FILD 311 – PRELIM EXAM INDUCTION/INDUCTIVE REASONING – Using

relatively small set of specific observations as the basis

LESSON 1 – Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and
for forming general statement about larger set of
the Scientific Method
possible observations
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE – Ways
STEP 2: Form Tentative Answer or Explanation
in which person can know things or discover answers
to questions - Begins by identifying variables that are associated
with your observation
5 NONSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES:
VARIABLES – Conditions that change for different
METHOD OF TENACITY – Information is accepted
individuals (e.g. Weather, Economy, or State of
as true because it has always been believed or because
health)
superstition supports it
HYPOTHESIS – Statement that describes relationship
METHOD OF INTUITION – Information is accepted
between or among variables
on the basis of hunch or “gut feeling”
- Not a final answer but rather proposal to be tested
METHOD OF AUTHORITY/FAITH – Person relies
and evaluated
on information or answer from an expert in the subject
area STEP 3: Use your Hypothesis to Generate a Testable
Prediction
RATIONAL METHOD/RATIONALISM – Seeks
answers by the use of logical reasoning - Apply hypothesis to specific, observable, real-world
situation
PREMISE STATEMENTS – Describe factors or
assumption that are presumed to be true DEDUCTION/DEDUCTIVE REASONING – Uses
general statement as the basis for reaching a
ARGUMENT – Set of premise statements that are
conclusion about specific examples
logically combined to yield conclusion
STEP 4: Evaluate the Prediction by Making
EMPIRICAL METHOD/EMPIRICISM – Uses
Systematic, Planned Observation
observation or direct sensory experience to obtain
WAYS OF THINKING
knowledge - Evaluate the prediction using empirical method
(direct observation)
TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE
- Data collection phase of scientific method variables
OBJECT SUBJECT STEP 5: Use the Observations to Support, Refute, or
IVE IVE Refine the Original Hypothesis
ANALYSI Empiricis Rationalis - Final step is to compare the actual observations with
S m m the predictions that were made from hypothesis
- Scientific method is not linear process but rather
ACCEPTA Intuition circular process
Authority
NCE Tenacity OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD:
SCIENCE IS EMPIRICAL
SCIENTIFIC METHOD – Approach to acquiring
knowledge that involves formulating specific questions - Answers are obtained by making observations
then systematically finding answer SCIENCE IS PUBLIC
STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD - Available for evaluation by others
STEP 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena - Replication/Repetition of observation allows
- Begins with causal or informal observations. It does verification of the findings
not necessarily start with well-planned, systematic SCIENCE IS OBJECTIVE
investigations
- Observation are structured to avoid researcher’s
biases
SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE - Use appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics
to summarize and interpret the results
- Scientific Research is based on gathering evidence
from careful, systematic, and objective observations STEP 9: Report the Results
- Pseudoscience is system of ideas often presented as - Use established guidelines for format and style to
science but lacking some of the key components that report and style to prepare an accurate and honest
essential to scientific research report that protects the anonymity and confidentiality
of participants
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
STEP 10: Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH – Measuring variables
for individual participants to obtain scores, usually - Use results to modify, refine, or expand your original
numerical values, submitted to statistical analysis for idea, or generate new ideas
summary and interpretation
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – Making observations
LESSON 2: Research Ideas and Hypotheses
that summarized and interpreted in narrative report
IDENTIFYING A TOPIC AREA
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
- First, identify a general topic area that is interesting
STEP 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and
to you
Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question
- Second, explore previous research in that topic area
- Identify general topic that would like to explore and
to discover a specific research idea or question
review the background literature to find specific
research idea COMMON SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS:
STEP 2: Form a Hypothesis Personal Interests and Curiosities
- Form a hypothesis, or tentative answer to research - Generate ideas for research based on your own
question interests and concerns
STEP 3: Determine How You Will Define and Measure Casual Observation
Your Variables
- Watching the behavior if people or animals you
- Identify specific procedures that will used to define encounter daily can be an excellent source of ideas
and measures all variables
Reports of Other’s Observation
STEP 4: Identify the Participants or Subjects for the
Study, Decide How they Will be Selected, and Plan for - Identify one or two research topics that are of
Their Ethical Treatment particular interest to you and get a general idea of
some of the research questions and techniques that are
- Decide how many participants or subjects will need, being used
what characteristics, and how will be selected, also
plan for ethical treatment Practical Problems or Questions

