Ratan Lal Phool Kathori Devi

Senior Secondary School, Mathura

Chemistry Project
2023 – 24
Topic :- Carbohydrates
Submitted by :- Sanskriti Rawat
Class :- XII th C
Submitted to :- Poonam Mishra Mam
Teacher’s signature :-
 Acknowledgement

I express my sincere thanks to my instructor

Mrs. Poonam Mishra who guided me to the
successful completion of this project. I take this
opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude
for their individual guidance, constant
encouragement and immense motivation which
have sustained my efforts at all stages of this
project work.

I extend my sincere thanks to my principal

Dr. Neeta Singh for her support and for all the
facilities provided for the preparation of this
project work.
In the end, I would wish to thank everyone, who
motivated me to continue my work.
 Certificate
This is to certify that Sanskriti Rawat
th
of class 12 C has successfully completed
his project on topic Carbohydrates under
the guidance of Mrs. Poonam Mishra
during the academic year 2023-24

Mrs. Poonam Mishra Teacher’s Signature :-

(Subject teacher)
 Content
 Introduction
 Structure of carbohydrates
 Classification of carbohydrates
 Function of carbohydrates
 Biomedical importance of carbohydrates
 Biological significance
• Role in human nutrition
• Role in energy storage
• Role in animal and plant structure
 Conclusion
 Introduction
Living organisms require biomolecules for several
biological processes like energy storage and regulation
of their metabolic cycles. Among all, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins are the four major
biomolecules (or macromolecules) that are mainly
involved in these biological processes.
The functions of carbohydrates are essential for life in all
organisms, from microorganisms to plants and humans.
They are central to our nutrition and are present in our
daily diet in several forms, including in table sugar, milk,
honey, fruits, cereals, and vegetables like potatoes.
Carbohydrates were the last molecule among the four
macromolecules to get the attention of scientists for
research and further explorations. The in-depth study on
these molecules enriched the molecular chemistry of
biomolecules by introducing the concepts of change in
their shape and conformations during a biochemical
reaction. Studies on carbohydrates have contributed to a
better understanding of biosynthetic reactions,
enzymatic control mechanisms, and many fundamental
processes.
 Carbohydrates :-
Carbohydrates are defined as biomolecules containing a group
of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or
ketones) and several hydroxyl groups. It consists of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-
oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). It’s represented with the
empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m and n may or may not
be different) or (CH2O)n.
But some compounds do not follow this precise stoichiometric
definition, such as uronic acids. And there are others that,
despite having groups similar to carbohydrates, are not
classified as one of them, e.g., formaldehyde and acetic acid.
Examples of Carbohydrate
1. Glucose
2. Sucrose
3. Glycogen
4. Fructose
5. Starch
6. Lactose
7. Cellulose
Structure of Carbohydrates :-
Historically carbohydrates were defined as substances with the
empirical formula Cn(H2O)m. The common sugars such as glucose
and fructose or sucrose fit this formula, but nowadays the
convention is to regard as a carbohydrate a polyhydroxy aldehydes
or polyhydroxy ketone with the classical formula, a molecule
closely related to it, or oligomers or polymers of such molecules.
Their study evolved as a separate sub-discipline within organic
chemistry for practical reasons – they are water-soluble and
difficult to crystallise so their manipulation demanded different
sets of skills from classical “natural products” such as terpenes,
steroids, alkaloids, etc.
The term “monosaccharide” refers to a carbohydrate derivative
possessing a single carbon chain; “disaccharide” and
“trisaccharide” refer to molecules containing two or three such
monosaccharide units joined together by acetal or ketal linkages.
“Oligosaccharide” and “polysaccharide” refer to larger such
aggregates, with “a few” and many monosaccharide units,
respectively. Current usage seems to draw the distinction between
“few” and many at around 10 units.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of relatively
pure carbohydrates such as sucrose, cellulose from cotton, starch,
glucose, fructose, mannose and lactose were known to the chemists
of Europe, especially in Germany. In 1878, Emil Fischer
synthesized phenylhydrazine for his thesis at the University of
Munich. In 1884 he further discovered that carbohydrates gave
crystalline phenylosazone in which two phenyl hydrazines reacted
with the aldehyde group and the carbon adjacent to the aldehyde
group.
Classification of Carbohydrates :-
Carbohydrates are divided into four major groups based
on the degree of polymerization: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Given below is a brief account of the structure and
functions of carbohydrate groups.

Types of Carbohydrates -
Simple Carbohydrates :-
Simple carbohydrates are the basic type of carbs. Soft drinks, candy,
cookies and other sweet snacks contain simple carbohydrates. These
foods are often made with white sugar, a form of processed sugar.
Simple carbohydrates also are found in natural sugars. Fruit, milk and
vegetables contain natural sugars. Honey is a natural sugar as well.
People eat natural sugar in its original form. Simple carbohydrates are
easier to handle because they are less (or simpler) complex. They
come from fruit and sugar stuff, as well as pretty much anything else
that’s sweet. The human body can rapidly break down these things,
and that is where some of the problems lie.
There is only one sugar unit in the monosaccharides, so they are the
smallest of the carbohydrates. “The small size of monosaccharides
gives them a special role in digestion and metabolism. (The prefix”
mono- “means” one.) Before they can be ingested into the
gastrointestinal tract, food carbohydrates have to be broken down into
monosaccharides and they also flow in monosaccharide form in the
blood.

