
Resistant Construction clustered on the high areas. Where such areas
Whether thrust against and into a building by a are not available, it may be feasible to build up
flood, driven into the interior by a heavy rain, an earth fill, with embankments protected
leaking from plumbing, storm surge, or seeping against erosion by water, to raise structures
through the exterior enclosure, water can costly above flood levels.
An alternative to elevating a building on fill is windows and doors, impervious water-stops in
raising it on stilts (columns in an enclosed joints, or calking of cracks and other openings.
space). In that case, utilities and other services Methods of preventing seepage, however,
should be protected against damage from flood depend on the type of materials used in the
flows. The space at ground level between the exterior enclosure.
stilts may be used for parking automobiles, if
Definitions of Terms Related to Water
the risk of water damage to them is acceptable
Resistance
or if they will be removed before flood waters
reach the site. Buildings that cannot be elevated . Permeability. Quality or state of permitting
above flood stage should be fumished with an passage of water and water vapor into, through
impervious exterior. Windows should be above and from pores and interstices, without causing
flood stage, and doors should seal tightly rupture, or displacement.
against their frames. Doors and other openings
may also be protected with a flood shield, such Pervious of leaky. Cracks, crevices, leaks, or
as a wall. Openings in the wall for access to the holes larger than capillary pores which permit a
building may be protected with a movable flood flow or leakage of water, are present. The
shield, which for normal conditions can be material may or may not contain capillary pores.
stored out of sight and then positioned in the
wall opening when a flood is imminent.