STEP 5: Select a Research Strategy - Ideas for research will arise from practical problems
or questions you encounter in your daily life
- Consider internal and external validity and decide
between experimental, and descriptive, correlational, APPLIED RESEARCH – Intended to answer practical
or quasi-experimental treatment questions or solve practical problems

STEP 6: Select a Research Design BASIC RESEARCH – Intended to solve theoretical

questions or gather knowledge for the sake of new
- Decide among between-subjects, within-subjects, knowledge
factorial or single-subject designs
Behavioral Theories
STEP 7: Conduct the Study
- Theories that offer explanations for behavior or try to
- Collect the data explain why different environmental factors lead to
different behavior
STEP 8: Evaluate the Data
SEARCH THE EXISTING RESEARCH USING ONLINE DATABASES
LITERATURE IN TOPIC AREA
- Typical database contains about 1 million
THINGS YOU CAN DO: publication, or records, that all cross-referenced by
subject words and authors names
Do Your Homework
ABSTRACT – Brief summary of the publication
- Read books and journal articles to familiarize
usually about 200 words
yourself with the topic
FULL TEXT – Each record is complete, word-for-
- Do not panic
word copy of the original publication
- You don’t need to know everything. Read enough to
NONFULL TEXT – Provides more complete coverage
gain basic understanding of topic
of topic area
- Narrow your research topic from general to very
SCREENING ARTICLES DURING A LITERATURE
specific idea
SEARCH
Keep an Open Mind
- Use the title of the article as your first basis for
- Begin with general topic area and then let your screening
background reading lead you to more specific idea
- Use the abstract of the article as your second
Focus, Focus, Focus screening device

- The goal is to develop one research question and fins - Look for full-text article
the background information that is directly relevant to
- Read the article carefully and/or make a copy for
question
your personal use
Take One Step at a Time
- Use the references from the articles that you found
- Not necessary to do the whole thing at once
CONDUCTING A LITERATURE SEARCH
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
- Narrow down your general idea to specific research
PRIMARY SOURCES question

- First hand report of observations or research results - Find all the published information documenting and
supporting the question
Example:
- Start with a recently published secondary source in
Empirical, Journal articles, Thesis and Dissertation, the area of your idea
and Conference Presentations of research results
SUBJECT WORDS – List the correct terms, or subject
SECONDARY SOURCES words, used to identify and describe the variables in
- Description or summary of another person’s work the study and characteristics of the participants

Example: AUTHOR NAMES

Books and Textbooks which author describes and FINDING RESEARCH IDEA FROM A PUBLISHED
summarizes past, review articles or metanalyses, ARTICLES
newspaper and magazine FIND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
PURPOSE OF LITERATURE SEARCH - Look for explicit statements in journal articles you
- Each research study is part of an existing body of already have
knowledge - Set of suggestions for future research is at the end of
TWO BASIC GOALS: discussion section of most research reports