Complex Carbohydrates :-
Complex carbohydrates represent an important energy source
for your body. They provide the sustained fuel your body
needs for exercise, daily living activities and even rest.
Complex carbohydrates are often single units
(monosaccharides), which are bound together. The
oligosaccharides contain two to ten simple units of sugar.
Polysaccharides contain hundreds and thousands of
monosaccharides which are related. Complex carbohydrates
have fairly long-lasting energy.
The different types of carbohydrates can be classified on the
basis of their behaviour in hydrolysis. They are mainly
classified into three groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharides :-
Monosaccharide carbohydrates are those carbohydrates that
cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler units of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. If a monosaccharide
contains an aldehyde group then it is called aldose and on the
other hand, if it contains a keto group then it is called a
ketose.

Glucose
One of the most important monosaccharides is glucose. The
two commonly used methods for the preparation of glucose
are
 From Sucrose: If sucrose is boiled with dilute acid in an
alcoholic solution then we obtain glucose and fructose.
 From Starch: We can obtain glucose by hydrolysis of

starch and by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393K under

elevated pressure.
Glucose is also called aldohexose and dextrose and is
abundant on earth.
  Glucose is named as D (+)-glucose, D represents the
configuration whereas (+) represents
the dextrorotatory nature of the molecule.
 The ring structure of glucose can explain many
properties of glucose which cannot be figured by open-
chain structure.
 The two cyclic structures differ in the configuration of
the hydroxyl group at C1 called anomeric carbon. Such
isomers i.e. α and β form are known as anomers.
 The cyclic structure is also called pyranose structure due
to its analogy with pyran.

The cyclic structure of glucose is given below:

Fructose
It is an important ketohexose. The molecular formula of
fructose is C6H12O6 and contains a ketonic functional
group at carbon number 2 and has six carbon atoms in a
straight chain. The ring member of fructose is in analogy to
the compound Furan and is named furanose. The cyclic
structure of fructose is shown below:
Examples of Carbohydrates
Here are a few examples of where you’ll find the most carbs:
 Dairy Products – Yogurt, Milk, Ice cream
 Fruits – Fruit juice or Whole fruit
 Grains – Cereal, Bread, Wheat, Rice
 Legumes – Plant-based proteins, Beans
 Starchy Vegetables – Corn, Potatoes

2. Disaccharides :-
 On hydrolysis, disaccharides yield two molecules of
either the same or different monosaccharides.
 The two monosaccharide units are joined by oxide
linkage which is formed by the loss of water molecule
and this linkage is called glycosidic linkage.
 Sucrose is one of the most common disaccharides which
on hydrolysis gives glucose and fructose.
 Maltose and Lactose (also known as milk sugar) are the
other two important disaccharides.
 In maltose, there are two α-D-glucose and in lactose,
there are two β-D-glucose which are connected by an
oxide bond.

3. Polysaccharides :-
 Polysaccharides contain long monosaccharide units
joined together by glycosidic linkage.
 Most of them act as food storage for e.g. Starch. Starch is
the main storage polysaccharide for plants.
 It is a polymer of α glucose and consists of two
components-Amylose and Amylopectin.
  Cellulose is also one of the polysaccharides that are
mostly found in plants.
 It is composed of β-D- glucose units joined by a
glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and
C4 of the next glucose unit.

Functions of Carbohydrates :-
The functions of carbohydrates in the human body are discussed
below:
Energy Prod uction: The primary role of carbohydrates is to provide
energy to all cells in the body. Many cells prefer glucose as a source of
energy in comparison to other compounds like fatty acids. Some cells,
such as red blood cells, can only produce using cellular energy from
glucose.
In the breakdown of glucose, the first step is called glycolysis, which
occurs in a complex series of ten-reaction steps. The second stage of
glucose breakdown occurs in the mitochondria which is the
powerhouse of the cells. One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms are
removed producing more energy. The energy from these carbon bonds
is taken to another part of the mitochondria which makes the cellular
energy use the energy in the available form.
Energy Storage: When the body has sufficient energy to support its
functions, the excess glucose in the body is stored as glycogen, the
majority of which is stored in the muscle and liver. A molecule of
glycogen may contain over fifty thousand single glucose units and is
highly branched, allowing for the speedy distribution of glucose when
it is needed to make for the cells.
Building Macromolecules: Majority of the absorbed glucose is used to
make energy, some glucose is altered into ribose and deoxyribose,
which are important building blocks of important macromolecules,
such as RNA, DNA, and ATP.
Glucose is additionally used to make the molecule NADPH, which is
important for protection against oxidative stress and is utilized in many
other chemical reactions in the body. If all of the energy is used in
building needs of the body, excess glucose can be used to make fat.
Sparing Protein: When there is not sufficient glucose to meet the
body’s needs, glucose is released from amino acids. As molecules of
amino acids cannot be stored, this process requires the destruction of
proteins, primarily from tissues of the muscles. The presence of
sufficient glucose basically excludes the breakdown of proteins needed
by the body from being used to make glucose.
Lipid Metabolism: As glucose level of the blood rises, the use of lipids
as an energy source is inhibited. Therefore, glucose excessively has a
‘fat-sparing’ effect. It is because an increase in glucose level of blood
enhances release of the hormone insulin, which orders cells to use
glucose instead of lipids for production of energy.
Sufficient glucose levels in the blood also prevent the development of
ketosis. Ketosis is a metabolic condition which results from an
elevation of ketone bodies in the blood. Ketone bodies are an
alternative source of energy that cells can use when there is insufficient
glucose supply such as during fasting.

