Current Electricity

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 Current Electrcity

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)

Rate of flow of charge or amount of charge flows
KEY POINTS
in per unit time represents electric current.
dq q  Electric current
i ; i
dt t  Average current
If electric current ‘i’ = constant, amount of charge  Charge carriers
(q = it).
If electric current is i = f(t), amount of charge
t2

q  i dt .
t1

Unit of electric current(i) = amp or C/sec (SI unit)

Dimension = [M0L0T0A1] Concept Reminder
q = integration of electric current w.r.t. time or
area of electric current time graph gives amount dq
 Current is defined as i  and
of charge flow in given time interval. dt
Although it has direction, but it does not obey Q
average current as iav  .
vector addition law. t

Average current <i>:

q total amount of flow of charg e
<i> = 
t time taken in flow of ch arg e
If i = f(t)
 t2 
 i  
  idt 

 t1 
Direction of flow of electric current.
Flow of electric current is due to potential
difference.
Direction of flow of electric current in circuit is
from high potential to low potential.
Direction of electric current is in opposite
direction of flow of free electrons.
Direction of flow of electric current is in direction
of flow of positive charge.
Current Electrcity

Charge carriers:
In conductors; free e–.
In electrolytes  ions.

1.
 In discharge tube  ions.
In semiconductors  free e–s and holes.

Types of Electric Current:

1. Direct Current (D.C.)
If direction of current with time remain unchanged.
DC is unidirectional.
Source: electric cell, battery, DC generator.
Concept Reminder
2. Alternating Current (A.C.)
If direction of current changes periodically with  Current is assumed to be a
time. fundamental quantity in physics
Source: AC generator. with unit ampere and dimension
Rectifier [A].
AC DC
Invertor
Ex. Electric current of 8 ampere is flowing
through a conductor. Calculate number of
electrons flowing through cross-section of
conductor in 1 minute.
q
Sol. i 
t
ne
8
1  60
480  1019
n  3  1021 electrons.
1.6

Ex. In a hollow tube 6.25 × 1017 -particles per

sec are flowing from A to B and 12.5 × 1017
electrons per sec are flowing from B to
A. Calculate electric current through this
tube.
Sol.
I  I  Ie

6.25  1017  2  1.6  1019

=  12.5  1017  1.6  1019
1

I  102 (1.6)[6.25  2  12.5]

I  1.6  102  25  0.4 amp (A to B)

2.
Ex. A particle of charge ‘q’ revolves in circular orbit of radius ‘r’ with
orbiting speed of v. Calculate electric current corresponding to this
option.
q qv q
Sol. I    Amp
t 2r 2

qv
I
2r
Ex. Calculate orbital current corresponding to motion of electron in 1 st
orbit of H-atom.
qv e  2.186  106
Sol. I  
2r 2  0.529  1010

1.6  1019  2.186  106

I
2  3.14  0.529  1010
I  1 mA
Ex. An -particle revolves with 6.25 × 1015 cycles/sec. Calculate
corresponding orbital current.
Sol. I = qf = 2ef = 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 6.25 × 1015
3.2  25  104
=
4
I = 20 × 10–4
I = 2 mA
Ex. A charged belt with surface charge density  is made to move with
speed v. Width of belt is l. Calculate corresponding electric current.

3.
 dq ldx
Sol. i  
dt dt
i  lv

Ex. Electric current through a conducting wire is as i = (2t + 3) amperes.

Calculate amount of charge passing through cross-section of wire in
1st 10 sec.
Sol. 0  10 sec,
10
q  idt   (2t  3)dt
0
2
q  [t  3t]010
q = 100 + 30
q = 130 C

Ex. In the above question, calculate time at which inst. current is equal
as average current of 1st 5 sec.
5

 (2t  3)dt  [t
2
Sol. q   3t]05
0

q  25  15  40 C
5

 (2t  3)dt
0
[t2  3t]05 40
or iavg  5
   8A
[t]05 5
 dt
0

Ex. If electric current passing through a wire decreases linearly from 5 A

to 0 A in 10 sec. Calculate amount of charge flow through the wire.

Sol. q   idt
q  Area of ' i  t ' curve
1
q  10  5  25 Cb
2

4.
 Ex. Charge passing through a wire is given as q = at – bt2 where a and b
are positive constants then:
(i) Find the expression of instant current.
(ii) Draw the variation of current with time.
(iii) Amount of charge flow through the wire.
dq
Sol. i   a  2bt
dt
at t = 0, i = a
Charge flows till i = 0
a  2bt  0
a
t
2b
aa ba 2 a 2 a2 a2
q    
2b 4b2 2b 4b 4b
1 q
or q  a
2 2b
a2
q
4b

CURRENT DENSITY (J)

 Current passing through per unit cross-sectional Definitions
area of proportional cross-section is named
current density. Current passing through per
unit cross-sectional area of
proportional cross-section is
named current density.
I
J amp/m2
A

I
J amp/m2
A
I KEY POINTS
J
A cos 
   Current density
[I  JA cos   J  A]
Current density is a vector with direction in
direction of flow of electric current.

5.
Ex. Calculate current passing through cross-section of area
 
S  (2iˆ  3 ˆj)  103 cm2 according to current density of J  4 ˆi A / m2 .
 
ˆ  (2iˆ  3ˆj)  103  104
Sol. I  J  A  (4i)
I = 0.8 Amp

Ex. Current of I is passing through hollow cylindrical conductor along its

length. Inner and outer radii of its cross-section a and b respectively.
Calculate current density.

I I
Sol. J  
A (b  a 2 )
2

Ex. There is a solid cylindrical wire of radius of cross-section ‘R’. Current

 r
through the wire is according to current density of J  J0  1   .
 R
Where I0 = constant and r = radial distance from axis of wire. Calculate
current through wire.

Sol. Current through cross-section of small element:

dI = IdA = 
 r
= J0r2  1   dr
 R 
R
 r2 
I  
dI  J0  2 r   dr
0  R 
 r2 r3 
= 2J0   
 2 3R 
R
2
1 r 
I  2J0r   
 2 3R  0
2
 1  J R
I  2J0R2    0
6 3

6.
 THERMAL SPEED (VT)
 When there is no potential difference across Definitions
the conductor then free electrons inside the
conductor move randomly with thermal speed. Thermal speed is given as-
This speed is due to thermal energy which is due 3KT
to surrounding temperature. VT 
m
 Expression of thermal speed is as:
 3KT 
 VT  
 m 

At room temperature, order of thermal speed
is 105 m/s. During random motion free electron
collide with lattice and with fixed positive ions
in lattice. Due to collisions direction of motion Concept Reminder
changes frequently so for electron  thermal
According to modern view, a
speed = same motion of free electrons is in all
metal consists of a lattice of
possible direction so during this random motion,
fixed positively charged ions in
average thermal velocity is zero.
which billions and billions of free
 During random motion, net flow of charge in
electrons are moving randomly at
particular direction through cross-section of
speed which at room temperature.
conductor is zero so there is no flow of electric
current in once of potential difference across
conductor.

Mean Free Path (  ) :

 Average distance travelled by free electron
between 2 successive collisions is named mean
free path.

Total distance

Number of collisions

 1  2   3  .....  n

N
Mean free path is of ‘A’ order.

7.
 Time of Relaxation ():
Average time spend by free electron between 2
KEY POINTS
successive collisions is named time of relaxation.
Total time
  Thermal velocity
Number of collisions  Mean free path
t 1  t2  t 3  .....  tN  Time of relaxation
  Drift velocity
N
 1  2 3 
   ..... N
VT VT VT VT

N

1   1   2   3  .....  N 
  
VT  N 
  
  
 VT 

Time of relaxation () depends on temperature. Definitions

temperature increases  decreases
At room temperature order of time of relaxation Drift velocity is the average
is 10–15 sec. uniform velocity acquired by
free electrons inside a metal by
Drift Velocity (d): the application of an electric
 If it is low, then also it is not possible to measure field which is responsible for

it because actual speed of E is very high and  eE
random. current through it v d   .
m

Rack your Brain

 When potential difference is applied across
the conductor then electric field is established The velocity of charge carriers
inside the conductor, so electrons experience of current (about 1 A) in a metal
electric force due to this force, random motion under normal conditions is of
of electrons get converted into regulated motion. what order?

8.
 Under the combined effect of acceleration
equation retardation, free electrons move with
constant average velocity named drift velocity.
  
  u  at
  
     u    at 
 
    0  at 

 eE( )
d  
m
eE
d   Drift velocity depends upon
m
temperature.
At room temperature, drift velocity is of mm/sec
or 10–3m/sec.

Relation between electric current and drift

Concept Reminder
velocity:
The two processes collision and
acceleration result in a dynamic
equilibrium in which a uniform
average drift velocity is achieved
by electrons.

n  Charge carrier density

Total number of ch arg e carries
n=
Volume
Number of free electrons passing through cross-
section in 1 sec. = n(Ad)
Charge passing through cross section i.e., electric
current in 1 sec = nAde.
i  nAde

or in time dt

9.
 dq  N(e)
Concept Reminder
dq  n(Adx)e
 Current can be defined as-
dq nAdxe
i  i = nAevd
dt dt
 Total momentum of free
= nAed
electrons in conducting wire is
meil
Note: If electric current of ‘i’ is passing through P
conducting wire of length ‘l’ then total momentum e
of free electron in conducting wire is as:
Total momentum
P  md  Nme d  nAlme d

P  (nAd )mel
imel
P
e
meil
P
e
Ex. Charge carriers are flowing in a discharge
tube. Calculate the electric current.

Sol. IT  I  I  2neAd  neA2d

IT  4 neAd
Ex. There is a cylindrical conductor of cross-
section area 10–6 m2 with its density 5 × 103
kg/m3 at weight is 60. If current through
conductor is 2 amp then calculate drift
velocity of free electrons. (Given: 1 atom
provides 1 e–)
Sol. i  neAd

i
d 
neA

10.
 N 60  6  1023
n 
V 5
NA  number of moles 
=
m
 m N 
= NA = A
m Mw Mw

6  1023  5  1023
= 3
 5  1028
60  10
2
d  6
 2.5  104 m / s
5  1028
 10  1.6  1019

Relation Between Current Density and

Conductivity:
i  neAd
Concept Reminder
i
 ned  
A  J  E
 eE 
J  ne   ne2 
 m   
m
ne2 
J E
m
 ne2  
J  E    
 m 
 
J  E
Direction of current density of flow of electric
current is in direction of established electric
Rack your Brain
field. (due to applied potential difference)
ne2  Find out mobility of charged

m particles having drift velocity of
‘n’ characteristic feature of conductor. 7.5 × 10–4 ms–1 in an electric field
 Electrical conductivity depends on temperature of 3 × 10–10 Vm–1.
and nature of conductor. At given temperature,
order of conductivity is as:
Current Electrcity

Ag  Cu  Au  Al

11.
 Mobility of Free e–s:
 Drift velocity of free electrons corresponding to
per unit applied electric field is mobility of free
electrons.
Mobility,
d
  d  E
E
eE
d 
m
e
 
m
Ex. A steady current is passing through
conductor of non-uniform cross-section
as shown; then compare following physical
quantities at both ends of conductor.
(i) Drift velocity
(ii) Current density
(iii) Conductivity
(iv) Mobility
(v) Electric field.
Sol. d  d , J1  J2 , 1  2 ,
1 2

 1   2 , E 1  E2
(i) i  neAd  neAd  constant
Ad  constant
A 2  A 1; d  d
2 1

I 1
(ii) J J
A A
A 2  A 1; J1  J2
Concept Reminder
ne2 
(iii)     constant
m The direction of drift velocity for
 1  2 electrons in a metal is
 opposite to
that of applied field E .
 e 
(iv)      1  2
 m
(v) J  E
J  E  J1  J2  E1  E2

12.
 During flow of electric current, number of free
electrons of conductor remains unchanged. So
current carrying conductor is electrically neutral.
So, current carrying conductor does not produce
electric field.
Electric field outside the current carrying
conductor is zero and inside the current carrying
conductor is non-zero. (it is due to applied
potential difference)
 When potential difference is applied across the
conductor then establishment of electric field
inside the conductor is with light speed and charge
carriers (free e–) are abundant in conductor so
there is no time delay between applying the pot
difference and flow of electric current (so bulb
glows instantly)
V  characteristic of source
Current (I)  characteristic of ckt.

Ohm’s Law:
This law states that if physical conditions
of conductor (geometry and temperature of
conductor) are unchanged then flow of electric
KEY POINTS
current through conductor is directly proportional
to applied potential difference.
 Conductivity
i  V or V  i
 Mobility
V  iR
 Ohm’s law
R  proportional constant or resistance.

Definitions

 eE  The property of a substance due

i  neAd  neA   to which it opposes the flow of
 m 
current through it is called its
ne2 AE ne2   V 
=  A  “electrical resistance”.
m m 

13.
 AV A
i  V
 

V
i  (i  V)
R

Ohm’s Law is not universal:

Ohmic substance  substance which follow
ohm’s law is named ohmic substance and
corresponding ckt is ohmic ckt. (linear substance
because i  V) Rack your Brain
e.g., metallic conductors.
The resistance of discharge tube
is:
(1) Non-ohmic
(2) Ohmic
(3) Zero
(4) Both (2) and (3)
Non-ohmic substance  substance which doesn’t
follows ohm’s law named non-ohmic substance
and corresponding ckt is named non-ohmic ckt.
e.g., semiconductor, discharge tube, electrolyte.

Concept Reminder

V
 R
i
Resistance (R): L
 Opposition of flow of electric current or opposition  R
A
of flow of charge carriers is named resistance. mL
 Resistance in conductors arise mainly due to  R
ne2 A
collisions.

14.
 T   R  in conductors (because collisions
increases)
V
R
i
mL  L   L 
R  R    R  
ne A 2
 A   A
[V = iR], macroform of ohm’s law
E
I , microform of ohm’s law

m
 , resistivity or specific resistance
ne2 
1
 , resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity.

