DRILLING OPERATIONS

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING

Prepared by Elfakeur ABIDI SAAD

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Module Objectives 7

2. The History of Drilling 8

2.1. Ancient Chinese Drilling 8

2.2. Advancement of Chinese Drilling 9

2.3. Development of Early Drilling Tools 10

2.4. The Development of Spring Pole Drilling in the USA 11

2.5. The Derrick and Cable Tool Drilling (Percussion Drilling) 12

2.6. Development of Rotary Drilling 14

2.7. Offshore Drilling Rigs 16

2.8. Offshore Floating Rigs 17

3. Types of Drilling Rigs 18

3.1 Overview 18

3.2 Semi-Submersible Drilling Rigs 19

3.3 Semi-Submersible Compensators 19

3.4 Jack Up Drilling Rigs 20

3.5 Land Drilling Rigs 21

3.6 Fixed Drilling Platforms 22

3.7 Drill Ship 22

3.8 Coil Tubing Drilling Rig 23

4. Rig Equipment Orientation 24

4.1 Basic Rig Equipment 24

4.1.1 Crown Block 25

4.1.2 Drilling Line 25

4.1.3 Traveling Block 25

4.1.4 Catline Boom and Hoist Line 26

4.1.5 The Monkey Board 26

4.1.6 TDS (Top Drive System) 26

4.1.7 Mast or Derrick 27

4.1.8 Drill Pipe 27

4.1.9 Dog House or Drillers shack 27

4.1.10 BOP (Blowout Preventer) 28

4.1.11 Water Tank 28

4.1.12 Electric Cable Trays 28

4.1.13 Engine Generator Sets 29

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
 4.1.14 Fuel Tanks
29
4.1.15 Electrical Control Room 29
4.1.16 Mud Pumps 30
4.1.17 Mud Components 30

4.1.18 Mud Pits 30

4.1.19 Reserve Pit 31
4.1.20 MGS (Mud Gas Separator) 31

4.1.21 Shale Shakers 31

4.1.22 Choke Manifold 32
4.1.23 Vee Door and Catwalk 32
4.1.24 Pipe Racks 33

4.1.25 Accumulator 33

34
5. Rig Crew Familiarisation
34
5.1 Drilling Team
34
5.1.1 Roughneck
34
5.1.2 Derrickman
34
5.1.3 Assistant Driller
35
5.1.4 Driller
35
5.1.5 Tool Pusher
36
5.2 Deck Crew or Marine Team 36
5.2.1 Barge Engineer
36
5.2.2 Crane Operators
36
5.2.3 Roustabout
37
5.3 Maintenance Team 37
5.3.1 Rig Maintenance Supervisor (RMS) 37
5.3.2 Rig Electrician 37
5.3.3 Motorman or Rig Mechanic 38
5.3.4 Electronics Technician
38
5.4 Administrative Team
38

5.4.1 OIM (Offshore Installation Manager) 38

5.4.2 Safety Officer 39

5.4.3 Medic 39

5.4.4 Radio Operator 39

5.4.5 Camp Boss 40

5.4.6 Catering Personnel

 5.5 Sevice Company Roles 40
5.5.1 Mud Engineer (Drilling fluid Engineer) 40

5.5.2 Cementer 40

5.5.3 Mud Logger 41

5.5.4 Wireline Engineer 41

5.5.5 MWD, PWD, LWD Engineers 41

Rig Systems 42

6.1 Hoisting System 42

6.1 Rotating System 43

6.1.1 Kelly Drilling 43

6.1.2 Top Drive Drilling 43

6.2 Circulating and Solids Control System 44

6.3 Power System 45

6.4 Well Control System 46

6.4.1 Primary Barrier 46

6.4.2 Secondary Barrier 46

Well Design and Completeions 47

7.1 Typical Oil and Gas Well Design 47

7.2 Casing Joints 48

7.3 Spudding the Well 49

7.3.1 Jetting 49

7.3.2 Hammer 49

7.4 Drilling 50

7.5 Running and Cementing Surface Casing 51

7.6 Installing the BOP 52

7.7 Intermediate Casing 53

7.8 Production Casing or Liner 53

7.9 Liners 54

7.10 Perforation casing ‫ﺗﺜﻘﻴﺐ ال‬ 54

7.11 Wellhead Installation 55

7.11.1 Dry Trees 55

7.11.2 Wet Trees 55

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
 TABLE OF FIGURES

igure 1 - Example Certificate of Achievment (Introduction to Drilling) ............................................... 7

igure 2 - Drilling for Brine in China ................................................................................................... 8
igure 3 - Example of the Spring Pole Technique .............................................................................. 9
igure 4 -Traditional Chinese Drilling Equipment ............................................................................. 10
igure 5 -Traditional Fish Tail Bit ..................................................................................................... 10
igure 6-The World Struggle for Oil Film 1924 ................................................................................. 11
igure 7 - Development of the Spring Pole Technique in the USA 1802 ........................................... 11
igure 8 - Cable tool drilling with steam engine................................................................................ 12
igure 9 -The Drake Well. Drake on the right ................................................................................... 13
igure 10 - Introduction of rotary drilling .......................................................................................... 14
igure 11 - Captain Anthony Lucas and Patillo Higgins Spindletop Gusher ...................................... 15
igure 12 - Offshore California Drilling on Piers ............................................................................... 16
igure 13 - MrCharlie Ocean Drilling ............................................................................................... 17
igure 14 - Blue Water Number 1 .................................................................................................... 17
igure 15 -Types of Drilling Rigs ..................................................................................................... 18
igure 17 - Semi-Submersible Compensators ................................................................................. 19
igure 16 - Semi-Submersible Rig ................................................................................................... 19
igure 18 - Cantilever Jack-Up ........................................................................................................ 20
igure 19-Slot Type Jack-Up ........................................................................................................... 20
igure 20- Land Rig ........................................................................................................................ 21
igure 21 - Fixed Drilling Platform ................................................................................................... 22
igure 22- Drill Ship ........................................................................................................................ 22
igure 23 - Coil Tubing Rig.............................................................................................................. 23
igure 24 - Land Rig Diagram ......................................................................................................... 24
igure 25 - Crown Block .................................................................................................................. 25
igure 26 - Drilling Line ................................................................................................................... 25
igure 27 -Traveling Block .............................................................................................................. 25
igure 28 - Catline Boom and Hoist Line ......................................................................................... 26
igure 29 -The Monkey Board ......................................................................................................... 26
igure 30 -Top Drive System........................................................................................................... 26
igure 31 - Derrick .......................................................................................................................... 27
igure 32- Drill Pipe ........................................................................................................................ 27
igure 33 - Dog House .................................................................................................................... 27
igure 34 - Blowout Preventer ......................................................................................................... 28
igure 35 - Water Tank ................................................................................................................... 28
igure 36 - Electric Cable Tray ........................................................................................................ 28
igure 37 - Engine Generator Set.................................................................................................... 29
igure 38 - Fuel Tanks .................................................................................................................... 29
igure 39 - Electrical Control Room ................................................................................................. 29
igure 40- Mud Pumps.................................................................................................................... 30
igure 41 - Mud Components .......................................................................................................... 30
igure 42- Mud Pits......................................................................................................................... 30
igure 43 - Reserve Pit ................................................................................................................... 31
igure 44 - Mud Gas Separator ....................................................................................................... 31