- Gain with the current research in specific area of COMBINE OR CONTRAST EXISTING RESULTS
interest - Possible to find new research idea by combining two
- Find small set of research studies that will serve as (or more) existing results
the basis for your own research idea
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH ARTICLE – USING HYPOTHESIS TO CREATE RESEARCH
CRITICAL READING STUDY
- Ideas for new research studies begin with careful - Transform the general hypothesis into specific
reading of past studies research study
IMRAD - Converted into concrete statement that can be
verified or refuted by direct observation
INTRODUCTION
- Discusses previous research that is fundamental to
current research study
- Presents a clear statement of the problem being
investigated
LESSON 3: Defining and Measuring Variables
METHODS
THEORY – Set of statements about the mechanisms
- Present details regarding the participants and the underlying particular behavior
procedure used in study
CONSTRUCTS – Hypothetical attributes or
RESULTS mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a
theory
- Presents the details of the statistical analysis
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
DISCUSSION
- Procedure for indirectly measuring and defining
- Begins by summarizing the results of the study,
variable that cannot be observed or measured directly
starting the conclusion, and noting any potential
applications - Specifies measurement procedure for measuring
external, observable behavior and uses the resulting
REFERENCE
measurement as definition and measurement of
- List complete references for all items cited in the hypothetical construct
report
LIMITATIONS OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
USING RESEARCH IDEA TO FORM HYPOTHESIS
- Primary limitations is there is not a one-to-one
AND CREATE RESEARCH STUDY
relationship between the variable that is measured and
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS actual measurements produced by operational
definitions
LOGICAL
- It is easy for operational definitions to leave out
- Founded in established theories or developed from important components of a construct
the results of previous research
- They often include extra components that are not part
- Logical conclusions of logical arguments or construct being measured
TESTABLE USING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
- Which all the variables, events, and individuals can - Whenever the variables in research study are
define and observed hypothetical construct
REFUTABLE - Does not mean creating your own operational
- Must possible to obtain research results that are definition
contrary to hypothesis - Best method of determining how variable should be
FALSIFIABLE HYPOTHESIS measured is to consult previous research involving the
same variable
- Critical component of research process
VALIDITY ANF RELIABILITY OF
POSITIVE MEASUREMENT
- Must make positive statement about the existence of CONSISTENCY OF RELATIONSHIP
usually relationship, the existence of difference, or the
existence of treatment effect
- Validity and reliability of measurements are DIVERGENT VALIDITY – Demonstrated by showing
established by demonstrating the consistency of little or no relationship between the measurements of
relationship between two different measurements two different constructs
- Show the amount of consistency between two
different measurements
RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
- Two scores obtained for each person can be presented
- Stability or consistency of the measurement. If the
in graph called scatter plot
same individuals are measured under the same
SCATTER PLOT conditions, a reliable measurement procedure produces
identical (or nearly identical) measurements
- Two scores for each person can be represented as
single point, with horizontal position of point - The inconsistency in a measurement comes from
determined by one score and vertical position error
determined by second score
SOURCES OF ERROR:
- Consistency of relationship is determined by
OBSERVER ERROR – Individual who makes the
computing correlation between the two measurements
measurements can introduce simple human error inti
POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP – Two measurements the measurement process, especially when the
change together in the same direction measurement involves a degree of human judgment
NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP – Two measures change ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES – Small changes in
in opposite directions environment from one measurement to another, and
these changes can influence the measurements
NO RELATIONSHIP
PARTICIPANTS CHANGES – Participant can change
VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
between measurements
- Degree to which the measurement process measures
TYPES AND MEASURES OF RELIABILITY
the variable that it claims to measure
SUCCESSIVE MEASUREMENT:
METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE VALIDITY
TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY – Established by
FACE VALIDITY – Unscientific form of validity
comparing the scores obtained from two successive
demonstrated when a measurement procedure
measurements of the same individuals and calculating