 Resistivity depends on temperature and nature
of conductor. It does not depend on geometry of
conductor. (It is property of material)
 Resistance depends on temperature and nature
of conductor along with geometry. It does not
depend on current passing through it and applied
potential difference.
Joule Joule

Cb amp Amp2 sec
M1L2 T 2
= 2
 [M1L2 T 3 A 2 ]
A T
KEY POINTS
Conductance (G):
 Reciprocal of resistance is named conductance.
 Resistance
1  Conductance
G =
R  Resistivity
 Conductivity
–1 –2 3 2
‘ ’ or ‘mho’
–1
[M L T A ]
or ‘Seimen’
Current Electrcity

15.
Ex. Current passing through 2 conductors A and B varies with applied
potential difference across their edge as shown. Compare their
resistances RA and RB.

Sol. V = iR
i 1
  (Slope)
V R
(Slope)A > (Slope)B  RB > RA.

Ex. Three Cu-wires are with ratio of length 1 : 2 : 3 and ratio of cross
sectional area 3 : 2 : 1. Find ratio of their resistances same material.

Sol. R  
A

R
A
1 2 3
R1 : R2 : R3 :: : :
3 2 1
R1 : R2 : R3 :: 1 : 3 : 9
Ex. There are 3 Cu-wires with ratio of length 1 : 2 : 3 and ratio of their
mass 2 : 3 : 4 find ratio of their resistances.

Sol. R  
A
d  2d
R 
m m
2
R
m
1 4 9
R1 : R2 : R3 :: : :
2 3 4
R1 : R2 : R3 :: 6 : 16 : 27

16.
Ex. An aluminium wire of diameter 0.80 mm carrying current. Its resistivity
is 2.75 × 10–8  mt. If electric field inside the aluminium wire 0.55
volt/m then calculate:
(i) Electric current through Al-wire.
(ii) Potential difference between points of 12 m apart in Al wire.
(iii) Resistance of this wire of length 12 m.
E
Sol. (i) J

i E 0.55    0.64  106
 
A  2.75  108
16 
= i  10 amp  10.048 amp
5
V
(ii) E  V  Ed
d
11  12
0.55  12   6.6 V
20
V 6.6
(iii) R   0.65 
i 10.048
Dependence of resistance on geometry of conductor


R
A
  Along flow of current
A  Area of direction proportional cross section

Ex. There is a conducting block with ratio of dimensions 1 : 2 : 4. Find ratio

of maximum resistance and minimum resistance of conducting block.
  max
Sol. R   Rmax 
A Amin
4
 Rmax 
21
Rmax 16

Rmin 1

17.
Ex. There is a cuboidal block with dimensions as shown. Resistivity of
material of block is . Find resistance of block between given faces:
(i) Between ABCD and EFGH
(ii) Between BFGC and AEHD
(iii) Between ABFE and DCGH

a
Sol. (i) R
bc
b
(ii) R
ac
c
(iii) R
ab

Ex. There is a hollow cylindrical conductor of length l. Resistivity of its

material is . Its inner and outer radii of cross-section are a and b.
Then calculate resistance of this conductor.
(i) Between circular faces.
(ii) Between inner and outer curved surfaces.
l l
Sol. (i) R1  
A b  a2
2

l
R1 
(b2  a 2 )

l (b  a)
(ii) R2  
A A

18.
 Resistance of cylindrical shell small element
dx
dR 
2xl
 b
R  dR  2l  a
dx


= [loge x]ba
2l

 b
R loge  
2l a
Ex. There is a hollow conducting sphere with inner and outer radii ‘a’ and
‘b’. Resistivity of material is . Calculate resistance between inner and
outer spherical surfaces.
Sol. Resistance of spherical shell small element
dx
dR 
4x2
b
dx   1
R  dR   4x 2

4



x a
a
  1
R  
4  x b

  1 1  b  a 
R     
4  a b  4  ab 
b  a 
R 
 ab 
 ab 
i 
b  a 

19.
Ex. There is a solid cylinder of non-uniform cross-section as shown,
length of cylinder is l and resistivity of its material is  then calculate
resistance along its length.

Sol. y  mx  c
b  a 
r a x
 l 
dr  b  a  ldr
   dx 
dx  l  (b  a)
Resistance of small element
dx dx
dR  
A r2
l dr
 dR 
r (b  a)
2

b
l  1
R  dR   
(b  a)  r  a
a
l  1 l  1 1
=      
(b  a)  r b (b  a)  a b 

l b  a 
=  
(b  a)  ab 

l
R
ab

If a  b  a
l
 R
a 2

20.
Ex. A cylindrical rod of length ‘l’ with cross-section area ‘A’ is placed
between x = 0 to x = l. Resistivity of its material is  = 0x. Where 0 =
constant and x is distance from origin. Calculate resistance along its
length.
l
Sol. R 
A

Resistance of small element

0 xdx 0 x2 0l 2
R  dR 
A

A

2A

Ex. There are 2 cylindrical wires of same length is equal cross-sectional

area. Resistivity of their material is 1 and 2. Calculate equivalent
resistivity of their series I-combination and their II-combination.

1l 2l
(i) R1  (ii) R2 
2 2
Sol. (i) Req  R1  R2

eq 2l 1l 2l

 
A A A
 1  2 212
eq   eq 
2  1  2

21.
 R1R2
(ii) Req 
R 1  R2
1l 2l
eql 
 A A  12 l 
 
2A 1l 2l  1  2 A

A A
212  1  2
eq   eq 
 1  2 2

Ex. In the above question, if conductivity of wires is  1 and 2 then

calculate equivalent conductivity of series and II-combination.
Sol. Series,
2 12
 eq 
 1  2
Parallel,
 1  2
eq 
2
Effect on resistance of wire due to change in its geometry by stretching
it
l l
R R
A A
1 1
R  l2  2

A r4
For given wire:
mass = constant
volume × density = constant
volume = constant
Al = constant.
1 1
A  or l 
l A
r  radius of cross-section.

Ex. Resistance of a conducting wire is ‘R’. Calculate its new resistance in

case of n-times the length by stretching it.
Sol. R '  l 2
R '  (nl)2
R 1
  R '  n2R
R ' n2

22.
Ex. Resistance of a wire is 10 . Its length is increased 50% by stretching
it. Calculate its new resistance.
Sol. R '  l 2
2
10  100  100
  
R '  150  225
R’ = 22.5 W
R  R ' R  22.5  10  12.5 
Ex. Length of a wire is increased 30% by stretching it. Calculate percentage
change in resistance of wire.
Sol. R  l 2
2
100  100  100
  
R'  130  169
R’ = 169
R ' R
Percentage change =  100
R
169  100
=  100  69%
100
In case of small percentage changes.
y  xn
y  x 
 n 
y  x 
e.g., in case of stretching the wire.
1 1
R  l2  2  4
A r
R  l   A   r 
 2    2    4  
R  l   A   r 

Ex. When a wire is stretched resulting decreasing in radius of cross-

section is 0.3% then calculate percentage in resistance of wire.
R  r 
Sol.  4 
R  r 
R
 
Current Electrcity

 4 0.3
R
R
 1.2
R

23.
Ex. Resistance of a solid cylindrical conductor
is ‘R’. Its axial part of half of radius of cross-
section is pulled out along length. Calculate
total resistance of both the parts after
pulling net.

4R
Sol. RT   4R
3
16R
RT 
3
Dependency of resistance on temperature:
  0 (1  )
Concept Reminder
R  R0 (1    )
 Resistivity and resistance of
R  R0 (1  ) alloy like manganin and constant
R0 = resistance at 0°C are almost independent of
R = resistance at °C temperature variation.
 = temperature coefficient of resistance
 1
in 
 C 
 = temperature (in °C)

24.
 R  R0  R0

R   R0 R  R0
    
R0 R0 ( )
Rack your Brain
Fraction of change in resistance corresponding
to unit change in temperature represents
The solids which have the
temperature coefficient of resistance.
negative temperature coefficient
1 of resistance are:
For conductors:    ve and T  ;
R (1) Metals
when T   R  and T   R  (2) Insulators only
(3) Semi-conductors only
1
For semi-conductors:    ve and T  ; (4) Insulators and semi-
R
conductors
When T   R  and T   R 
For insulators:    ve [ practically Re ff   ]
[theoretically  negligible]
mL
R
ne2 A
Temperature increase  n increases,  decreases
For conductors   decreases  dominant
For semiconductors  n increases  dominant
For conductors
R  R0 (1  )

R  R0  R0
y  c  mx

Definitions

At particular temperature,
resistance and resistivity of
conductors becomes zero. This
temperature is named critical
temperature.

25.
 Resistance of conductors varies  linearly with variation in temperature so,
when temperature of conductors decreases then their resistance decreases
linearly. At particular temperature, resistance and resistivity of conductors
becomes zero. This temperature is named critical temperature.
 When resistance of conductors becomes zero then they get convert into
superconductors.
A-There is no need of potential difference to maintain the flow of electric
current in superconductor.
B-Resistance of superconductors is zero.
Superconductivity was 1st observed by ‘Kamerlingh Onnes’ in mercury (Hg)
in 1911.
For Hg  c = 3.2 K (1st time)
For Pb  c = 7.5 K
For Cu  c = 38.5 K
Ex. Temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire 0.004 °C–1. Calculate
temperature at which its resistance becomes 2 times of resistance
at 0°C.
Sol. R  R0 (1  )
2R  R0 (1  )
  1
1000
  250C
4
  250C  523K
Ex. Temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 °C–1.
Resistance of this wire at 27°C is 1 . Calculate temperature at which
its resistance become 2 .
Sol. R  R0 (1  )
1  R0 (1   27) [R0  1 ]
2  R0 (1   )
R0 is resistance at 0°C while 1  resistance is at 27°C.
1 1  27 

2 1  
1    2  54 
  1  54 
Current Electrcity

1 105 4000
  54   54   54
2 125 5
  854 C  1127 K

26.
Ex. Temperature coefficient of resistance for 2 resistors are  and . It
equivalent resistance of their series combination does not depend on
temperature. Then find ratio of their resistances at 0°C.
Sol. Req  R1  R2

R  R  R  R   R  R 
1 2 1 1 2 2

R 
1

R 
2

or R  R0  R0
R   R   0
1 2

Ex. I-V curve for a conductor at temperatures T1 and T2 is as shown then

compare temperatures:

I 1
Sol. Slope = 
V R
(slope)1 > (slope)2
R 2 > R1
 T2 > T1

Ex. In the above question (T2 – T1) is proportional to.

1
Sol. Slope = tan  
R
R1 at T1
R1  R0 (1  T1 )
1 1
=   tan  ...(i)
tan(90  ) cot 
1
R2  R0 (1  T2 )   cot  ...(ii)
tan 
Equation (i) and (ii)
R2  R 1  R0 (T2  T1 )

27.
 cot   tan   R0 (T2  T1 )
cos  sin 
  R0 (T2  T1 )
sin  cos 
2(cos2   sin2 )
 R0 (T2  T1 )
2 sin  cos 

∵ cos2   sin2   cos(2)

2(cos 2)
 R0 (T2  T1 )
sin 2
2 cot(2)
T2  T1 
R0 

 (T2  T1 )  cot 2

Special Point:
1. Bulb Filament:
 Material of filament of bulb should be of low Concept Reminder
resistivity and high melting point.
 Resistivity of a conductor is
 Generally, bulb filament is made of tungsten.
independent of the geometry
 At high temperature, tungsten reacts with air and
(i.e., length and area of cross-
form oxide of avoid it, inert medium is used in
section) of conductor but
bulb of tungsten filament instead of air.
depends on type of material and
temperature.
2. Coil of Heating Element
 Material of coil of heating element (heater,
electric geyser, electric press etc) should be of
high resistivity and high mpt.
 Generally, coil of these elements is made of
Nichrome.

3. Fused Wire:
 When current exceed in ckt, then fuse wire get
melt and ckt remains safe.
 Material of fuse wire should be of low resistivity
and low mpt.
 Generally fused wire is made of Sn-Pb alloy
length of fused wire has no significance in its
Current Electrcity

functioning.

28.
 Let ‘I’ is the maximum safe current through fused
wire and r is radius of cross-section of fused wire
then
I2  r3
I2  A3/4
Concept Reminder
4. Wire of meter bride and potentiometer:
 Resistance of wire of potentiometer and meter  Metals have positive temperature
bridge should remain unchanged with variation in coefficient of resistance,
temperature so material of wire of potentiometer whereas semiconductors
and meter bridge should be of negligible and insulators have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. temperature coefficient of
 Generally, this wire is made of ‘magnon’ and resistance.
‘constantan/eureka’.

5. Thermistor (Thermal + Resistor):

 This type of material is highly sensitive with
variation in temperature.
 Temperature coefficient of resistance for
thermistor is high.
 Generally, copper made wires are used as
connecting wires in ckt because of high
conductivity and low resistivity of copper.

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Series Combination:
If no alternative path is available to flow the
current in ckt then equal current is passing
through all resistors and these resistors are in
series.
Rack your Brain

The resistance of a wire is R ohm.

If it is melted and stretched to ‘n’
times its original length then find
out value of new resistance.

Potential of resistors = potential difference

between ends of resistor

29.
 V  V1  V2  V3
IR  I1R 1  I2R2  I3R3
Req  R1  R2  R3 ......

If ‘n’ identical resistors, each of resistance R

connected in series then
Req = nR
In series combination, potential drop across
resistors is in ratio of their resistances
Concept Reminder
V = IR
V R  In series combination
V1 : V2 : V3 : : R 1 : R2 : R3 R S = R1 + R2 + R3
 In parallel combination
Equivalent resistance obtained in series
1 1 1 1
combination is greater than greatest resistance.   
R R 1 R2 R 3
Parallel Combination:
If alternative path is available to flow the current,
then distribution of current in different branches
at junction takes place. These branches are in II-
combination.
Potential drop across II-branches is same

Concept Reminder

 To get minimum resistance,

resistance must be connected
I  I1  I2  I3 (Charge conservation) in parallel and in parallel the
V V V V resultant resistance is lesser
   .....
Req R1 R2 R3 than the smallest individual.