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
 igure 45 - Shale Shakers............................................................................................................... 31
igure 46-Choke Manifold ............................................................................................................... 32
igure 47 - Vee Door and Catwalk................................................................................................... 32
igure 48 - Pipe Racks.................................................................................................................... 33
igure 49 - Accumulator .................................................................................................................. 33
igure 50 - Roughnecks .................................................................................................................. 34
igure 51 - Derrickman ................................................................................................................... 34
igure 52 - Assistant Driller ............................................................................................................. 34
igure 53 - Driller ............................................................................................................................ 35
igure 54 -Tool Pusher ................................................................................................................... 35
igure 55 - Barge Engineer ............................................................................................................. 36
igure 56 - Crane Operator ............................................................................................................. 36
igure 57 - Roustabout ................................................................................................................... 36
igure 58 - Rig Maintenance Supervisor.......................................................................................... 37
igure 59 - Rig Electrician ............................................................................................................... 37
igure 60 - Motorman or Rig Mechanic............................................................................................ 37
igure 61 - Electronics Technician................................................................................................... 38
igure 62-OIM................................................................................................................................. 38
igure 63 - Safety Officer ................................................................................................................ 38
igure 64- Medic ............................................................................................................................. 39
igure 65 - Radio Operator.............................................................................................................. 39
igure 66 - Camp Boss ................................................................................................................... 39
igure 67 - Catering Personnel........................................................................................................ 40
igure 68 - Mud Engineer................................................................................................................ 40
igure 69 - Cementer ...................................................................................................................... 40
igure 70- Mud Logger .................................................................................................................... 41
igure 71 - Wireline Engineer .......................................................................................................... 41
igure 72-MWD, PWD, LWD ........................................................................................................... 41
igure 73 - Hoisting System Diagram .............................................................................................. 42
igure 74- Kelly ............................................................................................................................... 43
igure 75-TDS ................................................................................................................................ 43
igure 76 - Circulating System ........................................................................................................ 44
igure 77 - Solids Control Equipment .............................................................................................. 44
igure 78 - Simple Rig Power System Diagram ............................................................................... 45
igure 79 -Typical BOP Configuration ............................................................................................. 46
igure 80 -Typical Well Design ........................................................................................................ 47
igure 81 - Casing Joint .................................................................................................................. 48
igure 82-Spudding the Well ........................................................................................................... 49
igure 83- Drill Bit ........................................................................................................................... 50
igure 84 - Cementing Diagram ...................................................................................................... 51
igure 85 - Surface and Subsea BOP's ........................................................................................... 52
igure 86 - Well Schematic ............................................................................................................. 53
igure 87 - Perforation .................................................................................................................... 54
igure 88- Dry Tree Surface Wellhead ............................................................................................ 55

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
1. MODULE OBJECTIVES

This is a self-study course designed to teach the key terms and concepts that are essential to the oil
and gas drilling industry. Topics include cable-tool and rotary drilling, rig types and components, land
and offshore drilling operations. This module is the first in a series of modules and will teach you the
following basic lessons:

The History of Drilling

Introduction to Drilling Rigs
Rig Equipment Orientation
Rig Crew Familiarisation
Rig Systems
Basic Well Design & Completions
2. THE HISTORY OF DRILLING

2.1. Ancient Chinese Drilling

The Chinese have used oil and gas for many centuries. There is no record of when Chinese began
using natural gas, but clearly in Szechuan the local people were drilling down hundreds of feet into
the earth to get natural gas and brine before the start of the Han Dynasty, before 400 B.C.

The Chinese used bamboo pipelines to carry natural gas and mix it with air to yield a usable source of
fuel for fires.

The initial discovery of natural gas may have come as a serendipitous by product of the search for
brine and salt, and the natural gas fires were certainly used on brine taken from wells to evaporate
the water and recover salt. Natural gas wells were called fire wells.

Edwin Drake is often mentioned for digging a modern oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859, starting a
boom in the modern petrochemical and mining industries, but people had been drilling wells in China
over two thousand years before him.

Figure 2 - Drilling for Brine in China

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
 2.2. Advancement of Chinese Drilling

The first drilling technique developed in China was the Spring Pole Technique seen in Figure 2,
which harnessed the motion of a wooden pole to lower and raise a drill bit into the ground. The
broken rock would then be lifted out with a separate bailing tool.

By the first century B.C., the technology of well-drilling had advanced to the use of a derrick and
cable tools.

Chinese engineers were able to dig down over 800 feet, and commonly did so as part of a brine
industry in Szechuan.

Figure 3 - Example of the Spring Pole Technique

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.3. Development of Early Drilling Tools

The percussion drilling method on its own is impressive, especially when considering that the rest of
the world had nothing comparable in the earlier centuries.

But even more impressive are all the techniques the Sichuan drillers developed to overcome common
drilling problems such as cave ins, lost tools, deviated wells, and so on. A huge variety of tools and
techniques evolved to handle well repair issues and some examples can be found in Figure 3.

Figure 4 - Traditional
Chinese Drilling
Equipment

Many different drill

bits were also
developed, with
different sizes,
shapes and
compositions, to
deal with the
different rock types
encountered, and
the many different
drilling
requirements.

Pictured in Figure 4 is the the "Fish Tail" drill bit, a long and very heavy bit used to create the
initial large diameter hole at the wellhead. This was made of Iron and attached to a Bamboo pole
with a stabilizer wrapped around the top.

Figure 5 - Traditional Fish Tail Bit

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.4. The Development of Spring Pole Drilling in the USA

Drilling knowledge which started in China eventually made its way to the rest of the world. In the
United States the Spring pole technique was being used successfully to drill for "Brine" so that
Salt could be extracted.

There was money to be made from brine wells. The rapidly growing number of settlers in the
frontier needed a lot of salt to preserve food. However, Often Brine wells were fouled with the
intrusion of unsought and unwanted oil.