superficially appears to measure what it claims to
correlation between the two sets of scores
measure
PARALLEL-FORMS RELIABILITY – When
CONCURRENT VALIDITY – Demonstrated when
different versions of the instrument are used for the test
scores obtained from new measure are directly related
and the retest
to scores obtained from established measure of the
same variable SIMULTANEOUS MEASUREMENTS:
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY – Demonstrated when - Obtained by direct observation of behaviors, common
scores obtained from a measure accurately predict to use two or more separate observers who
behavior according to a theory simultaneously record measurement
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY – Requires that the scores INTER-RATER RELIABILITY – Degree of
obtained from measurement procedure behave exactly agreement two observers who simultaneously record
the same as the variable itself. It is based on many measurements of the behaviors
research studies that use the same measurement
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY:
procedure and grow gradually as each new study
contributes more evidence - No single item or questions is sufficient to provide
complete measure of the construct
CONVERGENT VALIDITY – Demonstrated by
strong relationships between the scores obtained from SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY – Obtained by splitting
two (or more) different methods of measuring the same items on questionnaire or test in half, computing
construct separate score for each half, and then calculating the
degree of consistency between the two score for group
participants
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND MODALITIES OF MEASUREMENT
VALIDITY
SELF-REPORT MEASURES
- Reliability is prerequisite for validity; that is,
- Most direct way to assess a construct
measurement procedure cannot be valid unless it is
reliable - Direct question and its answer have more face
validity than measuring some other response
- Measure cannot be valid unless it is reliable, but
measure can be reliable being valid - Negative side, it is very easy for participants to
distorts self-report measures
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
NOMINAL SCALE
- Extremely objective. The equipment provides
- Represent qualitative differences in the variable
accurate, reliable, and well-defined measurement that
measured
are bot dependent in subjective interpretation
- Categories have different names but nor related to
- Disadvantage of such measures is that they typically
each other in any systematic way
require equipment that may be expensive or
E.g. Academic majors (Art, Chemistry, English, unavailable
History, Psychology, and so on)
- Presence of monitoring devices an unnatural situation
ORDINAL SCALE
BEHAVIORAL MEASURES
- The categories that make up this scale have different
- Constructs reveal themselves in overt behaviors that
names and are organized in an ordered series
can be observed and measured
- Consist of series of ranks
- Provide researchers with vast number of options,
- Can determine whether two individuals are different, making it possible to select the behaviors that seem to
and the direction of difference be best for defining ang measuring the construct
INTERVAL & RATIO SCALES OTHER ASPECTS OF MEASUREMENT
- Organized sequentially, and all categories are the MULTIPLE MEASURES
same size, the scale of measurement consists of series
- Method of obtaining more complete measure of
of equal intervals
construct is to use two (or more)
- Characteristics that differentiates interval and ratio
- Advantage of this multiple-measure technique is that
scales is the zero point
it usually provides more confidence In the validity of
- The interval has an arbitrary zero point the measurement
- Ratio scale has zero point that is not an arbitrary - One problem involves the statistical analysis and
location interpretation of the results
SELECTING SCALE OF MEASUREMENT - More serious problem is that the two measure may
not behave in the same way
NOMINAL SCALE – Tell us only that difference
exists SENSITIVITY AND RANGE EFFECTS
ORDINAL SCALE – Tells us the direction of the - Important concern for any measurement procedure is
difference (which is more and which is less) that the measurements are sensitive enough to respond
to the type and magnitude of the changes that are
INTERVAL SCALE – Determine the direction and
expected
magnitude of difference
RANGE EFFECT – Measurement procedure is
RATIO SCALE – Allows to determine the direction,
insensitive to changes that may occur in one direction
the magnitude, and ratio if the difference
CEILING EFFECT – Clustering of scores at the high
end of measurement scale, allowing little or no
possibility of increases in value
FLOOR EFFECT – Clustering of scores at the low end FAITHFUL SUBJECT ROLE – Attempt to follow
of measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any
of decreases in value suspicious they have about the purpose of the study
ARTIFACTS: EXPIREMENTER BIAS AND SELECTING MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE
PARTICIPANT REACTIVITY
- Review past research reports involving the variables
- Artifacts is an external factor that may influence or or constructs to be examined