To prevent water damage to essential services

for buildings in flood plains, important 0
mechanical and electrical equipment should be
Q
located above flood level. Also, auxiliary electric
generators to provide some emergency power Water-resistant. Capillary pores exists that
are desirable. In addition, pumps should be permit passage of water and water vapor, but
installed to eject water that leaks into the there are few or no openings larger than
building. Furthermore, unless a building is to be capillaries that permit leakage of significant
evacuated in case of flood, an emergency water amounts of water.
supply should be stored in a tank above flood
Water-repellent. Not wetted" by water, hence,
level, and sewerage should be provided with
not capable of transmitting water by capillary
cutoff valaves to prevent backflow.
forces alone. However, the material may allow
• Waterproofing transmission of water under pressure and may
be permeable to water vapor.
In addition to protecting buildings against flood,
designers also should adopt measures that Waterproof. No openings are present that
prevent groundwater, and rainwater from permit leakage or passage of water and water
penetrating into the interior through the vapor, the material is impervious to water and
exterior enclosure. Water may leak through water vapor, whether under pressure or not.
cracks, expansion joints or other openings in
These terms also describe the permeability of a
wall and roofs, or through cracks around
surface coating or a treatment against water
windows and doors. Also, water may seep
penetration, and they refer to the permeability
through solid but porous exteriors materials
of materials, structural members, and structures
such as, masonry. Leakage generally may be
prevented by use of weather stripping around
whether or not they have been coated or single-leaf walls of highly pervious units, leakage
treated. at the joints results from failure to fill them with
mortar and poor bond between the masonry
Permeability of Concrete and Masonry
unit and mortar. Compared with concrete, rate
Concrete contains many interconnected voids of capillary penetration through masonry walls
and openings of various sizes and shapes, most is small compared with the possible rate of
of which are of capillary dimensions. If the leakage.
larger voids and openings are few in number
Roof Drainage
and not directly connected with each other,
there will be little of no water penetration by Many roof failures have been caused by
leakage and the concrete may be said to be excessive water accumulation. In most cases,
water resistant. the overload that caused failure was not
anticipated in the design of those roofs, because
Concrete in contact with water not under
the designers expected rainwater to run off the
pressure will absorb it. The water is drawn into
roof. Thus, inadequate drainage caused the
the concrete by the surface tension of the liquid
water to pond
in the wetted capillaries.
On flat roofs, accumulation of rainwater causes
Water-resistant concrete for buildings should be
structural members to deflect. The resulting
a properly cured, dense, rich concrete
bowing of the roof surface permits more
containing durable, well-graded aggregate. The
rainwater to accumulate, and the additional
water content of the concrete mix should be as
weight of this water causes additional bowing
low as is compatible with workability and ease
and collection of even more water. This process
of placing and handling. Resistance of concrete
can lead to roof collapse. Similar conditions also
to penetration of water may be improved,
can occur in the valleys of sloping roofs.
however, by incorporation of a water-repellant
admixture in the mix during manufacture. To avoid water accumulation, roofs should be
sloped towards drains and pipes that have
Water-repellent concrete is permeable to water
adequate capacity to conduct water away from
vapor. If a vapor-pressure gradient is present,
the roofs, in accordance with local plumbing
moisture may penetrate from the exposed face
codes. Minimum roof slope drainage should be
to an inner face. The concrete is not made
at least 1⁄4 inch per foot, but larger slopes are
waterproof by the use of an integral water
advisable.
repellent. Note also that water repellents may
not make concrete impermeable to penetration The primary drainage system should be
of water under pressure. They may, however, supplemented by a secondary drainage system
reduce absorption of water by concrete. at a higher level to prevent accumulation of the
roof above that level. The overflow drains
Most masonry units also will absorb water.
should be at least as large as the primary drains
Some are highly pervious under pressure. The
and should be connected to drain pipes
mortar commonly used in masonry will absorb
independent of the primary system or scuppers
water too but usually contains few openings
through the parapet. The roof and its structural
permitting leakage.
members should be capable of sustaining the
Masonry walls may leak at the joints between weight of all rainwater that could accumulate on
the mortar and the units, however, except in the roof if part or all of the primary drainage
system should become blocked.
Drainage for Subgrade Structures flooding of the slab from heavy surface runoffs
may be obtained with subsurface drains located
Subgrade structures located above groundwater
at the elevation of the wall footings.
level in drained sol may be in contract with
water and wet soil for periods of indefinite Moisture from the ground may be absorbed by
duration after long continued rains. Drainage of the floor slab. Floor coverings, such as oil-base
surface and subsurface water, however, greatly paints, linoleum, and asphalt tile, acting as a
reduce the time during which the walls and vapor barrier over the slab, may be damaged as
floor of a structure are subjected to water, may a result. If such floor coverings are used and
prevent leakage through openings resulting where a complete barrier against the rise of
from poor workmanship and reduce the moisture from the ground is desired, a two-ply
capillary penetration of water into the structure. bituminous membrane or other waterproofing
If subsurface water cannot be removed by material should be placed beneath the slab and
drainage, the structure must be made over the insulating concrete or granular fill. The
waterproof or highly water-resistant. top of the lightweight-aggregate concrete, if
used, should be troweled or brushed to a
Surface water may be diverted by grading the
smooth level surface of the membrane. The top
ground surface away from the walls and by
of the granular fill should be covered with a
carrying the runoff from roofs away from the
grout coating similarly finished. (The grout coat,
building. The slope of the ground surface should
1⁄2 to 1 inch thick, may consist of a 1:3 or a 1:4
be at least 4 inch per foot for a minimum
mix by volume of Portland cement and sand.
distance of 10 feet from the walls.
Some or 1⁄2 inch maximum-sized coarse
aggregate may be added to the grout if desired.)
After the top surface of the insulating concrete
or grout coating has hardened and dries, it
should be mapped with hot asphalt or coal-tar
Runoff from high ground adjacent to the
pitch and covered before cooling with a lapped
structure should also be diverted.
layer of 15 lb. bituminous saturated felt. The
Proper subsurface drainage of ground water first ply of felt then should be mopped with hot
away from basement walls and floors requires a bitumen and a second ply of felt laid and
drain of adequate size, sloped continuously, mopped on its top surface. Care should be
and, where necessary, carried around comers of exercised not to puncture the membrane, which
the building without breaking continuity. The should preferably be covered with a coating of
drain should lead to a storm sewer or to a lower mortar, immediately after its completion. If
elevation that will not be flooded and permit properly laid and protected from damage, the
water to back up in the drain. membrane may be considered to be a
waterproof barrier.
Concrete Floors at Grade