If R1 and R2 are in parallel

30.
 R1R2
Req 
(R1  R2 )
If ‘n’ identical resistors, resistance of each R are connected in parallel then,
R
Req 
n
Distribution of current in II-branches at any junction is in inverse ratio of
resistances
V 1
I I
R R
1 1 1
I1 : I2 : I3 : : : :
R 1 R2 R3
Equivalent resistance obtained in II-combination is less than least
resistance.

Mixed Combination:

R2R3
Req  R1 
R2  R3

(R2  R3 )R 1
Req 
R 1  (R2  R3 )

31.
Ex. If 3 resistors are in parallel with a battery, current through these
resistors is I, 2I and 3I. If these resistors are connected in series with
same battery, then calculate current through these resistors.
V V V
Sol. R1  , R2  , R3 
I 2I 3I

V
6I 
Req

V
I' 
Req

V V
I'  
R1  R2  R3 V V V
 
I 2I 3I

1 1 6I
I'   
1 1 1 632 11
 
I 2I 3I 6I

1 1 1 1
or   
I' I1 I2 I3

1 1 1 1
  
I' I 2I 3I

Open circuited branch:

A branch through which there is no current in circuit is named open
circuited branch.
If any resistance is connected in open circuited branch, then it is
meaningless, because resistor, through which current is not passing; is not
used to calculate equivalent resistance.

Definitions

 A branch through which there

is no current in circuit is
named open circuited branch.
 A branch without resistance
in circuit is named short
-circuited branch.

32.
Examples:
(a) Branch of inductor is initially open circuited.
(b) Branch of capacitor is open at steady state.
(c) If ideal voltmeter is connected in series with
any resistor, then this branch will be open
circuited.

Short -circuited branch

A branch without resistance in circuit is named
short -circuited branch.
Branches which are II to short -circuited branches
are meaningless.
For examples:
(a) At steady state, inductor behaves as short
circuited.
(b) Initially, capacitor behaves as short circuited.
(c) If ideal ammeter is connected in parallel (by
mistake) with any branch, then branch will
be short circuited. (only this element will be Definitions
short circuited, not whole branch)
 It is a resistor of variable
Rheostat (Rh) resistance which is used to
It is a resistor of variable resistance which is control the current (current
used to control the current (current controlling controlling unit) in circuit.
unit) in circuit.
Rheostat can be used as potential divider.

Ex. A resistor of resistance R is cut into n

equal parts and these parts are connected
in parallel then calculate resistance of
combination.
R R
Sol. Req   2
n(n) n

33.
Ex. ‘’ resistors, resistance of each R is connected as shown calculate Req
of combination.

R R R
Sol. Req  R     .....  
3 9 27
 1 1 1 
Req  R  1     ......   
 3 9 27 
 
 1  3R
Req  R 
 1 1  2
 
 3
Ex. A wire of resistance 12  is bent in equilateral triangle. Calculate
equivalent resistance between any 2 vertices of .
84 8
Sol. RAB   
12 3

34.
Ex. A uniform wire of resistance 30  is bent in equivalent  and placed
concentrically in a circle such that is vertices are in contact with
periphery of circle. Total resistance of periphery of circle is 45 .
Calculate Req of combination between any two 2 vertices of .
12  6
Sol. Req   4
18

Ex. A circle of radius 1 metre is made of uniform wire resistance 10 –6 /m.

Same wire is connected along diameter of circle. Calculate equivalent
resistance between diametric opposite points of this diameter.

1 2 1 4
Sol.  6
 6

Req   10 2  10 2  106

2  106 6.28
Req    106
7.14 7.14

Req  8.8  107 

35.
Ex. In the given circuit, calculate potential drop across each resistor.

Sol. V  R
V1 : V2 : V3 : : 3 : 5 : 7
5
V1   60  12 V
15
5
V2   60  20 V
15
7
V3   60  28 V
15

Ex. In the given circuit equivalent cap between A and B.

3C  C 8C
Sol. Ceq  
5 5

Ex. Calculate current and potential across each resistor in given circuit.

Sol. Req  4  2  6 

36.
 36 36
I   6A
Req 6

I1  6 A  V1  6  4  24 V
6
I2   6  4 A  V2  3  4  12 V
9
I3  2 A  V3  6  2  12 V

Ex. In given combination, if potential drop across R1, R2 and R3 are V1, V2
and V3 respectively, then calculate.
Sol. V1 : V2 : : 1 : 1
V1 : V3 : : 1 : 1
V1 = V2 = V3

Ex. In given circuit, uniform wire xy is of length 1 metre and resistance of

1 K. Calculate reading of ammeter.

Sol. Rxy = 1000 W

Ray + Rax = 1000 W
Rax = 600 W
Ray = 400 W
Total current in circuit,
80 80
I 
Req 200  600

37.
 I = 0.1 A
Reading of ammeter
400
IA   0.1  0.05 A
800

Ex. In the given circuit, rheostat of 60  is connected as shown. Calculate

maximum and minimum possible reading of ammeter.

Sol. Reading of ammeter = total current in circuit

V 120
Imax    12 A
(Req )min 10
Because branch ‘ah’ is short circuited so R = 30  also becomes
meaningless.
V 120 120
Imin     4A
(Req )max 30  60 30
10 
90

Ex. In given circuit, if equivalent resistance between points a and b is R 0

then calculate resistance R.

(R  R0 )R
Sol. Req  R 
2R  R0

R2  R0R
R0  R 
2R  R0

38.
 R02  2RR0  2R2  RR0  R2  R0R
R02  3R2
R0
 R
3

Ex. Calculate equivalent resistance between points a and b in given network.

(a)
36
Sol. Rab   2
9

(b)

Sol. Rab = 6  (does not depend on number of units)

39.
Ex. Calculate equivalent resistance between a and b in given  ladder.

Sol. Rab = x
rx
r r  x
rx
rx
2r  x
rx
2r2  2rx  rx  x2  rx

x2  2rx  2r 2  0

2r  4 r 2  8r 2
x
2
2r  r 12
= rr 3
2
x  ( 3  1)r

so, Rab  ( 3  1)r

Rab  2.73r

40.
 Ex. Calculate reading of ammeter in given circuit.

36
Sol. Req  4   6
9
V 30
I   5 Amp (Reading of ammeter)
Req 6

 If there is no current through any resistor then this resistor is not used to
calculate equivalent resistance.
 As per requirement, points of same potential can be separated or can be
connected at same position.
 If movement in circuit is without crossing circuit element then potential
remains unchanged during this movement.

Same potential point method:

(i) Given numbering for each and every junction.
(ii) Collect the number of same potentials.
(iii) Rearrange the resistors between corresponding numbers.

Ex. Calculate equivalent resistance between points A and B in given

circuits

(a)

41.
Sol. ‘I’ through L, 2 r – right to left

1 1 1 1 236
   
Req 3r 2r r 6r

6r
Req 
11

(b)

r 4r
Sol. Rab  r 
3 3

(c)

r
 2r 2r
Sol. Rab  2 
5r 5
2

42.
 (d)

Sol. If capacitance is given

5C
Cab 
2
Va = Vb
Rab = 0

 Equivalent resistance between points of same potential is zero.

 Equivalent capacitance between points of same potential is infinite.

43.
Method based on balanced Wheat stone Bridge:
Ratio of resistances of upper branch = ratio of
resistances in lower branch

Concept Reminder

 Balanced condition of Wheat

stone bridge is:

R1 R3
If 
R2 R4
In balanced wheat stone bridge, there is no
current through bridge resistor (R5) so, Bridge
resistor can be removed.

Rab R1 R3
Ex. Find ratio of equivalent resistance in 
Rcd R2 R4
given circuit.

Rab r 2
Sol.  
Rcd r/2 1

r
RCD 
2

44.
Ex. Calculate equivalent resistance between points a and b in given
network.

Sol. 1 : 2 : 3, ratio of resistance of upper branches

1 : 2 : 3, ratio of resistance of lower branches
These are 2 ad-jointed balanced wheat stone bridge

30  60
Rab   20 
90

Ex. When potential difference of ‘V’ is applied between points a and b

then calculate current in branch acb.

V V
Sol. I  
Req r

45.
 V I
Iacb  
2r 2

Ex. If 2 identical wires, resistance of each r are connected along dotted

lines then find ratio of equivalent resistance between a and b before
and after the connection of wires.

Rbefore 5r 5
Sol.  
Rafter 3r 3
Percentage change in resistance = – 40%

46.
 Pseudo-junction method and symmetric line
method:

Rack your Brain

A wire of resistance 12 ohms per

meter is bent to form a complete
circle of radius 10 cm. Find out
resistance between its two
diametrically opposite points.

 A junction in circuit at which there is no

distribution of current is named Pseudo-junction.
Pseudo-junction can be removed.

Symmetric line
 A line which is proportional to line joining the a
and b which divides the circuit into 2 equal parts
is named symmetric line.
 Potential of points at symmetric line is equal
and junction lies on symmetric line is pseudo-
junction. Removal of pseudo-junction should be
along symmetrical line.

Ex. Calculate equivalent resistance between a

and b in given network.

(a)

47.
 8 8
2  2 8r
Sol. Rab  3  3 
8 14 7
2
3 3

In case of capacitance
7
Cab = C
8

(b)

48.
 1 1 3 3 433
Sol.    
Req 2r 8r 8r 8r

Req = 0.8 r

(c)

1 1 1 3
Sol.   
Req r 2r 8r

8  4  3 8r
Req  
8r 15

Ex. Two equilateral triangles ABC and DEF have same centroid. The ratio
of their sides are 4 : 2. The resistance per unit length is constant. The
resistance in AB is 10 . Find equivalent resistance between A and B.

Sol. Req = 5.56 W

49.
Ex. If each side of cube represents resistor of resistance ‘r’ then resistance
between given points is as:
Sol.

5r 6
Rab  ; Cab  C
6 5

Body diagonal-

5r 6
Rab  ; Cab  C
6 5
r r r 2r r 4r r
Rab      
3 6 3 3 6 6
5r
Rab 
6
3r
Rab 
4

50.
 4C
Cab 
3
Face diagonal-

r  3r 3r

4r 4

7r 12 C
Rab  , Cab 
12 7
Adjacent Point-

51.
Rab = ?
V1 = V2
V3 = V4 [although V2  V3]

Rab = r

Branch cd will remove out ( Vc  Vd )

52.
 2R
Rxy 
5

KIRCHOFF LOW
Kirchho Current Law/Junction law/First law:
 This law states that algebraic sum of electric current at any junction in
circuit is zero that means current towards junction is equal as current
away from junction (because there is not any source or reservoir at junction
point to increases or decreases current respectively)

Concept Reminder

 Kirchoff’s junction rule is based

on conservation of charge.
 According to this rule, at any
i1  i2  i3  i4  i5  0 junction of circuit i  0 .

i1  i4  i5  (i2  i3 )
towards junction = away from junction
Kirchhoff law is based on conservation of charge. Kirchhoff law (conservation
of charge) is the consequence of continuity equation.

Ex. Calculate current I in given network.

Sol. I + 5 = 7
I = 2 Amp

53.
 16 = 19 + I
I = – 3 Amp
It means current is shown in wrong direction current I will be inward.

Calculation of potential at junction:

Rack your Brain

Find out correct in the following

circuit

3 3
2V
V0  Lesser than all (V1, V2, V3)
V0  Greater than all (V1, V2, V3)
i 3
[least < V0 < greatest]
According to Kirchhoff law
i1  i2  i3  0

V1  V0 V2  V0 V3  V0
  0
R1 R2 R3

V1 V0 V2 V0 V3 V0
     0
R1 R1 R2 R2 R3 R3

V1 V2 V3 V0 V0 V0
    
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
R1

R2

R3
 V0   
R 1 R 2 R3


54.
Ex. In the given network, calculate current through resistor of resistance
10 .

Sol. Current in 1st branch L, away from junction current in 3rd branch
towards junction
∵ least < V0 < greatest
 1 1 1 1  V1 V2 V3 V4
V0         
R
 1 R2 R 3 R 4  R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4
 1 1 1 1  5 10 20 15
V0        
 10 20 40 80  10 20 40 80
 8  4  2  1  4.0  40  4.0  15
V0  
 80  80
135
V0   9V
15
V0  V1 95 4
I    0.4 Amp
R1 10 10
(away from junction)

Kirchho law in network of capacitors:

In network of capacitors, algebraic sum of charge at any junction is zero.

55.
 At junction,
Q1  Q2  Q3  0
C1 (V1  V0 )  C2 (V2  V0 )  C3 (V3  V0 )  0
C1V1  C2 V2  C3 V3  (C1  C2  C3 )V0
C1V1  C2 V2  C3 V3
V0 
C 1  C2  C 3

Ex. Calculate potential at point O in given network.

Sol. At junction point O

C1V1  C2 V2  C3V3
V0 
C 1  C2  C 3

E1  2E2  3E3
V0 
6

Ex. Calculate charge on capacitance 4 F in given network.

C1V1  C2 V2  C3V3
Sol. V0 
C 1  C2  C 3
18  18  0
=  4 Volt
9
Charge on C3;
Q3  C3 (V0  V3 )  (4 F)(4  0)
Q3 = 16 C (towards earthened point)

56.
 Kirchho ’s Voltage Law/Loop Law/2nd Law:
 This law states that algebraic sum of potential Concept Reminder
drops in closed loop (including battery) across all  Kirchoff’s loop rule is based on
circuit elements is zero. conservation of energy.
In close loop,
q
IR  E  0
C
 Kirchhoff 2nd law is based on conservation of
energy (overall loop). Although it may increase or
decreases for a particular element.

Sign Convention:
Potential decreases = negative
Potential increases = positive
For resistor

Rack your Brain

Current through 3 is 0.8 A, then

find out potential difference
For capacitor
across 4 resistor.

3
4

6
+ –

For battery

57.
Meaning of VA – VB = 10 volt is that potential at point A(positive terminal) is
greater than potential at point B(negative terminal) of 10 volt.
e.g. VA = 7 V, VB = – 3 V
VA = 0 V, VB = – 10 V
VA = 10 V, VB = 0 V

Ex. Mark potential at points B, C and D.