While repeatedly kicking down a stirrup was primitive and slow, the spring pole's rope and chisel
were still practical drilling technologies.

In 1802 in what is now West Virginia, salt brine drillers David and Joseph Ruffner took 18-months
to drill through 40 feet of bedrock to a total depth of 58 feet using a spring pole.

The well's historic significance rests on the "development of well drilling tools and practices, which
became almost immediately standard equipment used by many other well drillers in the new salt
industry."

The rainbow sheen and pungent smell of oil was bad news to brine drillers.

Figure 6 - The World Struggle for Oil Film 1924

Figure 7 - Development of the Spring Pole
Technique in the USA 1802

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.5. The Derrick and Cable Tool Drilling (Percussion Drilling)

The advent of cable-tool drilling introduced the wooden derrick into the changing American
landscape. Using the same basic notion of chiseling a hole deeper and deeper into the earth.

Frequent stops were needed to remove the chipped-away rock and other material, bail out water- and
sharpen the bit.

Bull wheels and hemp rope repeatedly hoisted and dropped heavy iron drill strings and a curious
variety of bits deep into the borehole.

Oil was still an adversary to those in search of either fresh water or brine. When Yale chemist,
Benjamin
Silliman, found that oil could be distilled into a kerosene illuminant, the world changed forever.
Inspired entrepreneurs with the idea of using cable tool drilling to extract oil quickly got to work.

Figure 8 - Cable tool drilling with steam engine

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
Edwin L. Drake's 1859, discovery of commercial quantities of oil at 69. 5 feet in Titusville,
Pennsylvania, brought America's first drilling boom — and virtually created an industry over night.
Drake was the first to use large diameter pipe to case the hole.

Soon, cable-tool rigs were everywhere, pounding into the earth, searching for oil.

In 1860 steam engines were introduced to power rigs and the drilling operation became much more
efficient.

As wells got deeper, some drilling experts found resistant rock strata that made progress far more
difficult using the percussion drilling method. Sometimes the drilling tools got stuck threatening the
well.

Figure 9 - The Drake Well. Drake on the right

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.6. Development of Rotary Drilling

Instead of the repetitive lift and drop of heavy cable-tool bits, rotary drilling introduced the hollow drill
pipe that enabled drilling fluid to be circulated down through the drill pipe and then cuttings would be
washed out of the borehole while the rotating drill bit cut deeper.

By applying downward pressure, the drilling fluid also stops an oil well from kicking unexpectedly.
This was achieved by using a fluid weight that was greater than the anticipated reservoir pressure.

Archaeological records show that as early as 3000 BC the Egyptians may have been using a similar
technique.

Leonardo Di Vinci, as early as 1500, developed a design for a rotary drilling mechanism that bears
much resemblance to today's technology.

Figure 10 - Introduction of rotary drilling

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
Drillers would grind their way through layers of rock rather than pounding, and the heavy fishtail bits
made history.

Rotary rigs soon became the preferred means of drilling after the efforts of Captain Anthony Lucas
and Patillo Higgins in drilling their 1901 "Spindletop" well in Texas for oil, although to this day they still
share the oil patch with a few cable-tool rigs.

The new oil field at Spindletop in Texas soon produced more than 100,000 barrels. The record depth
recorded for a cable-tool rig is 11,145 feet. On Russia's Kola Peninsula, a rotary rig reached more
than 40,000 feet after ten years of drilling.

Figure 11 - Captain Anthony Lucas and Patillo Higgins Spindletop Gusher

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.7. Offshore Drilling Rigs

In 1896, as enterprising businessmen pursued California's prolific Summerland oilfield all the way to
the beach, the lure of offshore production enticed Henry L. Williams and his associates to build a pier
300 feet out into the Pacific - and mount a standard cable-tool rig on it.

By 1897 this first offshore well was producing oil and 22 companies soon joined in the boom,
constructing 14 more piers and over 400 wells within the next five years. The Summerland offshore
field produced for 25 years - fueling the growth of California's economy.

By 1921, steel piers were being used in Rincon and Elwood (California) to support land-type drilling
rigs. In 1932, a steel-pier island (60 x 90 ft with a 25-ft air gap) was built V* mile offshore by a small oil
company, Indian Petroleum Corp., to support another onshore-type rig. Although the wells were
disappointing and the island was destroyed in 1940 by a storm, it was the forerunner of the steel-
jacketed platforms of today.

Figure 12 - Offshore California Drilling on Piers

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
2.8. Offshore Floating Rigs

The first truly offshore Semi-Submersible Drilling Rig was the Mr. Charlie, designed and constructed
from scratch by Ocean Drilling and Exploration Co. (ODECO), headed by its inventor and president,
"Doc" Alden J. Laborde. The Mr. Charlie was a purpose-built submersible barge built specifically to
float on its lower hull to location and, in a sequence of flooding the stern down, ended up resting on
the bottom to begin drilling operations. When the Mr. Charlie went to its first location in June 1954,
Life magazine wrote about the novel new idea to explore for oil and gas offshore. The Mr. Charlie was
rated for 40-ft water depth.

Figure 13 - Mr Charlie Ocean Drilling

Another semi-submersible resulted from an unexpected observation in 1961. Blue Water Drilling
Company owned and operated the four-column submersible Blue Water Rig No.l in the Gulf of Mexico
for Shell Oil Company. As the pontoons were not sufficiently buoyant to support the weight of the rig
and its consumables, it was towed between locations at a draught mid-way between the top of the
pontoons and the underside of the deck. It was noticed that the motions at this draught were very
small, and Blue Water Drilling and Shell jointly decided to try operating the rig in the floating mode.

Figure 14 - Blue Water Number 1

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3. TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS

3.1 Overview

The most commonly used rigs in the industry are Jack-ups, used to drill in shallow water, Semi-
Submersible, used to drill in deep water and Land rigs which are moved on trailers and spotted on
concrete bases on land.

Fixed Platforms and Drill Ships are other types which can have drilling facilities on board. The most
expensive to run is the Drill ship followed by the Semi, then the Jack-up and finally the Land rig.

This is all down to the size, equipment differences and also the difficulty with logistics to and from the
rig. Each rig will have similar drilling equipment on board but some will vary due to the nature of the
rig.

Figure 14 below depicts from left to right; Land Rig, Fixed Platform, Jack-Up, Semi-Submersible and
Drill Ship.

Figure 15 - Types of Drilling Rigs

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3.2 Semi-Submersible Drilling Rigs

These rigs sit on pontoons and float high above the water. The ballast tanks can be adjusted to raise
or lower the rig and they can be moved under their own power or towed into place.