Floors on ground should preferably not be ⚫Basement Floors

constructed in low-lying areas that are wet from
the ground water, or periodically flooded with Where a basement is to be used in drained soils
surface water. The ground should slope away as living quarters or for the storage of things
from the floor. The level of the finished floor that may be damaged by moisture, the floor
should be at least 6 inches above grade. Further should be insulated and should preferably
protection against ground moisture and possible contain the membrane waterproofing described
in concrete floors at grade. In general the design retarded by use of an integral water- repellent
and construction of such basement floors are admixture in the mortar. The water-repellent
similar to those of floors on ground. mortar may be used in several courses of
masonry located at & just above grade. The use
• Monolithic Concrete Basement Walls
of shotcrete or trowel-applied mortar coatings,
These should have a minimum thickness of 6 %4 inch or more in thickness, to the outside
inches. Where insulation is desirable, as where faces of both monolithic concrete and unit-
the basement is used for living quarters, masonry walls greatly increases their resistance
lightweight aggregate, such as those prepared to penetration of moisture. Such plaster
by calcining or sintering blast-fumace slag, clay, coatings cover and seal construction joints and
or shale that meet the requirements of ASTM other vulnerable joints in the walls against
Standard C330 may be used in the concrete. The leakage.
concrete should have a minimum compressive
Impervious Membranes
strength of 2000 psi.
These are waterproof barriers providing
For the forms in which concrete for basement
protection against penetration of water under
walls is cast, form ties of an internal-
hydrostatic pressure and water vapor. To resist
disconnecting type are preferable to twisted-
hydrostatic pressure, a membrane should be
wire ties. Entrance holes for the form ties
made continuous in the walls and floors of a
should be sealed with mortar after the forms
basement. It also should be protected from
are removed. If twisted wire ties are used, they
damage during building operations and should
should be cut a minimum distance of 11⁄2 inch
be laid by experienced workers under
inside the face of the wall and the holes filled
competent supervision.
with mortar.
It usually consists of three or more alternate
The resistance of the wall to capillary
layers of hot mopped-on asphalt or coal-tar
penetration of water in temporary contact with
pitch and plies of treated glass fabric, or
the wall face may be increased by the use of a
water-repellent admixture. The water repellent
may also be used in the concrete at and just
above grade to reduce the capillary rise of bituminous saturated cotton or woven burlap
moisture from the ground into the fabric. The number of moppings exceeds the
superstructure walls. number of plies by one. Alternatives are cold-
applied bituminous systems, liquid-applied
Unit-Masonry Basement Walls membranes, and sheet-applied membranes,
Water resistant basement walls of masonry similar to those used for roofing. In installation,
units should be carefully constructed of durable manufacturer's recommendations should be
materials to prevent leakage and damage due to carefully followed.
frost and pother weathering exposures. Leakage Above-Grade Walls
through an expansion joint in a concrete or
masonry foundation wall may be prevented by The rate of moisture penetration through
insertion of a waterstop in the joint. capillaries in above-grade walls is low and
usually of minor importance. However, such
Rise of moisture, by capillary, from the ground walls should not permit leakage of wind-driven
into the superstructure walls may be greatly
rain through openings larger than those of to the outside of the wall through conveniently
capillary dimension. located weep holes.