Sol. VB = –4 V (least)
VC = – 1 V
VD = 4 V (greatest)
Current in R1  A  C
Current in R2  D  B
e.g.
KVL in closed loop; adcba
q
iR 1   iR2  E  0
C
q
E  iR 1  iR2 
C
KVL in branch

q
VA  IR  E   VB
C
Current I is not given in behalf of battery. It is just assumed. It may be
in opposite direction.

58.
Ex. In the given network, calculate potential at point A and at point D.

Sol. VB  0 V
0  2I  V0
V0  6 volt
By KVL,
30  10I  0
I = 3 Amp
VA  8I  VB
VA  8I  VB  24  0  24 V

Ex. In the given circuit, calculate potential difference between point A

and B.

Sol. Using KVL,

12  5I  3  2I  3I  0
10I  15  I = 1.5 Amp
KVL from A  B,
VA  3  1.5  2  3  1.5  VB
VA  VB  3  4.5  3  7.5  3  4.5 volt

59.
Ex. In the above question, if battery of 3 volt is used with reversed polarity,
then calculate potential difference between points A and B.
Sol. 12  5I  3  5I  0 s
10I  9  I  0.9 Amp

VA  3  5  0.9  VB
VA  VB  3  4.5  7.5 volt
Value of current will confirm changed when polarity of lither battery
is reversed but direction current will change or not, it depends on
polarity of which battery is reversed.
Ex. In the given circuit, calculate potential difference between points A
and B.

Sol. I = 4 Amp
KVL from A  B via C,
VA  4  2  2  6  VB
VA  VB  12  8  4 volt
VC  VD  20 volt
If wire is connected between point A and B then direction of current
will be from A to B.

60.
Ex. In the given circuit, calculate potential difference between points A
and B.

Sol. Remember, it is not balanced wheat stone bridge

V0  1  R1  VA
V0  1  R2  VB
VA  VB  (R2  R 1 ) volt

Ex. In the given circuit; calculate potential difference between point A

and B.

Sol. VA  VB  80 volt
Current drawn from positive terminal of battery should be enter at
negative terminal.
DC is unidirectional so it does not retrace its path.
It there is no complete circuit from positive to negative terminal of
battery then there is no withdrawal of current from battery.

61.
Ex. Calculate potential difference between points A and B in given circuit.

10
Sol. i1   1Amp
10
20
i2   2 Amp
10
Using KVL for ACDB branch
VA  2 i1  3  6 i2  VB
VA  VB  6i2  3  2 i2  12  3  2  7 volt

Ex. In the given circuit, if potential difference between points A and B is

VA – VB = 4 volt then calculate resistance R.

Sol. VA  10I  5  VB
 4 – 5 = – 10 I  I = 0.1 Amp
10I  5  2  IR
1  5  2  0.1R
0.1 R = – 2 + 4
0.1 R = – 2 + 4
R = 20 

62.
Ex. In given circuit, if there is no current through resistor of 5  then
calculate resistance R.

Sol. Current through 5   Zero

i.e., VA – VB = 0
Ex. Consider the arrangement shown in figure AB is a wire having uniform
resistance with total resistance R0. The sliding contact at C, divides
the wire into resistance fR0 and (1 – f)R0. Assume that the batteries
are identical and have negligible internal resistances. For what value
of ‘f’, the galvanometer shows no deflection.

E1r2  E2r1
Sol. ECO  0
r1  r2
E1r2  E2r1
E(fR0 )  E(1  f)R0

f  1 f
2f  1
1
f
2

63.
Ex. In given circuit, if reading of galvanometer is zero then calculate
resistance R.

10
Sol. i 
R  100
2 10

100 R  100
500  R  100  R  400 
Using KVl through 2 volt battery
2  100 i  0
1
100 i  2  i  Amp
50
or voltage about 100  = 2 volt
2
t
100
voltage across resistance R = 8 volt
2
8 R
100
R = 400 
Ex. In given circuit, calculate current in branch ‘ab’:

Sol. KV in close loop cabc

i1r  (2 i1  i)r  (i  i1 ) 2r  0

64.
 i1r  2 i1r  ir  2 ir  2 i1r  0
3 ir  5 i1r
3i
3 i  5 i1  i1  ...(i)
5
KLV in loop cadc
i1r  (i  i1 ) 2r  V  0
i1r  2 ir  2 i1r  V  0

2 ir  i1r  V  0
3i
V  2 ir  i1r  2 ir  r
5
V 10 r  3r 7 r 7r
   Req 
i 5 5 5
7r
Req   1.4 r (between 1.5 r and 1.33 r)
5
Using KVL from a to b via c
Va  i1r  (i  i1 ) 2r  Vb
Va  Vb  (i  i1 ) 2r  i1r

2 i (2r) 3 ir ir
=  
5 5 5
V
 Va  Vb 
7
Va  Vb ir i
Iab   
r 5r 5

V V V
Iab   
5Req 57 r 7 r

V
Iab 
7r

Electric Cell:
 Electric cell is the device provider constant potential difference.
 In electric cell, chemical energy converts into electrical energy
E  Electromotive force (emf)
r  Internal resistance
VA – VB = V  Terminal voltage or terminal potential difference

65.
 Electromotive Force of Cell (E):
If cell is in open circuit or if no current associate Definitions
with cell, then potential difference between
terminals of cell represents emf of cell If cell is in open circuit or if no
VA  E  (0)r  VB current associate with cell, then
potential difference between
(VA  VB )  E terminals of cell represents emf
 emf of cell depends on concentration of of cell.
electrolyte and nature of electrode (by Nernst
equation)

Internal Resistance (r):

 Opposition of flow of ions inside the cell is named
internal resistance. KEY POINTS
 Internal resistance depends on-
r µ distance between electrodes  Electric cell
1  EMF of cell
r
Surface area of electrode dipped in electrolyte
(r)dry cell  (r)electrolyte cell

r  concentration of electrolyte.
1
r
temperature of electrolyte

Terminal Voltage (V):

 High potential electrode of cell is named the
terminal and low potential electrode of cell is
named negative terminal of cell.
 Potential difference between positive and negative Concept Reminder
terminal of cell is named terminal voltage.
Internal resistance of a cell
Case-I: When current is drawn from cell depends on the surface area
(discharging of cell) of electrodes, the separation
between them and nature,
concentration and temperature of
electrolyte.

66.
 VA  E  Ir  VB
Concept Reminder
VA  VB  E  Ir
Potential difference across cell:
Case-II: When cell is in open circuit. (a) While discharging,
V = E – Ir
(b) While charging, V = E + Ir

E E E
I  
Rr 0r r
VA  E  Ir  VB
IE
VA  VB  E  Ir  E  0
r
V=0
Rack your Brain
When current is drawn from cell (discharging of
cell):
The internal resistance of a cell
of emf 2 V is 0.1 . It is connected
to a resistance of 0.9 . Find
voltage across the cell.

V  E  Ir
V  IR
ER
V
Rr
V R

E R r

67.
 Equation between terminal voltage and drawn current from cell is called
cell equation.
V  E  Ir (cell equation)
y  c  mx

Ex. Emf of a cell is E and its terminal voltage is V. When external resistance
of R is connected across it. Calculate its internal resistance.
ER
Sol. V 
Rr
 VR  Vr  ER
R(E  V)
r
V
E 
r  R   1
V 

Ex. When current is drawn from cell then its terminal voltage varies with
drawn current as shown. Calculate emf and internal resistance of cell.
(V in volt)

68.
Sol. V = E – Ir
E = 3 volt
3
r   r  0.6 
5

Ex. When external resistance of 18  is connected across cell then

potential drop across external resistance is 90% of emf of cell.
Calculate internal resistance of cell.
90E
Sol. V 
100
 9E  E 
R E   R  
R(E  V)  10  10
r     
V 9E 9E
10 10
R 18
r   2
9 9

Ex. When current of 4 amp is drawn from a cell then its terminal voltage
is 20 volt. If current of 1 amp is given to same cell then terminal
voltage of cell is 25 volt. Calculate internal resistance and emf of cell.
Sol. V  E  Ir  20  E  4 r
V  E  Ir  25  E  R
–5 = – 5r
r=1
E = 20 + 4 = 24 volt

69.
 Electric power delivered by cell during withdrawal
of current from cell:

Concept Reminder

Power developed in a resistor R

(a) At constant potential difference
V is
V2  1
P P  
R  R
(b) At constant current i through it
Load Resistance:
is
 An external resistance across which electric
P  i2R (P  R)
power is obtained from cell is named load
resistance.
F
Drawn current, I 
Rr
Electric power delivers by cell
V2
P  VI  I2R 
R
E2R
P
(R  r)2

P = f(R)
dP
 For maximum power 0
dR
d  E2R 
 0
dR  (R  r)2 

R=r
 R = r, i.e., when load resistance is equal as internal
resistance of cell then cell delivers maximum
power. This maximum power is as-
E2
Pmax 
4r
Power in external circuit or dissipated power in
internal resistance.
E2
Total power supplied by cell =
2r

70.
 Load or external resistance (R):
R = 0 (short circuit)
R increases (r > R > 0)
R=r
R increases (¥ > R > r)
Concept Reminder
R = ¥ (open circuit)
E r

(a) Condition of maximum power

across R is that R = r.
(b) Value of maximum power
 For maximum power across any external E2
Pmax 
resistance R 4r
R = Equivalent resistance of circuit excluding R

Ex. When an electric cell is used separately

with external resistance of R1 and R2
then it delivers same power across these
resistances. Calculate internal resistance of
cell.
E2R
Sol. P   P1  P2
(R  r)2
E2R 1 E2R2

(R 1  r)2 (R2  r)2

R1 R2

R1  r R2  r

R2 R 1  r R 1  r R2  R 1 R 2

R1 R2  R1 (R2 ) R1R2 ( R 1  R2 )
r 
R 1  R2 R 1  R2

r  R 1 R2

71.
 E ciency of Electric Cell:
Concept Reminder
Output power
 Watt efficiency n% =  100%
Input power Efficiency of electric cell is
VI Output power
n%   100 
EI Input power
V  R 
n%   100     100
E R  r 
Pout I2R
n%   100   100
Pout  Ploss I2R  I2r
Pin  Ploss
=  100
Pin
For maximum power,
Efficiency = 50% (because R = r)
 If cell is ideal
r=0  %n = 100%
Watt hour efficiency
(voltage  current  time)output
n%   100%
(voltage  current  time)input

Current Capacity of Cell:

Product of drawn current and maximum possible
time for which that current can be drawn KEY POINTS
represents current capacity of cell
e.g., Current capacity of cell,  Efficiency of cell
 Current capacity of cell
2 Amp for 10 hr
20 A-h 5 Amp for 4 hr
1 Amp for 6 hr + 2 Amp for 7 hr

COMBINATION OF ELECTRIC CELLS:

1. Series combination:

72.
 Concept Reminder

In series combination of electric

cell, current is
Enet
I
rnet  R
Enet  E 1  E2  E3  .....  En

rnet  r1  r2  r3  .....  rn

Enet
I
(R  rnet )

 If n identical electric cells emf of each E and

internal resistance of each r are connected in
series,
Enet = nE
rnet = nr
Enet nE
I 
R  rnet (nr  R)
Rack your Brain

A set of n equal resistors, of value

R each, are connected in series
to a battery of emf E and internal
resistance R. The current drawn
is I. Now, the n resistors are
connected in parallel to same
battery. Then the current drawn
nE from battery becomes 10 I. Find
I
R  nr the value of n.
If R << nr
E
 I [I  n]
r
Ir R >> nr
nE
 I
R
 If total internal resistance of cells is negligible as
compare load resistance, then series combination
of electric cell is preferred.

73.
 Enet = E + E – E + E = 2 E Concept Reminder
Enet = 2 E (depends on polarity)
If n identical cell are in series such
rnet = 4 r (does not depends on polarity)
that P cells out of them are with
 If n identical cell are in series such that P cells
reversed polarity then;
out of them are with reversed polarity then;
n>2P
n>2P
Enet = (n – 2 P)E
Enet = (n – 2 P)E
rnet = nr
rnet = nr
E – emf of each cell
r – internal resistance of each cell

Ex. 100 identical cells, emf of each 4 volt are kept in box in series
combination. If net emf across the box is 360 volt then calculate
number of cells with reversed polarity in the box.
Sol. Enet = (n – 2 P)E
360 = (100 – 2 P)4
2 P = 10
P=5
i.e., 5 cells are with reversed polarity
Ex. n identical cells emf of each E and internal resistance of each r are
connected in series such that 2 cell out of them are with reversed
polarity. Calculate terminal voltage of either cell with reversed polarity
(n > 4).
Sol. V = E + Ir
nEr
= E  2E
nr

Enet E(n  4)
I 
nr nr
If all cells are connected in series with same polarity,
V = E + IR
E(n  4)r nE  nE  4 E
V E 
nr n

74.
 2nE  4 E 2nE  2
V V 1 
n n  n
 2
 V  2E  1  
 n

Ex. 2 electric cells emf of each E but internal resistance r1 and

r2 (r1 > r2) are connected in series with external resistance of R. If
terminal voltage of 1st cell is zero, then correct relation.

Sol. V1 = E – Ir1 = 0
E = Ir1
Enet 2E
I 
r1  r2  R r1  r2  R
2Er1
E  r1  r2  R  2r1
r1  r2  R
R = r1 – r2

Ex. An electric cell of emf 20 volt and internal resistance 2  is being

charged by source of 100 volt using resistance of 38  in series.
Calculate terminal voltage of cell.