Once in place the rig will deploy its six anchors and they will be tensioned accordingly to move the rig
over the drilling location. Semi-Submersible rigs can be used in water depths from 200 ft - 10,000 ft
(60 m - 3000 m).

Figure 16 - Semi-Submersible Rig

3.3 Semi-Submersible Compensators

The main difference with drilling from a Semi is that the rig is not static and is constantly moving with
the swell, therefore the drill pipe moves up and down with the swell.

Therefore the rig is fitted with heave compensators which keep the drill pipe firmly at the bottom whilst
drilling. When the rig moves upwards the heave compensators push down the drill pipe and vice
versa.

Figure 17 - Semi-Submersible Compensators

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3.4 Jack Up Drilling Rigs

These rigs are towed into location and then jack their 3 legs down until the legs reach the sea bed.
Some larger rigs can have up to 5 legs. The rig will then raise itself out of the water to the desired
height. Jack-ups are good in water depths of up to 400 ft (120 m) and can be found most commonly in
the North sea because of the seas shallow nature. Once settled the Jack-up rig has a static base in
which to drill from. When their legs are not deployed, jack ups float, and are transported from one
drilling location to another. While some are capable of self-propulsion, most jack ups are transported
via tug boats.

Figure 18 - Cantilever Jack-Up

There are two ways to mount the drilling equipment on the hull.

• Cantilever decks. Mount the drilling derrick on an arm that extends outward from the main deck.
With a Cantilever deck, drilling can be performed through existing platforms, as well as without
them. Most jack ups built in the last 10 years have been cantilevered jack ups.

• The other type is the Slot Type jack up, also known as the key way jack up.This is basically a
large opening in the hull with the derrick positioned over it.

Figure 19 - Slot Type Jack-Up

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3.5 Land Drilling Rigs

The land-based drilling rig is the most common type used for exploration. These type of rigs come in
a variety of sizes depending on the type of well you will be drilling.

The rig breaks down into many parts so that it can be transported with trucks and trailers. First a
concrete base will be laid at the location of the well and a pit will also be dug next to the location for
the cuttings from the well to be temporarily dumped into.

These rigs can be assembled very quickly usually within 3-7 days and can be transported in as little
as 12 truck loads.

The depth that a rig can drill to depends on the power of its drawworks which lowers and raises the
drill pipe from the well.

Figure 20 - Land Rig

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3.6 Fixed Drilling Platforms

Today they're usually used to tap shallow, long term oil deposits and have multiple wells drilled from
one location. These platforms are permanently anchored directly to the seabed with the use of a steel
structure known as a "jacket". This rises up from the seabed to support a surface deck which is above
the ocean. The jacket provides the rig's sturdy base and holds everything else out of the water, while
the drilling modules and crew quarters are located on the surface deck. They can drill to depths of
about 1,500 feet below the surface, but are expensive to build, so they usually require a large oil
discovery to justify their construction.

Figure 21 - Fixed Drilling Platform

3.7 Drill Ship

It has a broadly conventional ship's hull, but also feature a large aperture, known as a "moon pool",
through which drilling takes place. Either purpose built, or converted from some other use, drill ships
can be moved easily between locations. They can carry large stocks of supplies, but are not as stable
as semi-submersibles. Drill ships use either anchors or dynamic positioning to maintain station. The
latest drill ships can operate in 1,500 meters of water. Drill ships are differentiated from other offshore
drilling units by their easy mobility. While Semi Submersible rigs can also drill in deep waters, drill
ships are able to propel themselves from well to well and location to location, unlike Semi subs, which
must rely on an outside transport vessel to transfer them from place to place.

Figure 22- Drill Ship

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
3.8 Coil Tubing Drilling Rig

Coil Tubing technology is best suited to re-entering existing wells, and when multiple casing wells are
unnecessary. In some cases, coiled tubing technology can replace the typical drill string with a
continuous length of pipe stored on a large spool. This approach has many benefits, including
reduced drilling waste and minimized equipment footprints, so it is especially useful in environmentally
sensitive areas. No drill pipe connections means that tripping in and out of the hole operations
become very fast compared to conventional drilling practices. Some old vertical wells can be re-
entered with coil tubing and kicked off in a horizontal direction to allow more of the reservoir to flow
into the well bore. A down hole motor is used to transfer rotation to the drill bit.

Figure 23 - Coil Tubing Rig

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4. RIG EQUIPMENT ORIENTATION

4.1 Basic Rig Equipment

The diagram shown is of a land rig but the principles are the same for an offshore rig. The following
lessons will describe in detail what each piece of equipment is used for.

1. Crown Block
2. Catline Boom and Hoist Line
3. Drilling Line
4. Monkeyboard
5. Traveling Block
6. Top Drive
7. Derrick or Mast
8. Drill Pipe
9. Doghouse or drillers shack
10. Blowout Preventer
11. Water Tank
12. Electric Cable Tray
13. Engine Generator Sets
14.Fuel Tanks
15. Electrical Control Room
16. Mud Pump
17. Bulk Mud Components Storage
18. Mud Pits
19. Waste Pit
20. Mud Gas Separator
21. Shale Shakers
22. Choke Manifold
23. Vee Door and Catwalk
24. Pipe Racks
25. Accumulator

Figure 24 - Land Rig Diagram

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.1 Crown Block

An assembly of sheaves or pulleys mounted on beams at the top

of the derrick. The drilling line is run over the sheaves down to the
hoisting drum. This mechanism creates a mechanical advantage
by using the same principle of the block and tackle to lower and
raise the traveling block.

Figure 25 - Crown Block

4.1.2 Drilling Line

A wire rope hoisting line, reeved on sheaves of the crown block

and traveling block (in effect a block and tackle). Its primary
purpose is to hoist or lower drill pipe or casing from or into a well.
Also, a wire rope used to support the drilling tools.

Figure 26 - Drilling Line

4.1.3 Traveling Block

An arrangement of pulleys or sheaves through which drilling cable

is reeved, which moves up or down in the derrick or mast. Again
this makes up part of the block and tackle arrangement that can
lift heavy loads into and out of the well.

Figure 27 - Traveling Block

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.4 Catline Boom and Hoist Line

A structural framework erected near the top of the derrick for lifting
heavy material around the rig floor and pipe ramp. The hoist line is
attached to a mechanical air driven winch.

Figure 28 - Catline Boom and Hoist

Line

4.1.5 The Monkey Board

The derrickman's working platform. From here the derrickman will

latch the drill pipe into the elevators in the bails below the top
drive. The monkey board is located at a height in the derrick or
mast equal to two, three, or four lengths of pipe respectively.