Precast-concrete or metal panels are usually ✓ Prevention of Cracking. Shrinkage of concrete

made of dense, highly water resistant materials. masonry because of drying and a drop in
However walls made of these panels are temperature may result in cracking of a wall and
vulnerable to leakage at the joints. In such its cementitious facing. Suck cracks readily
construction, edges of the panels may be permit leakage of wind-driven rain. The chief
recessed and the interior of vertical joints filled factor reducing incidence of shrinkage cracking
with grout or other sealant after the panels are is the use of dry block. When laid in the wall,
aligned. Calking compound is commonly used as the block should have low moisture content,
facing. preferably one that is equilibrium with the
driest condition to which the wall will be
Brick walls 4 inches or more in thickness can be
exposed.
made highly water-resistant. The measures that
need to be taken to ensure there will be no ✓
leakage of wind-driven rain through brick
facings are not extensive and do not require the Use of control joints faced with calking
use of materials other than those commonly compound has also been recommended to
used in masonry walls. The main factors that control shrinkage cracking; however, this
need to be controlled are the rate of suction of practice is marked by frequent failures to keep
the brick at the time of laying and filling of all the joints sealed against leakage of rain. Steel
joints with mortar. In general, the greater joint reinforcement strengthens a concrete
number of brick leaves, or wythes, in a wall, the nasonry wall, whereas control joints weaken it,
more water-resistant is the wall and the calking in the joint requires
considerable maintenance. Water-Resistant
Walls of hollow masonry units are usually high Surface Treatments for Above-Grade Wall.
permeable, and brick-faced walls backed with Experience has shown that leakage of wind-
hollow masonry units are greatly dependent driven rain through masonry walls, particularly
upon the water resistance of the brick facing to those of brick, ordinarily cannot be stopped by
prevent leakage of wind-driven rain. For exterior use of an expensive surface treatment or
concrete masonry walls without facings of coating that will not alter the appearance of the
bricks, protection against leakage may be wall. Such protective devices either have a low
obtained by facing the walls with a cementitious service life or fail to stop all leakage.
coating of paint, stucco, or shotcrete.
Coatings for masonry may be divided into four
For wall of rough-textured units, a Portland groups, as follows: (1) colorless coating
cement-sand grout provides a highly water- materials; (2) cementitious coatings; (30
resistant coating. The cement may either be pigmented organic coatings; and (4) bituminous
white or gray. coatings.
Cavity walls, particularly brick-faced cavity walls, Colorless Coating Materials. The colorless
may be made highly resistant to leakage "waterproofing" are often claimed to stop
through the wall facing. However, as usually leakage or wind-driven rain through permeable
constructed, facings are highly permeable, and walls. Solutions of oils, paraffin wax, sodium
the leakage is trapped in the cavity and diverted silicate, chlorinated rubber, silicone resins, and
salts of fatty acids have been applied to highly resistant base coatings on above-grade concrete
permeable test walls and have been tested masonry. They may also be applied to the
under exposure conditions simulating a wind- exposed faces of brick masonry walls that have
driven rain. not been built to be water-resistant.