Sol. V = E + IR = 20 + I(2)
100  20
I  2 Amp
38  2
V  20  4  24 volt

75.
 2. Parallel Combination:
 For identical cells:

Concept Reminder

If n identical cells are connected

in parallel combination then
Enet = E and
r
rnet 
n

Enet = E (same polarity of battery) Concept Reminder

r
rnet  If n non-identical cells are
n
connected in parallel combination
Enet E then
I  I
rnet  R r E E E E 
R Enet =  1  2  3  .....  n 
n r r2 r3 rn 
 1
r E
If R >> , I 1
n R 1 1 1
rnet =     .....  
r r r3 rn 
r nE  1 2
If R  , I
n r
 If load resistance is negligible as compare total
internal resistance, then parallel combination of
electric cell is preferred.
 For non-identical cells

76.
 Series,
Enet = E1 – E2 Concept Reminder
rnet = r1 + r2 If n non-identical cells are
connected in parallel combination
then
E E E E 
Enet =  1  2  3  .....  n 
r r2 r3 rn 
 1
1 1 1 1
rnet =     .....  
r r r3 rn 
 1 2

 E1 E2 E3 E 
    .....  n 
r1 r2 r3 rn 
Enet  
1 1 1 1
    .....  
 r1 r2 r3 rn 

1 1 1 1 1
    ..... 
rnet r1 r2 r3 rn

Enet
I
rnet  R

 If 2 non-identical electric cells are connected in

parallel with same polarity
Concept Reminder

E1r2  E2r1 E1r2  E2r1

Enet  Enet 
r1  r2 r1  r2
r1r2
r1r2 rnet 
rnet  r1  r2
r1  r2

77.
 If 2 non-identical electric cells are connected in
parallel with reverse polarity, then; Concept Reminder

E1r2  E2r1
E1r2  E2r1 Enet 
Enet  r1  r2
r1  r2
r1r2
r1r2 rnet 
rnet  r1  r2
r1  r2

Ex. Calculate reading of Ammeter in given circuit.

Enet 12
Sol. I  
rnet  R 5(9.4)
6  6 12
Enet    2.4 volt
5 5
6
rnet   1.2
5

Ex. n identical electric cells, internal resistance of each r either connected

in series or connected in parallel with external resistance of R. If
current through external resistance in both the cases s same, then
correct relation.

78.
 nE
Sol. In series, IS 
nr  R
According to ....
IS = IP
nE nE

nr  R r  nR
nr + R = r + nR
r(n – 1) = (n – 1)R
r=R
In parallel,
E
IP 
r
R
n
Ex. In the given circuit, calculate maximum power across resistor of
resistance R.

Sol. For maximum power

R = Req excluding R
r1 r2
R
r1  r2
2
Enet
Pmax 
4 rnet
2
 E r  E2r1  r1  r2 (E1r2  E2r1 )2
Pmax   1 2  
 r1  r2  4 r1 r2 4 r1 r2 (r1  r2 )

3. Mixed Combination:

79.
 Rack your Brain

For a cell terminal potential

difference is 2.2 V when circuit is
open and reduces to 1.8 V when
cell is connected to a resistance
of R = 5 . Determine internal
mE resistance of cell.
Drawn current, I 
 mr 
  R
 n 

Power delivered by mixed combination,

m2E2R
P  I2R  P  2
 mr 
  R
 n 
Total number of cell in this combination = nm.
For maximum current/maximum power across R,
mr
R
n

Ex. 24 identical electrical cells, internal resistance of each 0.5  are used
in mixed combination to obtain maximum current through external
resistance of 3 . Calculate number of rows and number of cells in
each row.
Sol. n × m = 24
mr
R
n
m m
3  0.5  6
n n
n × 6n = 24
n 4  2  Number of rows
m = 12  12 cells in each row.

80.
 MEASURING DEVICES:

Galvanometer:
 It is used to detect the direction of current in
circuit (prime requirement).
 It can be used for measurement of small current Concept Reminder
and small potential difference.
 Principle: When current is passing through a A galvanometer is a device to
coil placed in magnetic field (magnetic poles are detect small currents and the
horse-shoe shaped to obtain radial) then coil direction of current in circuit.
experiences a torque and get deflect. Magnetic
field so that on the basis of deflection, direction
of current is detected and its valve also can be
detected.
Moving magnet galvanometer,
  MB sin  (Coil is fixed and magnet experience
torque)
Current in galvanometer coil µ deflection µ KEY POINTS
number of divisions.
 Galvanometer
 Ammeter
 Shunt resistance

Rg – Resistance of galvanometer coil.

Ig – Current range of galvanometer or maximum
safe current for galvanometer or full scale Concept Reminder
deflection current.
Vg – Voltage range of galvanometer In galvanometer, amount of
deflection is proportional to
Vg  IgRg
current passes through it.

81.
 Ammeter:
 It is used to measure large current. Definitions
 Shunting: Process in which small resistance is
connected in parallel with high resistance named Shunt resistance: Process
shunting and connected small resistance is in which small resistance is
named shunt resistance. connected in parallel with high
 When a small resistance is connected in parallel resistance named shunting and
with galvanometer or when shunt resistance is connected small resistance is
connected with galvanometer then galvanometer named shunt resistance.
gets convert into ammeter.

I – Range of ammeter.
Potential difference across shunt = Potential Concept Reminder
difference across galvanometer
(I – Ig)S = IgRg Value of shunt resistance required
to make ammeter
IgR g
S IgR g
I  Ig S
I  Ig
In ideal ammeter, no reading is possible because
whole current will pass through branch which is
parallel to galvanometer.
 Resistance of ammeter,
SRg
RA 
S  Rg
 Resistance of ammeter in this case,
Rg
RA 
n Rack your Brain
 Resistance of ammeter is to be decreased for R1
increase in its range and to R2 its accuracy. A galvanometer having 30
 Ammeter is connected in series with circuit divisions has a current sensitivity
element. of 20 mA/division. It has a
 Ammeter measures less current as compare resistance of 5. How will you
actual. convert it into an ammeter
 Resistance of ideal ammeter should be zero so measuring upto 1 A?
potential drop across ideal ammeter is zero.

82.
Ex. Resistance of galvanometer coil is 90  when it is converted into
ammeter then current in galvanometer is 10% of main current.
Calculate used shunt.
10
Sol. Ig  I  I  10Ig (n = 10)
100
Rg 90
S   10 
n1 10  1

Ex. Resistance of galvanometer coil is 75  and its full-scale deflection

current is 2 amp. Calculate required shunt to convert it into ammeter
of range of 32 amp.
Sol. Vg = Vs
IgRg  (I  Ig )s

2  75
s  5
30
I = 32 Amp, Ig = 2 Amp
I  nIg  32  ng
Rg 75
RA   
n 16
Note: If additional shunt is to be used then it should be connected in
parallel with previous shunt.

Ex. When shunt of 4  is connected with galvanometer then current

1
passing through galvanometer is of main current. If addition shunt
4
1
of 2  is used, then current passing through galvanometer is times
n
of main current. Calculate n.
I 3
Sol. Vg  Vs  Rg   4 I
4 4
Rg  12 

83.
 I  I8
Vg  Vs  Rg   I  
n  n 6
12 8 8 12 8 8 72  8 8
        n  10
n 6 6n n 6n 6 6n 6

Ex. A galvanometer of resistance 50  is connected to a battery of 3 V

along with resistance of 2950 W in series. A full-scale deflection of
30 divisions is obtained in the galvanometer. In order to reduce this
deflection to 20 divisions, the resistance in series should be.
3
Sol. 30 division,
3000
3 20
20 division, 
3000 30

3 3 2 3
I'    
50  2950  R 3000 3 3000  R
9000  6000  2R  R  1500 
Resistance in series,
(1500 + 2950)  = 4450 

84.
 Voltmeter:
 Galvanometer of high resistance. Concept Reminder
 It is used to measure large potential difference.
 When high resistance is connected in series with  To convert galvanometer into
voltmeter, a very high resistance
galvanometer then it converts into voltmeter.
is connected in series with
galvanometer.
 Value of that resistance is
V
R   Rg
Ig

V – range of voltmeter
V  Ig (Rg  RH )

V
 Rg  RH
Ig

V
RH   Rg
Ig

Resistance of voltmeter = Rg + RH
V
RV 
Ig

RV > Rg
RV > RH
 When a galvanometer is converted into ammeter
and voltmeter then
RV > RG > RA
 If range of voltmeter is n times the voltage range
of galvanometer, i.e., V = nVg
V nVg
RH   Rg   Rg
Ig Ig
KEY POINTS
RH  Rg (n  1) In this case: RV = nRg
 Voltmeter

85.
 (I  IV )R
V'   IVRV Concept Reminder
I
V'  V  An ideal ammeter should have
 Voltmeter measures less potential difference as zero resistance.
compare actual.  An ideal voltmeter should have
 Ideal voltmeter should not draw any current from infinite resistance.
parallel branch so resistance of ideal voltmeter
should be infinite but practically it is not possible.

Ex. Resistance of galvanometer coil is 100 . Its full-scale deflection

current is 1 mA. Calculate required higher resistance to convert into
voltmeter of range 5 V.
V 5
Sol. RH   Rg  3  100
Ig 10

RH  5000  100  4900 

Ex. Resistance of galvanometer coil is 150  and deflection current is 20

A per division. Number of divisions on its full scale is 100. Calculate
required higher resistance to convert it into voltmeter of range 8 volt.
Sol. 1 division = 20 mA
For 100 division,
Ig  20  1016  100

Ig  2  103 Ampere

V 8000
RH   Rg   150  4000  150
Ig 2

RH  3850 

Ex. Reading of ammeter and voltmeter in given circuit are 2 Amp and 120
volt respectively. Calculate resistance of voltmeter.
V 120  75
Sol. RV  
IV 150  120
Current Electrcity

86.
 RV  4  75  300 

Ex. In given circuit, ammeter and voltmeter are non-ideal. If their readings
are 4 A and 20 V respectively. Then resistance R is:

(1) R = 5  for this, voltmeter should be ideal

(2) R is slightly greater than 5 
(3) R is slightly less than 5 
(4) None of these
Sol. As voltmeter is non-ideal
(4  IV )R  20

20
R  R  5
4  IV

R < 52 ; for R = 5 ; ammeter should be ideal

87.
Ex. In given circuit, calculate percentage change in potential drop across
resistor of resistance 200 . In +nce of voltmeter.

Measured value – in +nce of voltmeter or ammeter.

Actual value – In –nce of voltmeter and ammeter.
Sol. In –nce of voltmeter (actual potential difference)

V1 : V2 : : 2 : 1
2
V1   12  8 volt
3
In +nce of voltmeter (measured potential difference)

V1 : V2 : : 1 : 1
1
V1   12  6 volt
2
Percentage change
 Measured P.D.  Actual P.D. 
=    100
 Actual potential difference 

88.
 68
=  100  25% (does not depends on value of V)
8
Note: If ammeter and voltmeter are to be change in another ammeter
and voltmeter then previous meters should be considered as
galvanometer.

Ex. The resistance of an ammeter is 13  and its scale is graduated for a

current upto 100 A. After an additional shunt has been connected to
this ammeter it becomes possible to measure currents upto 750 A by
this meter. The value of shunt resistance is.
Sol. Ig = 100 A, Rg = 13 
I  nIg  750  n(100)  n  7.5

Rg 13 130
RS     2
n1 6.5 65

Ex. A milli voltmeter of 25 mV range is to be converted into an ammeter

of 25 A range. The value of necessary shunt will be.
Sol. Vg = 25 mV

VS = IS
25  103
S  0.001 
25

Ex. A galvanometer of resistance G is shunted by resistance S . To keep

the main current in circuit unchanged, the resistance to be put m
series with galvanometer is.
Sol. To keep unchanged the main current,
Req = G
GS
R  G
GS
G  GS G2  GS  GS G2
R  
GS GS GS

89.
 Wheatstone Bridge:

KEY POINTS

 Wheatstone bridge
 Balanced Wheatstone bridge

 In experimental arrangement of Wheatstone

Bridge, P and Q are ratio arm, R is the branch of
resistance box and S is the branch of unknown
resistance.
 Balanced Wheatstone bridge is used to measure
unknown resistance (S). (Prime requirement of
balanced Wheatstone bridge)
 Calculation of unknown resistance is done
when galvanometer shows ‘null deflection’ i.e.,
balancing of Wheatstone bridge is bases on null
deflection method.

In balanced Wheatstone bridge:

P R Concept Reminder
Ig  0; VB  V0 ; 
Q S
 In balanced Wheatstone
 KVL is closed loop ABDA
bridge, we can interchange
I1P  I2R  0 galvanometer and cell without
I2R  I1P affecting the circuit condition.

P I2
 ...(i)
R I1
 KVL in closed loop BCDB
I1Q  I2S  0

I2S  I1Q

90.
 Q I2
 ...(ii)
S I1

P Q  P R
    
R S  Q S Rack your Brain
 Balancing of Wheatstone bridge is depend only
on P, Q, R and S. It does not depend on resistance In circuit below if a conducting
of galvanometer and emf of cell. wire is connected between A an
 In balanced Wheatstone bridge, galvanometer B, then in which direction will
and cell can be interchanged. current flow?
 If P, A, R and S are of same order then Wheatstone
is most sensitive. A
 In balanced Wheatstone bridge, element in bridge 4 4
branch (BD) can be removed.

In unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge: 1 3

P R B
 If  , current in bridge branch – from B to D
Q S
(VB > VD)
P R
 If  , current in bridge branch – from D to B
Q S
(VD > VB)

Ex. In given circuit, if galvanometer shows null deflection, then correct

option:

R1 C1 R1 C2
(1)  (2) 
R2 C2 R2 C1

R1 C21 R1 C22
(3)  (4) 
R2 C22 R2 C21

91.
 Sol. KVL in closed loop ‘abda’
q
IR 1  0
C1
q
IR1  ...(i)
C1
KVL in closed loop ‘bcdb’
q
IR2  0
C2
q
IR2  ...(ii)
C2
From equation (i)/(ii),
R1 C2
 
R2 C1

Meter Bridge:

KEY POINTS

 Meter bridge
 Balanced meter bridge

 In experimental arrangement of meter bridge,

known resistance (R) is connected in left gap and
unknown resistance (S) is connected in right gap.
 Balanced meter bridge is used to calculate
unknown resistance.
 Balanced meter bridge is same as balanced Concept Reminder
Wheatstone bridge, i.e., it is based on null
deflection method.  Meter bridge is based on
 In balanced meter bridge, resistance of wire principle of Wheatstone bridge.
AD and DC are same as P and Q of balanced  In balanced meter bridge
Wheatstone bridge respectively. R l 
  
 Wire of length 1 m made of Magnin and constantan  S 100  l 
is connected between points A and C as shown.