Figure 29 - The Monkey Board

4.1.6 TDS (Top Drive System)

The top drive rotates the drill string without the use of a kelly and
rotary table. The top drive is operated from a control console on
the rig floor.

Figure 30 - Top Drive System

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.7 Mast or Derrick

A mast is a portable derrick capable of being erected as a unit and

is always used onshore, as distinguished from a standard derrick,
which cannot be raised or lowered. All offshore drilling rigs use
derricks which can only be skidded outwards and inwards over a
well.

Figure 31 - Derrick

4.1.8 Drill Pipe

The heavy seamless tubing used to rotate the drill bit and circulate
the drilling fluid. Joints of pipe of 30 feet long are coupled together
with tool joints. Usually three pipes are joined and this makes a
"stand". Drill pipes come in different sizes and standards which I
will later cover in another article.

Figure 32 - Drill Pipe

4.1.9 Dog House or Drillers shack

Onshore it is a small enclosure on the rig floor used as an office for

the driller or as a storehouse for small objects. Offshore the Dog
house will be full of electronics to control the equipment on the rig
floor. Some drillers have a ciber chair with controls to lift the
Traveling block, rotate the Top drive and operate actuated valves.

Figure 33 - Dog House

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.10 BOP (Blowout Preventer)

One or more valves installed on top of the wellhead to prevent the

escape of pressure either in the annular space between the casing
and the drill pipe or in open hole (for example, hole with no drill
pipe) during drilling or completion operations.

Figure 34 - Blowout Preventer

4.1.11 Water Tank

Is used to store water that is used for mud mixing,

cementing, and rig cleaning.

4.1.12 Electric Cable Trays

Supports the heavy electrical cables that feed the power from the
control panel to the rig motors.

Figure 36 - Electric Cable Tray

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.13 Engine Generator Sets

Diesel engines, along with a mechanical transmission and

generator for producing power for the drilling rig. Newer rigs use
electric generators to power electric motors on the other parts of
the rig.

Figure 37 - Engine Generator Set

4.1.14 Fuel Tanks

Large storage tanks that hold the fuel supply for the rig generators
and other rig equipment.

Figure 38 - Fuel Tanks

4.1.15 Electrical Control Room

On diesel electric rigs, powerful diesel engines drive large electric

generators. The generators produce electricity that flows through
cables to an electrical distribution panel. Electricity is then fed via
the distribution panel to electric motors on the rig.

Figure 39 - Electrical Control Room

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.16 Mud Pumps

Most rigs have 3 electrically powered triplex fluid pumps that pump
the drilling fluid (mud) down the drill pipe and into the well. Each
pump can supply high volume, up to 500 gpm and high pressures
of up to 7500 psi. The volume and pressure depends on the size
and length of the pump liners which can be changed.

Figure 40 - Mud Pumps

4.1.17 Mud Components

Barite is used to weight up the drilling fluid and this is stored in

sacks on the rig. Other chemical additives are also stored for
controlling the viscosity, adding anti corrosion properties and
stopping the mud from gelling up.

Figure 41 - Mud Components

4.1.18 Mud Pits

These are large tanks which can hold up to 400 barrels each and
the entire pits will be made of of many of these tanks. The mud is
blended into these tanks and kept at a constant weight and
viscosity ready to be circulated into the well and returned back to
the pits.

Figure 42 - Mud Pits

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.19 Reserve Pit

Any pit not part of the active (circulatory) system. The reserve pit
may be used to store spare or waste mud, base oil or brine. In
operations on land, the reserve pit is usually a plastic-lined,
earthen pit, in which waste mud is stored until final disposal.

Figure 43 - Reserve Pit

4.1.20 MGS (Mud Gas Separator)

Known as the MGS or Poor Boy Degasser. A large vertical vessel

that separates gas from mud as it is circulated through the vessel.
It has an inlet on the side near the top and the heavy fluid falls to
the bottom where as the lighter gas rises and flows upwards via
the vent line. The separator has a mud leg (U tube) on the fluid line
so that it stays 1/3 full all the time.

Figure 44 - Mud Gas Separator

4.1.21 Shale Shakers

The primary and probably most important device on the rig for
removing drilled solids from the mud. This vibrating sieve is simple
in concept, but a bit more complicated to use efficiently. A wire-
cloth screen vibrates while thedrilling fluid flows on top of it. The
liquid phase of the mud and solids smaller than the wire mesh
pass through the screen, while larger solids are retained on the
screen and eventually fall off the back of the device and are
discarded.

Figure 45 - Shale Shakers

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.22 Choke Manifold

A set of high-pressure valves and associated piping that usually

includes at least two adjustable chokes, arranged such that one
adjustable choke may be isolated and taken out of service for
repair and refurbishment while well flow is directed through the
other one. Adjustable chokes are used in well control operations to
reduce or increase the pressure applied at the surface of a well.

Figure 46 - Choke Manifold

4.1.23 Vee Door and Catwalk

The upside down V-shaped opening in one side of the derrick that
enables long pipes and tools to be lifted into the interior of the
derrick. This opening is aligned with the slide and catwalk of the
rig. The Cat walk is a long, rectangular platform about 1 m high,
usually made of steel and located perpendicular to the vee-door at
the bottom of the slide. This platform is used as a staging area for
rig and drillstring tools, components that are about to be picked up
and run, or components that have been run and are being laid
down.

Figure 47 - Vee Door and Catwalk

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
4.1.24 Pipe Racks

Onshore, two elevated truss-like structures having triangular cross

sections. The pipe rack supports drillpipe, drill collars and down
hole tools. These structures are used in pairs located about 6 m
apart and keep the pipe above ground level and closer to the level
of the catwalk.

Figure 48 - Pipe Racks

4.1.25 Accumulator

A device used in the BOP hydraulic system to store energy. This

incorporates sufficient accumulator capacity to enable the blowout
preventer to be operated with all other power shut down. Energy is
stored by compressing a precharged gas bladder with hydraulic
fluid from the operating or charging system.

Figure 49 - Accumulator

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5. RIG CREW FAMILIARISATION

5.1 Drilling Team

5.1.1 Roughneck

Also know as floor hands who do the jobs on the rig floor. The job
of the roughnecks is to make connections in the drill pipe using
pipe tongs or an automatic device known as an "iron roughneck".
Roughnecks "trip pipe" joints of drill pipe into and out of the hole
when drill bits, etc, need to be changed.