Most of these solutions contained not more The cementitious coatings absorb moisture and
than 10% of solid matter. These treatments are of the breather type, permitting passage of
reduced the rate of leakage but did not stop all water vapor. Addition of water repellents to
leakage through the walls. The test data shows these coatings does not greatly affect their
that colorless coating materials applied to water resistance but does reduce the soiling of
permeable walls of brick or concrete masonry the surface from the absorption of dirt-laden
may not provide adequate protection against water. If more than one coating is applied, as in
leakage of wind-driven rain. a two-coat paint or stucco facing job, the
repellent is preferably added only to the finish
Solutions containing oils and waxes tended to
coat, thus avoiding the difficulty of bonding a
seal the pores exposed in the faces of the
cementitious coating to a water repellent
mortar joints and masonry units, thereby acting
surface. The technique used in applying the
more or less as vapor barriers, but did not seal
cementitious coatings is highly important. The
the larger openings, particularly those in the
backing should be thoroughly dampened. Paints
joints.
and grouts should be scrubbed into place with
Silicone water-repellent solutions greatly stiff fiber brushes and the coatings should be
reduced leakage through the walls as long as properly cured by wetting. Properly applied, the
the treated wall faces remained water- grouts are highly durable; some grout coatings
repellent. After and exposure period of 2 or 3 applied to concrete masonry test walls aere
hour, the rate of leakage gradually increased as found to be as water-resistant after 10 years
the water repellency of the wall face out-of-doors exposure as when first applied to
diminished. Coatings of the water-repellent, the walls.
breather type, such as silicone and "soap
Pigmented Organic Coatings. These include
solutions, may be of value in reducing
textured coatings, mastic coatings, conventional
absorption of moisture into the wall surface.
paints, and aqueous dispersions. The thick-
They may be of special benefit in reducing the
textured and mastic coatings are usually spray-
soiling and disfiguration of stucco facings and
applied but may be applied by trowel.
light-colored masonry surfaces. They may be
Conventional paints and aqueous dispersions
applied to precast-concrete panels to reduce
are usually applied by brush or spray. Most of
volume changes that may otherwise result from
these coatings are vapor barriers but some
changes in moisture content of the concrete.
textured coatings, conventional paints, and
aqueous dispersions are breathers. Except for
the aqueous dispersions, all the coatings are
recommended for use with a primer.
Cementitious Coatings. Coatings of Portland- Applied as continuous coating without pinholes,
cement paints, grouts, and stuccos and of the pigmented organic coatings are highly
pneumatically applied mortars are highly water- water-resistant. They are most effective when
resistant. They are preferred above all other applied over a smooth backing. When they are
types of surface coatings for use as water- applied with paintbrush or spray by
conventional methods to rough-textured walls, Mid-rise housing, as defined, is an aggregation
it is difficult to level the surface and obtain a of dwelling units in buildings ranging from
continuous water-resistant coating free from approximately four to fifteen storeys. These
holes. A scrubbed-on cementitious grout used buildings require elevator access; but they are
as a base coat on such walls will prevent leakage generally broader than they are high.
through the masonry without the use of a
Flats in these building configurations may be
pigmented organic coating. The pigmented
organized along a single-loaded corridor (a row
organic coatings are highly decorative but may
of flats opening off one side of the corridor) or a
not be so water-resistant, economical, or
double-loaded corridor (a row of flats opening
durable as the cementitious coatings.
off both sides of the corridor).
Bituminous Coatings. Bituminous cutbacks,
The double-loaded approach is more efficient in
emulsions, and plastic cements are usually
terms of circulation and space; but single loaded
vapor barriers and are sometimes applied as
schemes are appropriate where an exterior
"damp proofers" on the inside faces of masonry
access corridor is feasible, where views make
walls. Plaster is often applied directly over these
one side of the building more desirable, where
coatings, the bond of the plaster to the masonry
the site is narrow, or where the units wrap
being only of a mechanical nature. Test show
around another structure such as parking.
that bituminous coatings applied to the inside
Whether the building plan is single-loaded or
faces of highly permeable masonry walls, not
double-loaded, elevators generally will be
plastered, will readily blister and permit leakage
centrally located, with egress stairs at the
of water through the coating. It is advisable not
corridor ends.
to depend on such coatings to prevent the
leakage of wind-driven rain unless they are The units created typically have only one
incorporated in the masonry or held in place exterior exposure. The interior zone that
with a rigid self-sustaining backing. parallels the corridor is used for entry,
circulation, kitchen, bathrooms, and storage.
Even though the walls are resistant to wind-
The exterior zone, with its exterior windows, is
driven rain, but are treated on their inner faces
reserved for living and dining areas, bedrooms,
with a bituminous coating, water may not be
and a possible study.
condensed on the warm side of the coating and
damage to the plaster may result, whether the Units at the building's ends, comers, and
walls are furred or not. However, the setbacks can take advantage of multi exposures.
bituminous coating may be of benefit as a vapor Balconies related to living and dining areas,
barrier in furred walls, if no condensation occurs whether recessed into the building mass or
on the warm inside. projecting from it, are a desirable feature.