92.
 In balanced meter bridge:
P R
Ig  0; 
Q S
l
RAD R A R
  
RDC S (100  l) S
A
l R

100  l S
R(100  l) R S
S   (l in cm)
l l 100  l
 Meter bridge wire should be uniform.
 Distance of null point from high potential end (A) is named balancing length,
i.e., balancing length is measured from high potential end of meter bridge
wire.
 By default, balancing length si considered for resistance in left gap of meter
bridged.

Ex. In given meter bridge galvanometer shows null deflection. Calculate

unknown resistance S.

R S 60 S
Sol.   
l 100  l 30 70
S = 140 

Ex. In meter bridge arrangement, resistances x and y are used in 2 gaps of

bridge. Null point is at distance of 25 cm from one of the end of wire
(y > x). If resistance of 2 x is used instead of x then calculate distance
of null point from same end of wire.

93.
 Sol. Case-I:
x y y
  x
25 75 3
Case-II:
2x y 2y y
  
l' 100  l ' 3l ' 100  l '
200  2l '  3l '  l '  40 cm

Ex. Resistances R1 and R2 are used in left gap and right gap of meter
bridge respectively. Null point is at distance of 1/3 m. If resistance of
6  is connected in series with smaller resistance, then null point is
at distance of 2/3 m from same end. Calculate R1 and R2.
R S
Sol. 
l 100  l
Case-I:
R1 R2
3   3  R2  2R 1
1 2
Case-II:
(R 1  6) R2
3   3  R 1  6  2R2
2 1
R1 + 6 = 4 R1
3 R1 = 6
R1 = 2 
R2 = 4 

Potentiometer:
 Practically possible voltmeter draws some current from parallel branch
and measures less potential difference so to calculate accurate potential
difference, potentiometer is used.

94.
 Ep – Source of known emf in 1 circuit.
Ip – Current in 1 circuit. Concept Reminder
Rp – Resistance of potentiometer wire.
 A potentiometer is an accurate
Lp – Length of potentiometer wire.
and versatile device to make
Es – Unknown potential difference connected in
electrical measurements of emf
2 circuits.
because if involves a condition
 In experimental arrangement of potentiometer,
of no current flow through the
long length potentiometer wire made of magnin
galvanometer.
and constantan is is connected in between points
A and B as shown.
 Source of known emf (Ep), Rheostat and
potentiometer wire are connected in series
named primary circuit.
 Potentiometer remains unaffected by internal Rack your Brain
resistance of Es.
 Source of unknown potentiometer difference is
A resistance wire connected in
used in secondary circuit which is connected
the left gap of a meter bridge
parallel with primary circuit.
balances a 10 resistance in the
 Calculation of unknown potentiometer difference
right gap at a point which divides
connected in 2 circuit is being done by comparison
the bridge wire in ratio of 3 : 2. If
with uniformly distributed known potentiometer
length of wire is 1.5 m then, find
difference on potentiometer wire at balancing
the length of 1 resistance wire.
condition.
 Balancing condition means galvanometer of 2
circuit shows null deflection.
 Primary circuit of potentiometer does not draw
any current from 2 circuit at balancing condition,
so potentiometer behaves as ideal voltmeter.

Potential Gradient (x):

 Potential drops on per unit length of potentiometer
wire is named potential gradient (x).
VAB volt
x
Lp metre

Lp – Length on which there is potential drop

of VAB.
Current Electrcity

VAB IpRp Ip

x  
Lp Lp A

95.
 IpRp Ep  Rp
x 
Lp (Rh  Rp )Lp

Rh = 0  x – maximum.
Rh = Maximum  x – minimum
 As potential gradient (x) is the parameter of 1
circuit, so it does not depend on 2 circuit.

Standardization of Potentiometer:
A practical process using standard cell of known
emf in 2 circuit to calculate potential gradient KEY POINTS
accurately is named standardization.
 Potentiometer
 Potential gradient

Concept Reminder
Potential difference across length l0 is E0
 The length of potentiometer
E0 wire is kept large because if wire
Potential difference across unit length =
l0 long then potential gradient will
be smaller. Hence balancing
E0
i.e., potential gradient (x) = length will be increased.
l0
 High potential end of 1 circuit and 2 circuit should
be connected at same point.
 Balancing length is measured from high potential
end of potentiometer wire.
E0
 Ep
Es

Strength of Potentiometer:
 Maximum possible potential difference which
can be measured from potentiometer is named
strength of potentiometer.

96.
 Potential drop across entire length of potentiometer wire represents
strength of potentiometer.
Strength of potentiometer = VAB = xLp

Sensitivity of Potentiometer:
 Balancing length for per unit potential difference is sensitivity of
potentiometer.
Sensitivity of potentiometer
Balancing length l 1
=  
Potential difference V x
 If potential gradient on potentiometer wire is x and balancing length for
unknown potential difference connected in 2 circuit is l then this unknown
potential difference is as
Es  xl

Ex. In given potentiometer circuit, galvanometer of 2 circuit show null

deflection. Calculate potential difference connected in 2 circuit.

Sol. From 1 circuit,

Ep Rp 20  20 4
x   volt/metre
(Rp  RH )Lp 30  10 3

From 2 circuit,
4
Es  xl  Es   3  4 volt
3

97.
Ex. In given potentiometer circuit, potential drop across resistance of
20  is 2 volt. Calculate balancing length for potential difference
connected in 2 circuit.

2 1
Sol. Ip  
20 10
Ip Rp
Es  xl  l 3
Lp

1.5  6  10
l  1.8 metre
1  50

Ex. There is a potentiometer wire of length 1 m and resistance 10 . This

potentiometer is connected in series with resistor of resistance R and
source of emf 2 volt. If Balancing length for potential difference of 10
mV is 40 cm, then calculate resistance R.

Sol. From 1 circuit,

Ip Rp Ep Rp
x 
Lp (Rp  R)Lp

1 2 10
   R  10  800
40 (R  10) 1

98.
 R = 790 
From 2 circuit,
10  103
Es  xl  x
40  102
101 1
x  volt/metre
4 40
Note: If radius of wire is doubled then potential
gradient (x) will remains same.
IP RP
x
Lp

APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER:
1. Measurement of unknown emf of cell:

Concept Reminder

 In potentiometer, larger is the

length of wire, move is the
accuracy. Thus for a sensitive
potentiometer, potential
gradient should be small.

 When key K1 is used then standardization emf E0

will be balanced. Let l0 be balancing length
E0 = xl0
E0
x  standardization
l0
 Key K1 is removed and K2 is used then unknown
emf E is balanced, let l be balancing length
E = xl
E 
E   0 l
 l 
 0

99.
 2. Comparison of emf of 2 cells:
Rack your Brain

A potentiometer wire is 100

cm long and a constant P.d is
(a)
maintained across it. Two cells
are connected in series first to
support one another an then in
opposite direction. The balance
point is 50 cm and 10 cm from
positive end of wire in two cases.
 One of the cell is chosen as a standardization cell
Find the ratio of emf’s.
whose emf is known to a high degree of accuracy.
 No standardization is used since x is cancelled
finally, so accurate value of x.
 When key K1 is used then emf E1 will be balanced.
Let l1 is balancing length
E1 = xl1 ...(i)
 Key K1 is removed and K2 is used then emf E2 will
be balanced. Let l2 is balancing length
E2 = xl2 ...(ii)
From equation (i)/(ii)
E1 l1

E2 l2

(b)

 When key K1 is used then combinedly (E1 + E2) will

be balanced, let l1 is balancing length
E1 + E2 = xl1 ...(i)
 Key K1 is removed and K2 is used then combinedly
(E1 – E2) will be balanced, let l2 is balancing length
E1 – E2 = xl2 ...(ii)

100.
From equation (i)/(ii)
(E1  E2 ) l1 E1 l 1  l2
  
(E1  E2 ) l2 E2 l 1  l2

Ex. Two cell of emf E1 and E2 (E1 > E2) are connected in series in 2 circuit
then balancing length is 3 metre. If these cells are connected in series
with another pattern such that balancing length becomes 5 metre.
E1
Find ratio .
E2

E1  l l  5 3 4
Sol.   1 2  
E2  l 1  l 2  5  3 1

Ex. Two cells are to be balanced separately on potentiometer wire then

difference between corresponding balancing length is 20 cm. If
difference in emf of these cells is 0.5 volt then calculate potential
gradient on potentiometer wire. If length of potentiometer wire is 10
m then calculate strength of potentiometer also.
Sol. E1 = xl1
E2 = xl2
E1 – E2 = x(l1 – l2)
20
0.5  x  x  2.5 volt/metre
100
Strength = VAB = xlp = 2.5 × 10 = 25 volt

3. Measurement of internal resistance of given cell:

When key is opened in sub-circuit of 2 circuit then balancing will be emf of

cell; let l0 is balancing length

101.
 E = xl0 ...(i)
 When key is closed in sub-circuit of 2 circuit then balancing will be terminal
voltage of cell; let lc is balancing length
V = xlc ...(ii)
When current is drawn from cell
Concept Reminder
ER (E  V)R
V r 
Rr V  Internal resistance
 xl  xlc  l 
r 0 R r   0  1 R
 xlc  l 
  c 
  l l  
r   0 c  R  (Where l0 > lc)
  lc  

Ex. A cell is connected in 2 circuit to calculate its internal resistance.

Balancing of cell is across length of 6 m. When external resistance
of 10  is connected across cell then balancing length becomes 5 m.
Calculate internal resistance of cell.
 l l   6  5
Sol. r   0 c  R    10  2 
 l 
 c   5 

Ex. An electric cell connected in 2 circuit is being balanced across length

of 90 cm. When external resistance of 5  is connected with cell then
balancing length becomes 75 cm. If resistance of 4  instead of 5  is
connected with cell then calculate balancing length.
Sol. Case-I:
 l l   90  75 15
r   0 c R   5 
 l 
 c   75  15
r=1
Case-II:
 l  l 'c   90  l 'c 
r 0 R   4
 l 'c   l 'c 
l 'c  360  4 l 'c  5l 'c  360

l 'c  72 cm
Current Electrcity

102.
 4. Comparison of resistances of 2 resistors:
 Key K1 is used then potential drop across R1 will
be balanced, let l1 is balancing length
IR1 = xl1 ...(i)
 Key K1 is removed and K2 is used then
combinedly potential drop across
R1 and R2 is balanced, let l2 is balancing length
I(R1  R2 )  xl2
IR1  IR2  xl 2
xl 1  IR2  xl 2
IR2  x(l 2  l 1 ) ...(ii)
From equation (i)/(ii)
R1 l1

R2 l2  l 1

5. Measurement of current in given circuit:

 When key K1 is used then standardization emf E0
will be balanced, let l0 is balancing length
E0 = xl0
E0
x (standardization)
l0
 Key K1 is removed and key K2 is used then
potential drop across resistance R is balanced,
let l is balancing length
IR = xl
E   E0  l
IR   0  l  I   
 l 
 0  l0  R

Heating E ect of Current (Joule’s law of heating):

 When current is passing through any conductor
or resistor then heat is produced across that
conductor or resistor.
 Heating effect of current does not depend on
direction of current.
Amount of heat produced (H):

103.
 V2 t
H  I2Rt   VIt
R
I – In amp, V – In volt, R – in Ohm, t – n sec and
H – Joule.
1 cal = 4.18 joule
1 cal  4.2 joule

ELECTRIC POWER (P):

 Rate of heat produced, or amount of heat
produced in per unit time in electric circuit is Definitions
named electric power.
dH H Rate of heat produced, or
P ; P
dt t amount of heat produced in per
unit time in electric circuit is
V2
P  I2R   VI Joule/sec or watt named electric power.
R
1 KWh = 3600 × 103 watt-sec dH H
P ; P
1 KWh = 36 × 105 Joule dt t
1 KWH = 3.6 × 106 Joule V2
P  I2R   VI Joule/sec or
If P = constant R
H = Pt watt
If I  f(t)  P  f(t)
t2

 H  P dt
t1

Note: Integration of electric power with time or

area of electric power-time graph gives amount
of heat produced in given time interval.

Ex. The charge flowing through a resistance R varies with time t as Q = at

– bt2, where a and b are positive constants. The total heat produced
in R is.
Sol. Q = at – bt2
I = a – 2bt
I  f(t)  P  f(t)
t2 t2 a/2b
Current Electrcity

 P dt   I R dt  
2
H (a  2bt)2R dt
t1 t1 0

104.
 a/2b

= 
0
R(a2  4 b2 t2  4 abt) dt

a/2b
 4 b2 t 3 4 abt 2 
= R a 2 t   
 3 2 
0
 a 3 4 b2 a3 2 aba 2 
HR   
 2b 3 8b3 4 b2 

 a3 a3 a 3  a 3R
HR   
 2b 6b 2b 6b

Ex. A resistance of R  draws current from a potentiometer. The

potentiometer has a total resistance R0 . A voltage V is supplied to
potentiometer. What is voltage across R when sliding contact is at
middle of potentiometer.

R0R
R0 2
Sol. Rnet  
2 R0
R
2
V
R0 R0
 R
V V
I 2 2  
R0 R0 R0R R0 R0R
R  
2 2 R0  2R 2 R0  2R

IR0R RR
2V( R0  2R) 0 2 VR
I 2  2 
 R0   R  2R  R0  4R
  R  0  R0 (R0  4R)
 
 2   2 

105.
 V2
P  I2R   VI
R
e.g., R1 > R2

P = I 2R
P  R  P1  P2

V2 1
P P  P1  P2
R R

Ex. In the given circuit if power dissipation across resistance of 2  is 8

watt, then calculate power dissipation across resistance of 5 .