Figure 50 - Roughnecks

5.1.2 Derrickman

Aligns and manipulates the sections of pipe or drill stem from a

platform on the rig derrick during the removal and replacement of
strings of pipe, or drill stem and drill bit. Assist in setting up, taking
down and transporting drilling and service rigs. Supervises the
roughnecks. This job entails working at height in the derrick usually
at 170ft. He/She also supervises and inspects the mud processing
areas and ensures that these are kept clean and tidy, and that
maintenance on the equipment is carried out in accordance with
procedures. The DFO pays special attention to the valves and
pumps in the mud and cementing systems.

Figure 51 - Derrickman

5.1.3 Assistant Driller

Runs the work crew and takes information from the driller and give
it to their crew. While the assistant driller acts in a predominately
supervisory role, they may also work alongside the roughnecks to
run machinery. AD's train roughnecks to recognize abnormal well
conditions in order to prevent leaks and rig blowouts.

Figure 52 - Assistant Driller

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.1.4 Driller

A driller is the person in charge of the rig floor and of overseeing

the drilling of an oil well. They directly control the rate of drilling
and it is a skilled position that requires extensive knowledge of
rock types and drilling procedures. Drillers must be highly
knowledgeable and make real-time decisions in a calm and
controlled manner.

Figure 53 - Driller

5.1.5 Tool Pusher

On a land drilling rig the tool pusher may be the rig manager and
responsible for all operations, but on drill ships and offshore oil
rigs, tool pushers are in charge of the drilling department and
report to the Offshore Installation Manager (OIM).

Figure 54 - Tool Pusher

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.2 Deck Crew or Marine Team

5.2.1 Barge Engineer

A barge engineer is in charge of control room operations, including

anchor handling, rig stablity and supply vessel operations. A barge
engineer should have a good knowledge of Coast Guard
operations and water safety. Most barge engineers have
experience as a master merchant in the Navy. Barge Engineers
are only present on offshore installations.

Figure 55 - Barge Engineer

5.2.2 Crane Operators

This is a senior deck crew position.Responsible for all crane

operations on the rig and to and from the supply boats. Cranes are
used to load supplies, such as casing, pipes and rig equipment,
onto the rig. Crane operators can also assist with general labor
around the rig and supervise the roustabouts and the crane
operator assistant.

Figure 56 - Crane Operator

5.2.3 Roustabout

The job of roustabout is about the easiest entry level job to get. It
involves a lot of hard manual labor and long work hours.
Roustabouts typically are involved on the main deck with painting
and sandblasting, unloading pipe and other kinds of physical work.
During breaks they also fill in for the roughnecks on the rig floor.

Figure 57 - Roustabout

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.3 Maintenance Team

5.3.1 Rig Maintenance Supervisor (RMS)

The Maintenance Supervisor is the head of the Maintenance

section of the rig and reports directly to the OIM. Overall
responsible for maintaining equipment, technical systems and
structures to the standards laid down in applicable rules and
regulations. He/she is also responsible for keeping the OIM and
Senior Toolpusher updated on the condition of the machinery and
equipment, ordering parts, record keeping and the appraisal of
maintenance personnel.

Figure 58 - Rig Maintenance

Supervisor

5.3.2 Rig Electrician

Responsible for ensuring that the operation and maintenance of

the electrical installations and the electrical equipment is kept on a
high level so break down during operation is avoided. The
Electrician also ensures that deviations from the explosion proof
integrity of installations and equipment within the hazardous zones
are indentified and reported to the RMS.

Figure 59 - Rig Electrician

5.3.3 Motorman or Rig Mechanic

The primary job function is rig equipment maintenance. The

motorman checks the rig motors and other mechanical equipment
on the rig for proper functioning and takes all necessary steps
including lubrication and regular maintenance to render equipment
in a working condition. The Motorman executes routine checks of
the machinery, tanks, bilge and pump-rooms along with the daily
operation and maintenance of the machinery.

Figure 60 - Motorman or Rig

Mechanic

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.3.4 Electronics Technician

Advises the Electrical Supervisor of installations, maintenance,

repairs, testing, and verification of electronic equipment and
automated systems on board the rig. The Electronic Technician is
also responsible for the maintenance and repair of the Dynamic
Positioning System, BOP MUX system and the Drilling systems,
but is not restricted to working exclusively on this equipment.
His/her responsibilities also include assisting the Electrician when
required. On floating units, there are 3 ETs covering each their
specified areas in which they are experts; Drilling ET, Subsea
ETand DP ET.

Figure 61 - Electronics Technician

5.4 Administrative Team

5.4.1 OIM (Offshore Installation Manager)

The OIM is the overall responsible for the rig and its personnel.
His/her position is equivalent to the Captain position on board a
ship and he/she must take an extensive series of safety,
environmental and leadership courses to build up the necessary
theoretical knowledge to lead a crew of up to 180 members.
Overall responsible for all safety of personnel onboard, and he/she
ensures that all operations onboard are performed in line with all
rules and regulations. He/she also ensures that the client's
representative is kept informed about all activities and operations
on board the rig-

Figure 62 - OIM

5.4.2 Safety Officer

The Safety Officer assists the rig management in ensuring that the
health, safety and environmental (HSE) work on the unit complies
with the applicable HSE rules and regulations. He/she heads
campaigns, initiatives, audits, inspections and investigations
concerning work safety, with particular emphasis on rules and
regulations concerning emergency preparedness. They control the
rigs permit to work system and chair regular HSE meetings
onboard.

Figure 63 - Safety Officer

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.4.3 Medic

The Medic provides medical services to all crew members and is

on call 24/7 when on the rig. He/she ensures that the stock of
medical and nursing supplies is kept at the required level at all
times. If a medical evacuation of a person is required, the medic is
responsible for arranging this in cooperation with the OIM.
Responsible for the organization of preventative healthcare,
supervision of physical and mental health of personnel,
administration of first aid treatment, supervision of medical
emergency preparedness procedures, control of hygienic standard
on the rig, and registration of chemicals and medical substances.

Figure 64- Medic

5.4.4 Radio Operator

Efficiently communicating vital information between land bases,

rigs, boats and helicopters. Sets up, operates and maintains
sensitive equipment to establish verbal, data and encoded
interactions regarding emergency situations, weather conditions
and important job directives.

Figure 65 - Radio Operator

5.4.5 Camp Boss

The Camp Boss is responsible for all hotel services on the rig and
leads the catering crew. He/she is responsible for the safety, work
schedules, job content and work allocation of catering personnel,
and for maintaining the food stocks.