Biomedical importance of Carbohydrates:-

Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.

They have a wide range of functions, including :-
- Providing a significant fraction of the dietary calories for most
organisms.
- Acting as a storage form of energy in the body.
- Serving as cell membrane components that mediate some forms of
intercellular communication.
Biological significance :-
The significance of carbohydrates to living things cannot be overstated.
Most animals as well as plants have both carbohydrate and lipid energy
stores in nature; carbohydrates are generally available as an immediate
energy source, whereas lipids act as a long-term energy resource and
are used at a slower rate. Glucose, the most common uncombined, or
free, sugar found in the blood of higher animals, is required for cell
function. The proper regulation of glucose metabolism is critical for
survival.

• Role in human nutrition :-

Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients in the human diet,
along with protein and fat. These molecules contain carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates play an important role
in the human body. They act as an energy source, help control blood
glucose and insulin metabolism, participate in cholesterol and
triglyceride metabolism, and help with fermentation. The digestive
tract begins to break down carbohydrates into glucose, which is used
for energy upon consumption. Any extra glucose in the bloodstream
is stored in the liver and muscle tissue until further energy is needed.
  Role in energy storage :-
The primary role of carbohydrates is to supply energy to all cells
in the body. Many cells prefer glucose as a source of energy versus
other compounds like fatty acids. Some cells, such as red blood cells,
are only able to produce cellular energy from glucose. The brain is
also highly sensitive to low blood-glucose levels because it uses only
glucose to produce energy and function (unless under extreme
starvation conditions). About 70 percent of the glucose entering the
body from digestion is redistributed (by the liver) back into the blood
for use by other tissues. Cells that require energy remove the glucose
from the blood with a transport protein in their membranes. The
energy from glucose comes from the chemical bonds between the
carbon atoms. Sunlight energy was required to produce these high-
energy bonds in the process of photosynthesis. Cells in our bodies
break these bonds and capture the energy to perform cellular
respiration. Cellular respiration is basically a controlled burning of
glucose versus an uncontrolled burning. A cell uses many chemical
reactions in multiple enzymatic steps to slow the release of energy
(no explosion) and more efficiently capture the energy held within
the chemical bonds in glucose.

 Role in animal and plant structure :-

Cell walls of plants are made up of cellulose and hemicellulose and
both of them are polysaccharides. This structure provides rigidity to the
plant cell. Therefore, carbohydrates support the growth of the plant.

After the production of glucose during photosynthesis, the glucose is

converted to starch. Starch acts as the stored nutrient in plants that are
used by the plant when it is unable to perform photosynthesis. This proves that
carbohydrates support the biochemical processes inside the plant cells.

In animals, dietary carbohydrates provide well over one-half of the

energy needs for maintenance, growth, and production. Glucose is a
primary energy source for certain animal tissues and a precursor for
lactose synthesis in the mammary gland. Consequently, understanding
carbohydrate digestion and absorption, dietary glucose availability,
and the involvement of gluconeogenesis in the regulation of glucose
homeostasis is essential for the manipulation of the production and
quality of agricultural foods.

Conclusion
Carbohydrates are one of the four major essential biomolecules
required by living organisms. Organisms consume them in several
forms, and they are classified into four groups based on the number of
monomer units their structure has. They include monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
All carbohydrates contain molecules like glucose, fructose, cellulose,
starch, glycoproteins, and chitin which are involved in several
organismal functions. Their functions range from providing energy to
the cells, supporting the structural integrity of cells, to supporting the
organism’s growth and development.
Carbohydrate research has provided scientists with critical insights into
conformational changes, molecular kinetics, and much more. And it
still has several functions waiting to be discovered by scientists
dedicated to studying these molecules.
 Bibliography
For finalizing of this project , I have taken help from
the following sources along with the guidance of my
respected teacher Mrs. Poonam Mishra :-

M.S. Word

NCERT Chemistry Textbook

Internet explorer

www.byju’s.com

www.wikipedia.com

https://conductscience.com/

www.unacademy.com