3
Sol. 2   I  I  6 Amp
9
For 2 ;
P  I21 R  8  I21 2  I1  2 Amp
Across 5 ,

106.
 P  I2R  P  36  5  180 watt
Voltage applied = IR  6  7  42 volt

Ex. In the given circuit, total power dissipation is 40 watt then calculate
resistance R.

V2 400
Sol. P   40   Req  10 
Req Req

3R
8  10
3R
3R
 2  3R  6  2R  R  6 
3R

Ex. Two copper wire AB and BC of equal length are connected in circuit
as shown. If radius of cross-section of AB is twice the radius of cross-
section of BC. Find ratio of power dissipation across AB and BC.

I2l 1
Sol. P  I2R  P 2
A r
2
PAB r  1
  BC  
PBC r 4
 AB 

107.
Ex. There is a solid cylindrical conductor of resistivity . When potential
difference is applied across the conductor then electric field inside
the conductor is E. Calculate rate of heat produced in per unit volume
of conductor.
Sol. Rate of heat produced, i.e.

V 2 E2l 2 A E2Al E2 V '

Power    
R l  
Power E2 V ' E2
 
Volume V ' 

Ex. Current passing through resistor of resistance R decreases linearly

from I0 to 0 in time of t0. Calculate total amount of heat produced in
resistor.


Sol. H  I2R dt
t0 2 t 2
 t 
0
 t 
 I02 
2
H  1   R dt  I0R  1   dt
0  t0  0 
t 0 

t0 t
 t2 2 t   t3 t2 
0


2 2
= I0 R  1  2   dt  I0 R t   
 t 0 t0   3 t 02 t0 
0  0

 t  I2 Rt
H  I02 R  t0  0  t0   0 0
 3  3

I02 Rt0
H
3
2
 I 
or H   0  Rt 0
 3
 

108.
 Power Rating:
 Power rating of electrical appliance gives the Concept Reminder
information about maximum possible supply  Rated power Pr and rated voltage
voltage across the electrical appliance and Vr are used to find resistance of
maximum possible consumed power by the appliance.
appliance.
Vr2
e.g., R
Pr
Power rating (100 W, 200 V)

(VS)max = V r = 200 V (Pc)max = P r = 100 W

Power rating of electrical appliance gives the

information about the resistance of appliance
also.
Vr2 (Rated voltage)
R 
Pr Rated power KEY POINTS
 If rated voltage is not mentioned in power rating,
then rated voltage is considered 220 volt.  Rated power
 Rated voltage
BULB:

Rack your Brain

The charge flowing through a

Vr – rated voltage, Pr – rated power, resistor R varies with time t as
Vs – supplied voltage, Pc – consumed power Q = at – bt2 where a and b are
 Resistance of bulb positive constants. Then find
 V2  total heat produced in R.
Rb  r 
 Pr 

 Generally, Vr – same
 1
Rb  
 Pr 

e.g., R60W > R100W

109.
 Consumed power
2
VS2 VS2 V 
PC   PC   PC   S  Pr
R Vr2 V 
 r 
Pr
Brightness of bulb µ PC
 If VS < Vr  PC < Pr  Bulb, glows with less brightness.
VS = Vr  PC = Pr  Bulb, glows with maximum brightness
VS > Vr  PC > Pr  Bulb, get fuse.

Ex. A bulb of power rating (100 W, 200 volt) is used with supply of 110 V.
Calculate amount of heat produced in 1 minute.
2
V 
Sol. H  PC t   S  Pr t
V
 r 
2
 110 
=    100  60
 220 
6000
H  1500 watt sec
4
H = 1500 Joule

Ex. Calculate total power dissipation in given combination of bulb.

Vr2 200  200

Sol. R1    400 
Pr 100
R2  400 
VC2 VC2 200  200
(PC )total     50 watt
Req R 1  R2 4800

or (PC )total  PC  PC  (25  25)W  50 watt

1 2

110.
 Ex. Calculate total power dissipation in given combination of bulbs.

Sol. R1 = 100 
100  100
R2 =  50 
200
V1 : V2 : : 2 : 1
2
V1   200  133 W
3

Combination of Bulbs:
1. Series Combination:
PC  I2S R (in series, supplied current IS)
 1
PC  R  
 Pr 

Brightness µ PC
 In series combination, bulb of less rated power glows with greater brightness.
 If bulb of same rated voltage but different rated power are connected in
series with supply equal as rated, then;

Concept Reminder

In series,
Effective power is
1
 1 1
Ps    
P P 
 1 2 

R T  R 1  R 2  R3 In parallel,
Effective power is
V2 V2 V2 V2 Pp = P1 + P2
  
(PC )total P1 P2 P3
1 1 1 1
  
(PC )total P1 P2 P3

111.
 (PC )total  PC  PC  PC (in series, parallel or mixed combination)
1 2 3

 In the above combination, if n identical bulbs, rated power of each P, are

used then; consumed for each
P
(PC )total 
n
P
(PC )each 
n2
2. Parallel Combination:
VS2
PC  (in parallel, supplied voltage VS)
R
1
PC   Pr
R
Brightness µ PC
 IN parallel combination, bulb of greater rated power glows with greater
brightness.
 If bulbs of same rated voltage but different rated power are used in parallel
with supply equal as rated voltage, then;

1 1 1 1
  
Rtotal R 1 R2 R3

(PC )total P1 P2 P3
2
  
V V2 V2 V2

(PC )total  P1  P2  P3

112.
 If n identical bulb rated power of each P are used in above combinations:
(PC )total  nP
Consumed for each:
(PC )each  P

Ex. In the given combination, all bulbs are identical compare their
brightness.

Sol. PC  I2 R  PC  I2S
 (B)A  (B)E  (B)B  (B)C  (B)D

Ex. In the given combination, if key is opened then predict effect on

brightness of bulb A and C. (all bulbs are identical)

Sol. When key is not open,

3R 2V 0.66 V
Req   IA  
2 3R R

113.
 V 0.33 V
IC  
3R R
When key is opened:
Req  2R

V 0.5 V
 IA    Brightness of A decreases
2R R

V 0.5 V
IC    Brightness of C increases
2R R
Although, final brightness of A and C are same.

Ex. A bulb of power rating 90 W, 30 V is to be used with supply of 50 volt.

Calculate resistance which should be connected in series of bulb.

20 20
Sol. R   
I 3
30  30
or Rbulb   10 
90
30 : 20 : : 10 : R
3 10 20
 R   Concept Reminder
2 R 3
Time taken by 2 heaters to
Heater:
produce equal amount of heat are
t1 and t2. If these heaters are used
combinedly then time taken is as;
In series,
Concept:  tseries = (t1 + t2)
Required heat = Heat produced by heater In parallel,
VS2 t 1t 2
mSQ or mL = t or I2SRHt or VSIS t  tparallel =
RH (t 1  t 2 )
For water,

114.
 1 cal 418 J 4.2 J
Sw   
gm C gm C gm C

cal 4180 J I
Sw  1000   4200
kg C kg C kg C
 To produce equal amount of required heat, time taken by different heaters
is directly proportional to their resistances (in case of same supply voltage
or by default)
VS2 t
mSQ  t   same
RH RH
t  RH  length of coil of heater.
 Time taken by 2 heaters to produce equal amount of heat are t1 and t2. If
these heaters are used combinedly then time taken is as;
In series  tseries = (t1 + t2)
t 1t 2
In parallel  tparallel =
(t 1  t2 )

Ex. Amount of heat produced by a heater in a time t is H. If coil of heater is

cut into n equal parts and these parts are used in parallel with same
source, then calculate amount of heat produced by the combination
in time t.
V2 t
Sol. H 
R
V 2 t V 2n2 t
H'    Hn2
R' R
H'  n2H

Ex. Resistance of heater coil is 60 W current passing through heater is 7

ampere. Calculate change in temperature of water of 42 litre in per
minute.
Sol. msQ  I2sRHt

42  4200 Q  49  60  60
Current Electrcity

49  6  6
Q   1 C or 1 K
42  42

115.
Ex. A heater of power 836 watt is used to raise the temperature of H 2O
of 1 lt. from 10°C to 40°C. Calculate time taken.
Sol. msQ  Pt
1  4180  30  836  t

4280  30
t  150 sec
836

RC-DC Circuit (Circuit of charging and discharging of capacitor):

1. During charging of capacitor:

Concept Reminder

During charging of a capacitor,

charge varies with time as
At t = 0 or just after closing the key q  Q0 (1  et/RC )
VC  0  VR  V0  I0R
As t   q   VC   VR   I 
t  ; q  Q0  CV0
Q0
VC  V0  ; VR  0
C
At any instant current I and charge q
VR  VC  V0 Definitions
q
IR   V0 Capacitive time constant is
C
the time in which charging and
q CV0  q
 IR  V0  I discharging, or capacitor get
C R
completed 63%.
dq (Q0  q)

dt RC
q t
dq dt

0
Q0  q
  RC
0

q  Q0 (1  e t/RC ) (Exponential increasing)

116.
 q  Q0 (1  e t/  )
  RC  capacitive time constants
At t = 
q  Q0 (1  e t/  )  Q0 (1  e1 )
q  Q0 (1  0.37)
q  0.63 Q0
i.e., capacitive time constant is the time in
which charging and discharging, or capacitor get
completed 63%
 Capacitive time constant () s named mean life of
RC = DC circuit.
Definitions
 Half lifetime (t1/2):
Time in which charging and discharging of
Time in which charging and
capacitor get completed 50% is named half
discharging of capacitor get
lifetime of RC-DC circuit.
completed 50% is named half
t 1  ln(2)   0.693 
lifetime of RC-DC circuit.
2

Potential drop across capacitor

q Q0
VC   (1  e t/  )
C C
VC  V0 (1  e t/  ) (Exponential increasing)
Potential drop across resistor
VR = V0 – VC
VR  V0  V0 (1  e t/  )

VR  V0e t/  (Exponential decreasing)

Current through resistor
VR V0e t/ 
I 
R R
 t/ 
I  I0e (Exponential decreasing)
At t = 
I  I0e1  I  0.37 I0
Current Electrcity

117.
 Behaviour of Capacitor in DC circuit:
Case-I: At t = 0 (just after key closing)
I  I0e t/RC  I0e0
I = I0
Initially just after key closing, capacitor does not offer any opposition in
flow of electric current i.e.., behaves as short circuit element.

Case-II: At t = ¥ (practically after some time key closing or at steady state)

I  I0e t/RC  I0e  0
 Practically, after some time key closing, capacitor is considered fully charged
(steady state).

118.
At steady state capacitor does not allow current
flow, i.e., behaves as open circuit. Concept Reminder
At steady state, resistance n capacitor containing In RC circuit:
branch is meaningless (by default steady state is  At t = 0, capacitor behaves short
considered) circuited.
 At t = , capacitor behaves open
circuited.

Ex. In the given circuit, calculate charge of capacitor at steady state.

Sol. V = VC
V0R2
VC  V 
R 1  R2

CV0R2
Charge on capacitor = CVC =
R 1  R2

Ex. In given circuit, key is closed at t = 0. Calculate time at which potential

drop across resistor and capacitor.

119.
 V0
Sol. VR  VC  , i.e.; half life
2
t 1/2  0.693   0.693  20  10  5  106
t1/2 = 69.3 sec

Ex. In an RC circuit while charging, the graph of log i v/s time is as

shown by the dotted line, where i is the current. When the value of
R is doubled, which of the solid curve best represents the variation
of log i.

Sol. I  I0e t/RC

t
log i  log i0 
RC
R increasing,
V0
i0   I0 decreasing
R
1
m  m decreasing
RC

Ex. In RC-DC circuit during charging of capacitor,

current varies with time then variation of loge
I with t is as line (1). If one of the parameters
out of V0, R and C is changed keeping another
two constant then variation of loge I with t is
as line (2) then predict this change.
(1) R increasing (2) R decreasing
(3) C increasing (3) C decreasing
Sol. I  I0e t/RC

120.
 t
log e I  loge I0 
RC
y  C  mx
1
m  m increasing  C decreasing
RC
Intercept is constant because
V0
I0  constant, I0 =
R0

2. During Discharging of capacitor:

Concept Reminder

 In discharging of capacitor, the

charge varies with time as
q  Q0e t/RC

 When switch S1 is closed keeping S2 opened then capacitor is being charged.

 After steady state switch S1 is opened and S2 is closed then in new circuit
capacitor gets discharged through resistor.
 During discharging, capacitor behaves as source so potential drop across
resistor is equal as potential of capacitor at every moment.
During discharging:
At t = 0
Q0  CV0  VC  V0  Q0
VR  V0  I0R
As t ; q ; VC ; VR ; i.e.; I 
t  ; q  0; VC  0; VR  0; I  0
At any instant current I and charge q
VR = VC
q q
IR  I
C RC
dq q

dt RC

121.
 q t
dq dt

Q0
q

0

RC

q  Q0e t/RC (Exponential decreasing)

q  Q0e t/ 
At t = 
Q0
q  Q0e1  q  0.37 Q0 
e
 t/RC  t/RC
VC  V0e ; VR  V0e ; I  I0e t/RC
At t = 0
Q02 Q02
 U0   U  U0  e2t/RC
RC 2C
U  U0e2t/RC  U0et/ 
RC
Time constant   (mean life)
2
 RC 
t 1/2  0.693  
 2 

 During discharging of capacitor, amount of heat developed through the

resistor through which capacitor get discharged completely is equal as
energy stored in capacitor
 Calculation of equivalent time constant:
Consider the battery. short-circuited.
Calculate equivalent resistance, equivalent capacitance and then equivalent
time constant.

122.
Ex. Calculate equivalent time constant for given circuit.

(1) 

(2) 

Sol. (1) Req = 2R

When charging,
  RC  2RC
When discharging,
eq  3RC

(2) Req = 2   eq  ReqC  2  2  106

When charging, eq  4  sec

When discharging,
eq  ReqC  5  2  sec  10  sec

Ex. Find charge on 5 F capacitor.

Sol. Q = C(VA – VB)

100
I  1 Amp
60  40

123.
 By using KVL,
100 – 10 = VA  VA = 90 V
10 + 10 = VB  VB = 20 V
Q = 5(90 – 20) = 350 Cb

Ex. In given circuit calculate potential drop across capacitor at steady

state.