Figure 66 - Camp Boss

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.4.6 Catering Personnel

They are responsible for taking care of food preparations and

kitchen operations. A chef and a night cook or baker are in charge
of the galley. A camp boss oversees the entire kitchen and
catering crew which is made up of stewards who maintain the
living quarters.

Figure 67 - Catering Personnel

5.5 Sevice Company Roles

5.5.1 Mud Engineer (Drilling fluid Engineer)

Responsible for testing the mud at a rig and for prescribing mud
treatments to maintain mud weight, properties and chemistry within
recommended limits. The mud engineer works closely with the rig
supervisor to disseminate information about mud properties and
expected treatments and any changes that might be needed. The
mud engineer also works closely with the rig's derrickman, who is
charged with making scheduled additions to the mud during his
work period.

Figure 68 - Mud Engineer

5.5.2 Cementer

Each drilling rig will be assigned a cementer who Prepares and

pumps a cement slurry into the well bore to support new casing
strings. Also ensures that rig equipment pressure testing is carried
out in a routine manner.

Figure 69 - Cementer

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
5.5.3 Mud Logger
Figure 70 - Mud Logger
Mud Logging Technicians in an oil field drilling operation determine
positions of hydrocarbons with respect to depth, identify downhole
lithology, monitor natural gas entering the drilling mud stream, and
draw well logs for use by oil company geologist. Rock cuttings
circulated to the surface in drilling mud are sampled and analyzed.
Mud loggers connect various sensors to the drilling apparatus and
install specialized equipment to monitor or "log" drill activity. This
can be physically and mentally challenging, especially when
having to be done during drilling activity. Much of the equipment
will require precise calibration or alignment by the mud logger to
provide accurate readings.

5.5.4 Wireline Engineer

Runs a single strand wire, or a multi-strand wire, into the gas or oil
well. This may be done to set flow control on various devices. It
may also be performed for processes of clean out, or to place
instruments that will gather readings of temperature, pressure or
seismic surveys in order to establish an accurate monitoring of the
situation within the well.

Figure 71 - Wireline Engineer

5.5.5 MWD, PWD, LWD Engineers Figure 72 - MWD, PWD, LWD

Measurement While Drilling, Pressure While Drilling, Logging

While Drilling. Essentially, an MWD Operator measures the
trajectory of the hole as it is drilled (for example, data updates
arrive and are processed every few seconds or faster). This
information is then used to drill in a pre-planned direction into the
formation which contains the oil, gas, water or condensate.
Additional measurements can also be taken of natural gamma ray
emissions from the rock; this helps broadly to determine what type
of rock formation is being drilled, which in turn helps confirm the
real-time location of the wellbore in relation to the presence of
different types of known formations (by comparison with existing
seismic data).

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
6. RIG SYSTEMS

6.1 Hoisting System

Used for raising and lowering the drilling assembly, and for running casing, completion equipment and
other tools in and out of the hole. The Hoisting system is made up of the following components:

• Crown Block

• Drilling Line

• Travelling Block

• Hook

• Derrick

• Drawworks

• Deadline Tie Down Anchor

• Supply Reel

Figure 73 - Hoisting System Diagram

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
6.1 Rotating System

The Rotating System is used for rotary drilling. Two different types of rotary drilling are available.

6.1.1 Kelly Drilling

A hexagonal or square pipe is connected to the topmost joint of the drill string. The rotary table and
Kelly drive bushing impart rotation to the drill string while allowing it to be moved up or down.

Figure 74 - Kelly

6.1.2 Top Drive Drilling

As an alternative to the Kelly and rotary table, most modern rigs employ a Top Drive system for
rotating the drill string. A powerful electric or hydraulic motor is suspended from the travelling block.

Figure 75-TDS

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
6.2 Circulating and Solids Control System

During drilling, fluid is continuously pumped down the drill string, through the bit, and up the annular
space between the hole and the drill string. Its main purpose is to bring up the cuttings, cool the bit,
maintain hole stability, and prevent formation fluids from entering the wellbore.

The circulating system is made up of the following components:

Mud Pits

• Pumps

• Standpipe

• Kelly Hose or Rotary Hose

• Drill Pipe

• Bit

Figure 76 - Circulating System

Solids control is made up of the following components:

• Shale Shaker

• Desilter

• Desander

• Degasser

• Centrifuge

F
i
g
ure 77 - Solids Control Equipment

44
6.3 Power System

Most modern rigs are electric. Generally, large diesel engines are the primary source of power.
Electric power generated by the engines is first converted from AC to DC in the SCR unit. DC motors
supply power to the drawworks, rotary, and pumps. AC power is still used for auxiliary equipment.

Figure 78 - Simple Rig Power System Diagram

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
6.4 Well Control System

6.4.1 Primary Barrier

Primary control of wellbore pressure is maintained by ensuring that the hydrostatic pressure of the
drilling fluid in the well is always slightly higher than the highest formation pressure exposed to the
open wellbore. Primary control is lost if a kick is taken due to imbalance of pressures.

6.4.2 Secondary Barrier

The BOP (Blow Out Preventer) is the secondary barrier used to control the well if the primary barrier
is lost. The BOP is made up of a series of preventers that can close a well in.

Annular Preventer- Rubber element that can close around any size of drill pipe.
Blind Rams - Steel rams that close together sealing off the well when no drill pipe is in
the hole.
Pipe Rams (Fixed and variable sizes) - Rubber rams that close around drill pipe
Shear Rams - Rams that can cut through drill pipe and seal off the well.
Choke and Kill lines- If the preventers above are closed circulation is achieved through
the choke line.
HCR valve - A hydraulically operated remote valve on the choke line.
Accumulator - Stores hydraulic power to operate the BOP.
The Well Control System comprises of the following components:

o Drilling Fluid in the well

o BOP
o Choke Manifold
o MGS (Mud Gas Separator)

Figure 79 - Typical BOP Configuration

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETEIONS

7.1 Typical Oil and Gas Well Design

A typical Oil and Gas well is drilled in several phases with different size holes gradually getting smaller
until total depth is reached. Design of the steel casing strings is a key part of the well design and a
key factor in well success, including assurance of zonal isolation and wellbore integrity. Casing design
and running are carefully executed technical processes.

Typical wells are made up of:

• Conductor casing
• Surface casing
• Intermediate casing
• Production casing

Cement

Conductor Casing

Surface Casing

Intermediate Casing

Production Casing

Figure 80 - Typical Well Design

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.2 Casing Joints

Casing is threaded on each end, and has a coupling installed to join it to the next pipe. When several
joints of casing have been screwed together they form a continuous "string" of casing that will isolate
the hole. When screwing together a casing connection, applying the proper amount of torque is
important. Too much torque overstresses the connection and can result in failure of the connection.
Too little torque can result in a leaky connection.