distort the measurement
- If more than one procedure exists for defining and
EXPERIMENTER BIAS measuring a particular variable, examine the options
and determine which method is best suited for the
- When measurements obtained in study are influenced
specific research question
by the experimenter’s expectation or personal beliefs
regarding the outcome of the study - Critically examining and questioning a published
measurement procedure can lead to new research ideas
- One option for limiting experimenter bias is to
standardize or automate the experiment
- Another strategy for reducing experimenter bias to
use a “blind” experiment
- Research study is SINGLE-BLIND if the researcher
LESSON 4: Ethics in Research and Selecting
does not know the predicted outcome
Participants
- Research study is DOUBLE-BLIND if both the
ETHICS – Study of proper action (Ray, 2000)
researcher and participants are unaware of the
predicted outcome RESEARCH ETHICS – Concerns the responsibility of
researchers to be honest and respectful to all
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND
individuals who are affected by their research studies
PARTICIPANT REACTIVITY
or their reports of studies results
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS – Any of potential
- Researchers usually governed by set ethical
cues or features of study that:
guidelines that assist them to make proper decisions
- Suggest to the participants what the purpose and and choose proper actions
hypothesis is
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
- Influence the participants to respond or behave in a (APA) – Maintains a set of ethical principles for
certain way research (APA, 2002, 2010)
REACTIVITY – When participants modify their THE BASIC CATEGORIES OF ETHICAL
behavior in response to fact that they are participating RESPONSIBILITY
in research study or knowledge that they are being
- Responsibility to ensure the welfare and dignity of
measured
the individuals, both human and nonhuman, who
FOUR DIFFERENT SUBJECT ROLES: Weber & participate in their research studies
Cook, 1972
- Responsibility to ensure that public reports of their
GOOD SUBJECT ROLE – Participants have identified research are accurate and honest
the hypothesis of study and are trying to produce
ETHICAL AND HUMAN PARTICIPANTS IN
responses that support the investigator’s hypothesis
RESEARCH
NEGATIVE SUBJECT ROLE – Identified the
HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS OF TREATMENT OF
hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to
HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
investigator’s hypothesis
- Major for shift from individualized ethics to more
APPREHENSIVE SUBJECT ROLE – Overly
formalized ethical guidelines were the uncovering of
concerned that their performance in the study will be
brutal experiments performed on prisoners in Nazi
used to evaluate their abilities or personal
concentration camps
characteristics
NUREMBERG CODE – Set of 10 guidelines for the
ethical treatment of human participants in research
- In 1974 Congress passed the National Research Act 3 COMPONENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT
THE BELMONT REPORT – In 1979 it published by 1. Information
National Commission, summarizing the basic ethical 2. Understanding
principles which are used even to this day 3. Voluntary Participation
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION - In most situations, researchers use written consent
GUIDELINES: form
Ethical Guidelines for the Use and Treatment of CONSENT FORM – Contains statement of all the
Human Participants in Research elements of informed consent and line for participants
and/or guardians signature
- APA Ethics Code contains 10 ethical standards
- Form is provided before the study so the potential
- Ethics Code is intended to provide guidance for
participants have all the information they need to make
psychologist and standards of professional conduct that
an informed decision regarding participation
can be applied by APA and by other bodies that choose
to adopt them COMPONENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT
FORMS:
10 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN APA ETHICS CODE
OVERVIEW – Presentation of the goals of the study,
1. No Harm
why this study is being conducted, and who is
2. Privacy & Confidentiality
responsible for the study and its execution
3. Institutional Approval
4. Competence DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES – Clarification of
5. Record Keeping experimental conditions, assessment procedures and
6. Informed Consent to Research requirements of the participants
7. Dispensing with Informed Consent
RISK AND INCONVENIENCES – Statement of any
8. Offering Inducements for Research
physical and psychological risks and estimate of their
Participation
likelihood
9. Deception in Research
10. Debriefing BENEFITS - Statement of what the participants can
reasonably hope to gain from participation, including
MAJOR ETHICAL ISSUES
psychological, physical, and monetary benefits
NO HARM
COSTS AND ECONOMIC – Charges to the
- Obligated to protect participants from physical or participants and payment
psychological harm
CONFIDENTIALITY – Assurances that information is