Exterior Treatment

The exterior appearance of mid-rise housing is

influenced by the overall building configuration,
UNCONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGY FOR MEDIUM the structural system, and enclosing wall
RISE HOUSING materials, as well as the presence of balconies,

⚫ Basic Building Type

roof terraces, or sun control devices. The overall
building mass may range from the simplest
boxlike volume to more complex forms with
varying roof levels and projecting wings open onto a balcony or terrace that may be
enclosing courtyards or defining shared exterior projected or recessed. Socialized Housing
spaces.
The typical façade of the tenements combined
✓ Expression of Structure the horizontal lines of the balcony utilized as
corridors and the diagonal lines of the ramps
A concrete frame may be exposed as an integral used as stairs in the medium rise storey
exterior design element. A steel structure, structures. On top of the buildings was a roof
however, must be fire-proofed and clad in a deck intended as drying areas and children's
finish material if it is to be expressed on the play areas. On the ground floors were the
building's exterior. Generally, the structural garbage incinerator and water pumps. Concrete
system of a building is not treated as a design walls divided each unit. The National Housing
element on the exterior but is buried within the Authority revived the Medium-Rise Housing
exterior walls. Program in response to the clamor for an
Exterior Wall Materials alternative to relocation, or

The building's enclosing material or its skin, is

one of the most prominent aspects of its
in-city relocation approach. The first multi-
appearance. This skin consists of a combination
storey tenement husing project was known as
of two systems: an opaque material and a
Bagong Barangay Housing Project (BBHP) or
transparent fixed or operable window system.
Project 5 located in Pandacan. It consisted of 17
The most common opaque exterior wall
three storey buildings with a total of 483
material is brick. Other masonry materials are
apartment units. This was followed by the Vitas
sometimes used for exterior wall finish, such as
Tenement, a seven storey building with 252
concrete block and glazed ceramic or terra-cotta
dwelling units along Estero de Vitas in Tondo,
tile.
Manila; Punta Tenement in 1965 with 672 units
Stone has traditionally been an important accommodated in a 2 seven storey buildings
exterior wall material. Precast concrete wall located in Sta. Ana, Manila; Fort Bonifacio
panels are also a common exterior wall Tenement in 1973, a fiur storey building with 98
enclosure material. They may be supported on apartment units.
or hung from a steel or concrete frame and
Construction Materials
typically span vertically. Buildings may also be
built completely of cast-in-place concrete, Building Element:
including the structure, enclosing walls, and
other exterior elements. Type of Material: Description:

Building Element: Other Applications:

✓ Window Openings
Type of Material: Description:
Window units in multi-family buildings consist
generally of two types: the "punched window Building Element: Type of Material: Description:
opening in a solid wall with its sill 30" to 36"
above the floor is most often used as a bedroom Building Element: Type of Material: Description:
window, while a large glazed area, sometimes Building Element Type of Material: Description:
reaching from floor to ceiling, may be used in
living and dining areas. The glazed areas may Tech. Information:
Wall conversion, rice hull can be used as binder for
HB construction due to its silica content
Cement, Sand
Rice Hull Ash Cement (RHAC) blocks with
Interlocking Hollow Blocks
varying proportions were made applying the
SVD Block manufactured by Societas Verbi Divini conventional process RHAC blocks is as durable
or the Society of Divine Word Frents Blocks as ordinary concrete hollow block but cheaper.
manufactured by Frents Housing Settlement Inc.
Wall
Pos Block manufactured by Genbuilt Philippines
Waste liquor from commercial pulping of abaca
ITDI Brick manufactured by the Industrial
Waste alkaline sulfite liquor was concentrated
Technology Development Institute
to about 40% solids and used as additive in the
Wall preparation of concrete hollow blocks and
cylinders.
Structural Element
Hollow blocks with 20% replacement of cement
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits by waste liquor gave the highest compressive
Pyroclastic fall deposits such as ash, lahar, and strength while hollow blocks with 20% and 40%
pumice stone from Mt. Pinatubo's eruption. waste liquor showed strength comparable with
that waste liquor.
Deposits basically contain feldspar with
presence of amorphous minerals. The lowest water absorption was recorded in
hollow blocks without waste liquor at an
Found useful to a measurable extent as filler for aggregate-binder ratio of 1:6. The highest water
ceramic bricks, flux, and as fine aggregate absorption was observed on hollow blocks with
additive to concrete 20% waste liquor at an aggregate-binder ration
Wall of 7:1.