Casing joint

Casing collar or coupling

Casing joint

Figure 81 - Casing Joint

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.3 Spudding the Well

The first step is to 'Spud' in a large diameter conductor, typically a 36" steel tube, into the surface.
This conductor will form the top of the well that sits proud on the ground. It will provide the casing
head-the base for the well head and all well control equipment e.g. the BOP to seal to.

Dependent on the composition of the ground, be it hard or soft, the conductor can be spudded in in
one of two ways.

7.3.1 Jetting

Used if the ground composition is of soft sediment. Either water or environmentally friendly drill fluid is
jetted though the drill bit, moving any sediment up and out the top of the conductor, allowing the
conductor to continue further through the ground.

7.3.2 Hammer

If the composition is a harder makeup, then the conductor will be hammered into the ground.

Once the conductor has been spudded into the depth required as per the well engineers design,
drilling will start.

Figure 82 - Spudding the Well

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.4 Drilling

The driller will start drilling from the bottom of the conductor casing going deeper into the ground.
Drilling fluid know as 'mud' will be pumped down through the inside of the drill pipe and out through
nozzles in the drill bit. This will force any cuttings up and out of the top of the conductor in the same
way as in the jetting process. Most surface holes are drilled using sea water if offshore. Forcing the
cuttings up and out of the bore will keep the drill string from getting jammed and keep the wellbore
clean.

The job of the mud is also to:

• Cool the drill bit, helping prolong its life span.

• Transports the cuttings to surface.
• Adds pressure to the sides of the well bore, stopping it from collapsing.
• Counterbalance the force of any hydrocarbons in the well.
• The greater the force of hydrocarbons, the heavier the mud has to be.

In drilling, the mud is referred to as the primary barrier from a hydrocarbon release or blowout.

Figure 83 - Drill Bit

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.5 Running and Cementing Surface Casing

Once the driller has bored to the required depth on the well engineers plan, the drill string will be
pulled out of the well bore, allowing a smaller steel 'surface' casing typically around 13 3/8', to be
lowered into the bore.

Cement can then be pumped down into the casing until it reaches the bottom of the bore. The
pumping will continue pushing the cement out of the bottom of the casing and up between the sides of
the casing and the sides of the bore hole.

Once the calculated amount of cement has been pumped, a drillable plug is inserted into the casing,
allowing mud to be pumped in order for the cement to continue being pushed out and up the sides of
the casing. The cementing operation is continued until the cement has completely sealed the casing
in place.

Figure 84 - Cementing Diagram

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.6 Installing the BOP

At this point, although possibly still a great distance from the target depth and reservoir, the pressure
in the well can become too great to control safely by water based drilling fluid / mud alone, also there
could be uncertainty about the possibility of hitting unknown pockets of hydrocarbons. Either of these
could cause an uncontrolled kick or blowout.

To alleviate this risk, a blowout preventer (BOP) will be installed. This can either be a surface BOP or
typically in deepwater drilling operations- a subsea BOP. When you drill with a surface BOP stack,
you must install the BOP system before drilling below surface casing. If needed in a blowout situation,
the BOP can shear the drill pipe and seal in the well by a succession of hydraulic rams.

The BOP will be lowered and attached to the casing head, at the top of the conductor casing that was
originally spudded in. The BOP will then be connected to the drill floor by a pipe called a riser or bell
nipple. The riser will allow mud to be pumped backup from the well bore to the rig flow line.

The advantages of this are:

• The mud can be cleaned once back at the rig and reused.
• Having a closed circuit of mud makes it easier for mud engineers and well engineers to assess
the composition of the bore.
• The mud can safely use additional additives to further increase its weight to counteract the risk of
a blowout.

Figure 85 - Surface and Subsea BOP's

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.7 Intermediate Casing

Intermediate casing is set to isolate:

• Unstable hole sections

• Lost-circulation zones
• Low-pressure zones
• Production zones

It is often set in the transition zone from normal to abnormal pressure. The casing cement top must
isolate any hydrocarbon zones. Some wells require multiple intermediate strings. Some intermediate
strings may also be production strings if a liner (A type of casing that hangs off another and does not
reach surface) is run beneath them.

7.8 Production Casing or Liner

Production Casing or Liner is used to isolate production zones and contain formation pressures in the
event of a tubing leak. It may also be exposed to:

• Injection pressures from fracture jobs

• Downcasing, gas lift
• The injection of inhibitor oil

A good primary cement job is very critical for this casing string.

5650 w

Figure 86 - Well Schematic

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.9 Liners

A Liner is a casing string that does not extend back to the wellhead, but is hung from another casing
string. Liners are used instead of full casing strings to:

• Reduce cost
• Improve hydraulic performance when drilling deeper
• Allow the use of larger tubing above the liner top
• Not represent a tension limitation for a rig

Liners can be either an intermediate or a production string. Liners are typically cemented over their
entire length.

7.10 Perforation

Cased-hole completions require casing to be run into the reservoir. In order to achieve production, the
production casing and cement are perforated to allow the hydrocarbons to enter the wellstream.

This process involves running a perforation gun and a reservoir locating device into the wellbore,
many times via a wireline, slickline or coiled tubing. Once the reservoir level has been reached, the
gun then shoots holes in the sides of the well to allow the hydrocarbons to enter the wellstream. The
perforations can either be accomplished via firing bullets into the sides of the casing or by discharging
jets, or shaped charges, into the casing.

While the perforation locations have been previously defined by drilling logs, those intervals cannot be
easily located through the casing and cement. To overcome this challenge, a gamma ray-collar
correlation log is typically implemented to correlate with the initial log run on the well and define the
locations where perforation is required.

Figure 87 - Perforation

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1
7.11 Wellhead Installation

The last step in completing a well, a wellhead is installed at the surface of the well. Many times called
a Production tree or Christmas tree, the wellhead device includes casingheads and a tubing head
combined to provide surface control of the subsurface conditions of the well.

While both onshore and offshore wells are completed by production trees, offshore wells can be
completed by two different types of trees: dry and wet trees.

7.11.1 Dry Trees

Similar to onshore production trees, dry trees are installed above the water's surface on the deck of a
platform or facility and are attached to the well below the water.

7.11.2 Wet Trees

On the other hand, are installed on the seabed and encased in a solid steel box to protect the valves
and gauges from the elements. The subsea wet tree is then connected via electronic or hydraulic
settings that can be manipulated from the surface or via ROVs.

Figure 88 - Dry Tree Surface Wellhead

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INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING - MODULE 1