V
Sol. VC  VB  VA 
3
4V
VA  V   VB
3
4V V
VA  VB  V  
3 3

Ex. A capacitor of capacitance C is fully charged. This capacitor is being

discharged through a resistor coil which is embedded in thermally
insulated block of mass m and specific heat of S. If temperature
of block is increased by Q till complete discharging of capacitor.
Calculate initial potential of capacitor.

Sol. Required heat = heat produced across resistor coil during discharging
of capacitor.
1
msQ  CV 2
2 0
2msQ
V0 
C

124.
 Van-de Graa Generator:
 Application: To produce high potential difference and to accelerate charge
particles. (Electrons, protons, ions)
 Principle:
1. When a hollow conducting body is given charge then charge get
distributed uniformly on outer surface.
2. Corona discharge: Due to high charge density at sharp ends, charge
leaks out and ionized surrounding, which is named as corona discharge.

Colour Coding of Carbon resistor:

Colour code for resistors: A resistor is a current device made of specific
value of resistance. The value of resistance used in electrical and electronic
circuits vary over a very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the
value of resistance. A resistor has usually four concentric rings or bands
A, B, C and D of different colours. The colours of first two bands A and B
indicate the first two significant figures of the resistance in ohm, while the
colour of third band C indicate the decimal multiplier. The colour of fourth
ring or D (which is either silver or gold) tells the tolerance. Sometimes, only
three colour bands A, B and C are marked.

125.
Ex. Colour code for carbon resistance is as Red, Orange, Yellow, Gold then
value of resistance is.
Sol. R = 23 × 104  ± 5%

Ex. Colour code for carbon resistance is as Blue, Black, Brown, Silver then
resistance is.
Sol. R = 60 × 101  ± 10% = 600  ± 10%

Ex. Carbon resistance is R = 4700  ± 5% then its colour code is.

Sol. R = 47 × 102 ± 5%
Yellow violet red gold.

Ex. Carbon resistance is R = 950  ± 10% then its colour code is.
Sol. R = 95 × 101  ± 10%
Code  White green, brown, silver.

Ex. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has been set up as shown. The resistor R 4
is an ideal carbon resistance (tolerance = 0%) having bands of colours
black, yellow and brown marked on it. The galvanometer, in this
circuit, would show a null point when another ideal carbon resistor X
is connected across R4, having bands of colours:

(1) Black, brown, black, is put in parallel with R4

(2) Black, brown, brown, is put in parallel with R4
(3) Brown, black, brown, is put in series with R4
(4) Black, brown, black, is put in series with R4
Sol. Resistance R4 = black, yellow, brown = 40 
Required resistance X with R4 to balance bridge X = 10 
 X = black, brown, brown (in parallel)

126.
EXAMPLES

Q1 The current through a wire depends on time as i  i0   sin t, where


i0  10A and   A. Find the charge crossed through a section of the wire
2
in 3 seconds, and average current for that interval.

Sol: i  i0   sin t.

dq 
 10  sin t
dt 2
3
    1
q   10  2 sin t  dt  10  3  2    2  31C
0

q 31
Average current =  A
t 3

Q2 A cylindrical conducting wire of radius 0.2 mm is carrying a current of 20

mA. (a) How many electrons are transferred per second between the supply
and the wire at one end? (b) Write down the current density in the wire.

Sol: (a)
20  103
 no of electrons passing per second
e
20  103 2  1017
   1.25  1017.
1.6  1019 1.6
20  103 1
(b) j   106 A / m2 .
  2
2
 0.2  103
Current Electrcity

127.
Q3 If copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, what is the percentage
change in its resistance?

Sol: 
Resistance R 
A
By partial differentiation
R  A
   …(1)
R  A
  = Constant
 Volume of wire remains constant
A   = Constant
By partial differentiation
A 
  0 …(2)
A 
By equation (1) and (2)
R 
We get 2
R 
(% change in R) = 2 (% change in length) = 0.2%

Q4 In following diagram boxes may contain resistor or battery or any other ele-
ment then determine in each case

(a) E.m.f. of battery

(b) Battery is acting as a source or load
(c) Potential di erence across each battery
(d) Power input to the battery or output by the battery.
(e) The rate at which heat is generated inside the battery.

128.
 (f) The rate at which the chemical energy of the cell is consumed or in-
creased.
(g) Potential di erence across box
(h) Electric power output across box.

Sol: (a)
(b)
In each case E.M.F. = 10 V
For case (A), battery is providing current to the circuit hence acting as
source.
For case (B) battery is taking current from external source, hence act-
ing as a load.
(c) For case (A) VA  E  ir  10  1  1  9V
For case (B) VB  E  ir  10  1  1  11V
(d) For case (A) PA  VAi  9  1  9W
For case (B) PB  VBi  11  1  11W
HA

2
(e) For case (A)  i2ArA  1  1  1W
t
(f) For case (A) PA  EAi  10  1  10 W
For case (B) PB  EBi  10  1  10 W
(g) For case (A) VBox  VA  9 V
For case (B) VBox  VB  11V
(h) For case (A) PBox  9  1  9 W
For case (B) PBox  11  1  11W

Current Electrcity

129.
Q5 1 kW, 220 V electric heater is to be used with 220 V D.C. supply.
(a) What is the current in the heater.
(b) What is its resistance.
(c) What is the power dissipated in the heater.
(d) How much heat in calories is produced per second.
(e) How many grams of water at 100°C will be converted per minute into
steam at 100°C with the heater. (Latent heat of vaporization of water = 540
cal/g)] [J = 4.2 J/cal].

Sol: (a) i
P 1000 50
   4.55A
V 220 11

 
2
V2 220 22  11
(b) R    48.4
P 1000 5
(c) P=1W
Q 1000
(d) H   240 cal / sec
J 4.2
Ht 240  60 80
(e) tH = mL  m   gm.
L 540 3

Q6 In following circuit potential at point ‘A’ is zero then determine

(a) Potential at each point

(b) Potential di erence across each resistance
(c) Identify the batteries which act as a source
(d) Current in each battery
(e) Which resistance consumes maximum power
(f) Which battery consume or gives maximum power.

130.
(a) VA  VB  VC  VD  0 VE  VF  VG  VH  10V V1  10  5  15V
VJ  15V VK  10  5  15V
(b) VBI  15V, VJG  5V, VKD  15V
(c) Each battery is supplying the current hence each battery is acting as
a source.
(d) Let current through BF, CG, HP is respectively i1 , i2 , i3
15 5 15
i1   15 amp , i2   2.5 amp , i3   5 amp 
1 2 3
For 10 V Battery, current = i1  i2  i3  15  2.5  5  17.5 amp 

  5 
2 2
V2 15
(e) P1    225 W , P2   12.5 W
R 1 2

 15
2
225
P3  
 75 W
3 3
Hence, 1 resistance consumes the maximum power.
(f) PI  E1 i1  10  17.5  175 W , PII  E2 i1  5  15  75 W
PIII  E3 i2  15  2.5  37.5 W , PIV  E4 i3  5  5  25 W
Hence left most battery consume maximum power.

131.
Q7 In given circuit determine

(a) Equivalent resistance (Including internal resistance).

(b) Current I, i1, i2 and i3
(c) Potential di erence across battery and each resistance
(d) The rate at which the chemical energy of the cell is consumed
(e) The rate at which heat is generated inside the battery
(f) Electric power output
(g) Which resistance consumes maximum power?
(h) Power dissipated across 4 resistance

(a) Req  2  1  3 
Sol:
 6
(b) i    2A
Req 3

1 1 1 1
i1  i2  i3  2 , i1 : i2 : i3  : :  1: 2 : 1, i1  i3  A, i2  1A
8 4 8 2
(c) Vacross battery    ir  6  2  1  4V , Vacross each cell  4V
(d) P of the cell consumed = I = 12 W
(e) P heat generated in cell P = i2r = 4 W
(f) Poutput  i  i2r  8 W
1
(g) In parallel, P  4 consumes Max power
R
v2 44
(h) P4    4W
R 4

132.
Q8 Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit given in figure between the fol-
lowing point:

(i) A and B (ii) C and D (iii) E and F

(iv) A and F (v) A and C

Sol: (i) RAB 

51 5
 
51 6
 36 
 6
 3  6 26
(ii) RCD    1.5 
 36  26
 6
3  6
 3  6  
   4  2
(iii) REF  
3  6  

24 3 
 2   1.5 
 36 242 2
 42
3  6
5
(iv) RAF  RAB  
6
 66 
 1 2
(v) RAC  

66  

31 2 4
 

 66


 1  2 31 2 3 
 6  6 

133.
Q9 An infinite ladder network of resistance is constructed with 1 and 2 re-
sistance, as shown in figure.

(i) Show that the e ective resistance between A and B is 2.

(ii) What is the current that passes through the 2 resistance nearest to the
battery?

Sol: (i) Let RAB = x. Then, we can break one chain and connect a resistance of
magnitude x in place of it.
Thus, the circuit remains as shown in figure.

2x
Now, 2  and x are in parallel. So, their combined resistance is .
2x
2x
or RAB  1 
2x
But RAB is a assumed to x. Therefore,
2x
x  1
2x
Solving this equation, we get
X=2
Hence proved.
22
(ii) Net resistance of circuit R  1   2
22

134.
 6
 Current through battery i   3A
2
This current is equally distributed in 2  and 2  resistances. Therefore, the
i
desired current is or 1.5 A.
2

Q10 As shown in figure a variable rheostat of 2 k is used to control the potential

di erence across 500 ohm load. (i) If the resistance AB is 500 , what is the
potential di erence across the load? (ii) If the load is removed, what should
be the resistance at BC to get 40 volt between B and C?

Sol: (i)

135.
  1.5  0.5 
 RBC   
As V  R, V2  VBC   V   1.5  0.5  50
R  R  0.5  1.5  0.5 
 AB BC   
 1.5  0.5 
 0.75  150
  50   21.43 V
 1  0.75  7
 RBC  R
(ii) VBC  40 V  VBC   V  40  BC 50  RBC  1600 
 R  R  2000
 BC AC 

Q11 In the circuit shown all five resistors have the same value 200 ohms and
each cell has an emf 3 volts. Find the open circuit voltage and the short cir-
cuit current for the terminals A and B.

Sol: 6

3
600 400 12  9 21
Eeq     4.2 V
1 1 23 5

600 400
1 1 1 23 5
     req  240 
req 600 400 1200 1200

Short circuit current in AB

21
Eeq 21
i  5   17.5  103 amp
req 240 5  240

 i = 17.5 mA (from B to A)

136.
Q12 Find the value of i 1 / i2 in figure if
(a) R = 0.1  (b) R = 1  (c) R = 10 
Note from your answer that in order to get more current from a combination
of two batteries they should be joined in parallel if the external resistance
is small and in series if the external resistance is large as compared to the
internal resistances.

Sol: (a) i1 
12

12
, i2 
6

6
 10 A
2  0.1 2.1 0.5  0.1 0.6
i1 12
   0.57
i2 2.1  10

12 6
(b) i1   4A , i2   4A
21 0.5  1
i1
 1
i2

12 12 6 6
(c) i1    1 A & i2  
2  10 12 0.5  10 10.5
i1 1  10.5
   1.75 .
i2 6

137.
Q13 An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in series to a battery with an emf
 = 6.0 V. When a certain resistance is connected in parallel with the voltme-
ter, the reading of the voltmeter decrease  = 2.0 times, whereas the read-
ing of the ammeter increases the same number of times. Find the voltmeter
reading after the connection of the resistance.

Sol:

   x   x  


 x  1

x
Reading of voltmeter after connection of resistance is

 6
   2V
   1 21

Q14 A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2  is connected to a resis-

tor of 100  through an ammeter. The resistance of the ammeter is 4/3 . A
voltmeter has also been connected to find the potential di erence across
the resistor.
(i) Draw the circuit diagram.
(ii) The voltmeter reads 1.10 V, what is the zero error in the voltmeter?

Sol: (i)

138.
 (ii) 200 
4
(iii) 1.1   0.23 V
3
4
(i) 
3

4 100 r 600  6r  400  4r  300r 310r  1000

(ii) Req  2    
3 100  r 
3 100  r  
3 100  r

V
i
R
1.40
0.02 
310r  1000

 300  3r 
310r  1000  21000  210r
10 r = 2000
r = 200 
200  100 4
(iii) V  ir  0.02    1.33
200  100 3
Zero error = 1.1 – 1.33 = – 0.23 V

Q15 Figure shows a potentiometer with a cell of emf 2.0 V and internal resist-
ance 0.04  maintaining a potential drop across the potentiometer wire AB.
A standard cell which maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate
currents up to a few ampere) gives a balance point of 67.3 cm length of the
wire. To ensure very low currents drawn from the standard cell, a very high
resistance of 600 k is put in series with it which is shorted close to the
balance point. The standard cell is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf
E and the balance point found similarly turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of
the wire.

139.
 (a) What is the value of E?
(b) What purpose does the high resistance of 600 k have?
(c) is the balance point a ected by this high resistance?
(d) Is the balance point a ected by the internal resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell of the po-
tentiometer had an emf of 1.0 V instead of 2.0 V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining extremely small emf, say, of
the order of few mV (such typical emf of thermocouple)?

Sol: (a)
82.3
 1.02  1.25 V
67.3
(b) The high resistance to keep the initial current low when null point is
being located. This saves the standard cell from damage.
(c) This high resistance does not affect the balance point because then
there is no flow of current through the standard cell branch.
(d) The internal resistance of driver cell affects the current through the
potentiometer wire. Since potential gradient is changed, therefore, the
balance point must be affected.
(e) No, it is necessary that the emf of the driver cell is more than the emf
of the cells.
(f) This circuit will not work well for measurement of small emf (mV)
because the balance point will be very near to end A, and percentage
error in EMF measured due to length measurement would be very
V dE d
large E     will be large if  is very small.
100 E 

140.
Mind Map

141.
Current Electrcity

142.
143.
Current Electrcity