Lahar-Cement Mixture Comparatively, water absorption of hollow

blocks with 20% and 40% waste liquor at
DOST-ITDI developed a new building block using aggregate-binder ratios of 6:1 and 7:1 did not
lahar-cement mixture as major components. differ significantly from that of hollow blocks
without waste liquor replacement at an
DIY block compared with CHB will result in great
aggregate-binder ratio of 7:1. Low water
savings as high as 30%.
absorption indicated high resistance to the
Can compete with CHB economically. passage of water which could cause
disintegration of concrete.
Due to its fineness more cement is needed to
bind its particles. After 3,7, and 28 days of curing, concrete
cylinders added with waste liquor showed
Wall
higher compressive strength than concrete
Rice Hull, Ash cylinders added with the same dosage of
commercial additives.
Rice hull is an agricultural waste material,
accumulates in large volume, presents a big Initial and final settings times were similar for
waste disposal problem Through ash both waste liquor and commercial additive.
CANCHELA SHELTER COMPONENT AND called a "nuthouse." The buildings are falling
STACKING PROCESS apart, uncollected garbage is piling up, walls and
roofs in every unit leak, drains are clogged,
The Canchela Shelter Components and Stacking
broken sewage stacks ooze excrement, stairways
Process used in the Vitas Medium-Rise Housing
are crumbling, gangster-like syndicates have
Project in Tondo, were apartment shells stacked
taken control of the supply mains and extract
up and placed on top of each other like boxes. fees for water and electricity. Forty three
percent of the occupants are no longer paying
their rent or making their mortgage payments,
NHA-VITAS MEDIUM RISE HOUSING PROJECT and nearly half perceive their stay in Vitas as
temporary, "until they can no longer bear to
The National Housing Authority's enormous
stay or the NHA throws them out for not
Vitas Housing Project or the Katuparan Ville,
paying." Court cases against the NHA, and by
was built in Tondo, in the 1980s to resettle
the NHA abound.
families displaced by the Port Authority's new
container terminal. Ten of the projects 27 Almost every aspect of the project seems to
buildings were allocated for socialized housing destroy community rather than create it.
while the rest were sold on the open market. Physical segregation of different types of
Each unit has a floor area of 18.00 sqm. The "beneficiaries" has exacerbated "us and them"
brand new, engineer-designed, pink painted divisions within Vitas. Some residents are
buildings were inaugurated in 1990, and marked extremely poor relocates from nearby Smokey.
a revival of the National Housing Authority's Mountain, who continue sorting recyclable
medium-rise housing program. wastes within the grounds, to the chagrin of
better-off neighbors who bought their units at
What happens when poor people who live on
market rates, and who resent their mortgage
the ground, are 'upgraded into flat that are up
payments subsidizing these scavengers.
in the air? There are some obvious benefits in
"going up," since more people can be packed Contact between neighbors on different floors is
into less land. But it's expensive, hard to due mostly to quarrels. In one instance, a
maintain and the complex web of connections woman hacked down her upstairs neighbor's
which knit poor communities together do not door with a jungle bolo when there was a leak.
always survive the transition from street to sky. Unoccupied buildings elsewhere have been
invaded by squatters and social divisions
A recent study by Urban Poor Associates
throughout the project have made the area into
examines the project's planning, design,
a war-zone. Drugs, crime and violence are
construction and management, and uses
getting worse kids are kept locked inside their
extensive interviews with residents to find out
small units for safety. Only 33% of the residents
how the occupants are adapting to a "vertical
belong to one of the 18 resident organizations
environment." In a time when many slum
which have formed in different buildings. There
redevelopment programs are opting for similar
is no project-wide community association.
high-density housing types, the study makes a
valuable catalogue of all the things not to do. Whatever happened to the Vitas Housing
Project? Was it a social or an architectural
It's hard to imagine a project doing more wrong
issue?
than Vitas, which in just nine years has
deteriorated into what one Manila journalist