ITT400

Introduction To Data Communication

and Networking

Chapter 4
Analog Transmission

Mazlan Osman, FSKM, UiTM (Terengganu) 2014

 5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing

one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data.

Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.2
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Data Elements Vs Signal Elements
• Data element : Smallest piece of information to be
exchanged, it means, the bit.
• Signal element : Smallest unit of a signal that is constant.
Data Rate Vs Signal Rate
• Bit rate (N) is the number of bits per second. Baud rate (S)
is the number of signal elements per second.
• Relationship between S and N:
S = N x 1 baud ( r = log2L )
r
• The baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.

5.3
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

• Example 5.1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate.

• Example 5.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 10000 bps and
a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data
elements are carried by each signal element?
How many signal elements do we need?
 CARRIER SIGNAL
• A high-frequency signal that acts as a basis for
the information signal produced by sender.
• Digital information then modulated on the carrier
signal by modifying one or more its
characteristic (amplitude, frequency or phase).
• This process is called modulation (shift keying)
and the information signal is called modulation
signal.
• The middle of the bandwidth is called carrier
frequency, fc.

5.5
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

5.6
 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
• In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed to
create signal elements
• Both frequency and phase remain constant
Binary ASK (BASK)
• A popular ASK technique is called on-off keying (OOK)
whereas the peak amplitude of one signal level is 0

Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

5.7
 BANDWIDTH FOR ASK

B = (1 + d) x S
where B is bandwidth, S is baud rate and d is a factor
related to the modulation process (value of d is between
0 and 1)

Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?

Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK

5.8
 BANDWIDTH FOR ASK

Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc =
250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to
find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

5.9
 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Drawback
Highly susceptible to noise interference – refers to
unintentional voltage probability affected by heat or
electromagnetic induction created by other sources
Advantage
Reduction in the amount of energy required to
transmit information

5.10
 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
• In FSK, the frequency of carrier signal is varied to
represent data
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant

Binary FSK (BFSK)

Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying

5.11
 BANDWIDTH FOR FSK
B = (1 + d) x S + 2∆f
where B is bandwidth, S is baud rate, d is a factor related to the modulation
process (value between 0 and 1), and 2∆f is difference between 2 frequencies
• Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300
kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using
FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50
kHz; this means

5.12
 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Drawback
High bandwidth requirement

Advantage
FSK is easy to implement and is not affected by noise
because receiving device focus on the specific
frequency change over a number of period and ignore
voltage

5.13
 PHASE SHIFT KEYING
• In FSK, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent
two or more different signal elements.
• Both amplitude and frequency are remains constant
Binary PSK (BPSK)

Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

5.14
 BANDWIDTH FOR PSK
• Same as that for BASK, but less than that for BFSK.
No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier
signals
• Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12
Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N
× (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B =
S = 6 MHz

Figure 5.10 Implementation of BASK

5.15
 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantage
Not susceptible to noise degradation that affects ASK
or bandwidth limitations of FSK

5.16
 QUADRATURE PSK/4-PSK

• Get more efficient use if each signal element

represents more than one bit
• E.g. shifts of π/2 (90 °)
• Each element represents two bits
• Split input data stream into 2 & modulate onto
carrier & phase shifted carrier
• Can use 8 phase angles and more than one
amplitude
• 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, 4 of which have
two amplitudes

5.17
 QUADRATURE PSK/4-PSK

5.18
 8-PSK

5.19
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
• Define the relationship between amplitude and phase of
a signal elements, particularly when using two carriers
(one in-phase and one quadrate).

Figure 5.12 Concept of a constellation diagram

5.20
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 5.13a Constellation diagrams for ASK (OOK)

5.21
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 5.13b Constellation diagrams for BPSK

5.22
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 5.13c Constellation diagrams for QPSK

5.23
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK

Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

a. 4-QAM scheme using unipolar NRZ, same mechanism for ASK (OOK)
b. 4-QAM using polar NRZ, but exactly same as QPSK
c. 4-QAM use signal with 2 positive levels to modulate each of the carriers
d. 16-QAM constellation of signal with 8 levels, 4 positive and 4 negative

5.24
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL)
• Logical extension of QPSK
• Send two different signals simultaneously on same
carrier frequency
• Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
• Each carrier is ASK modulated
• Two independent signals over the same medium
• Demodulate and combine for original binary output

5.25
 QAM VARIANTS

The reason – amplitude change is

The number of amplitude shift < susceptible to noise and require
the number of phase shift greater shift differences rather
than phase changes

5.26
 5-2 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

• Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal.
• Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature
or if only a bandpass channel is available to us.

Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.27
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• In AM transmission, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the
modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain
the same

Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation

5.28
 AM BANDWIDTH

• The bandwidth of an AM signal is equal to

twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal
• The total bandwidth required for AM can be
determined from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B

5.29
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
• In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is
modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the
modulating signal. The amplitude and the phase signal are constant.

Figure 5.17 Frequency modulation

5.30
 FM BANDWIDTH

• The bandwidth of FM signal is equal to 10 times

the bandwidth of the modulating signal
• The total bandwidth required for FM can be
determined from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B

5.31
 PHASE MODULATION
• In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to
follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating
signal. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier remain constant.

Figure 5.18 Phase modulation

5.32
 PM BANDWIDTH

• The bandwidth of PM signal is equal to 10 times

the bandwidth of the modulating signal
• The total bandwidth required for PM can be
determined from the bandwidth and maximum
amplitude of the modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B where β =1 for
narrowband; 3 for wideband

5.33