- Entire research experience should be evaluated to confidential and will only be seen by people who need
identify risks of harm, and when possible, such risk to do so for purposes of research, procedures to assure
should minimized or removed from study confidentiality
- Any risk of harm must be justified ALTERNATIVE TREATMETS – In intervention
study, alternatives available to the client before or
INFORMED CONSENT
during participation are outlined
- Requires to provide all available information about
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION – Statement that the
study so that individual can make rational, informed
participant is willing to participate and can decline
decision to participate in study
participation now or later without penalty of any kind
- Human participants should be given complete
QUESTIONS AND FURTHER INFORMATION –
information about research and roles in it before
Statement that the participant is encouraged to ask
agreeing to participate
questions at any time and can contract one or more
- Should understand the information and then individuals who are available for such questions
voluntarily decide whether to participate
SIGNATURE LINES – Place for participants and
- Requires the investigator to provide all available experimenter to sign
information about study so that individual can make
DECEPTION
rational, informed decisions to participate in study
- Occurs when researchers purposefully withholds Ethical Guidelines for the Use and Treatment of
information or misleads participants with regards to Nonhuman Subjects in Research
information about a study
- APA has set ethical guidelines for the use and
2 FORMS OF DECEPTION treatment of nonhuman subjects that parallel the
guidelines for human participants presented earlier
PASSIVE DECEPTION (OMISSION) – Withholding
or omitting of information, the researcher intentionally - APA’s Committee on Animal Research and Ethics
does not tell participants some information about the (CARE) has prepared even more detailed guidelines
study for researchers working with nonhuman subjects
ACTIVE DECEPTION (COMMISSION) – Presenting MAJOR ETHICAL ISSUES:
of misinformation about the study to participants, most
- Qualified individuals must conduct research, the
common form of active deception is misleading
research must be justified, and the researchers must be
participants about the specific purpose of study
responsible for minimizing discomfort or harm
CONFIDENTIALITY
- The code refers to federal, state, and local regulations
- Practice of keeping strictly secret and private the that govern housing conditions, food, sanitation, and
information or measurements obtained from an medical care for research animals
individual during a research study
ETHICAL ISSUES AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY
- Basic process involves ensuring that participant’s
FRAUD IN SCIENCE
records are kept anonymous
ERROR VS. FRAUD
ANONYMITY – Practice of ensuring that an
individual’s name is not directly associated with ERROR – Honest mistake that occurs in research
information or measurements obtained from that process
individual
FRAUD – The explicit effort of research to falsify or
2 STRATEGIES TO ENSURE THE misrepresent data
CONFIDENTIALITY
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST FRAUD:
- No names of other identification appears on data
records REPLICATION – Repetition of research study using
the same basic used procedure used in original
- Researchers use coding system to keep track of
which participants names go with which sets of data PEER REVIEW – Takes place when a researcher
submit a research article for publication
- This strategy is used in situations in which specific
data at different times during a research study VERIFICATION DATA – Through the sharing
research data
ETHICAL ISSUES AND NONHUMAN SUBJECTS
IN RESEARCH PLAGIARISM

- Researchers who use nonhumans as subjects do so - Unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or
for variety of reasons including: words as one’s own

1. Understand animals for their own sake - Reference citation (giving others credit when credit is
due) must be included in your paper whenever
2. Understand humans (many processes can be someone else’s or work has influenced your thinking
generalized from nonhumans to humans) and writing
3. Conduct research that is impossible to conduct using - Whenever using direct quotations or even paraphrase
human participants someone else’s work, give that person credit
- If an idea or information you include in paper is not
originally yours, cite the source

GUIDELINES TO PREVENT PLAGIARIZING

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
(Myers & Hansen, 2006)
GUIDELINES
- Take complete notes, including complete citation of - The goal is to obtain a sample that is representative of
the source the population
- Within your paper, identify the source of any ideas, - One fundamental question in reaching this goal is
words, or information that are not your own representative of population
- Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at the - Fundamental question in reaching this goal is
beginning and end of the quotes, and indicate where determining how large the sample should be to be
you got them representative
- Be careful about paraphrasing (restating someone SAMPLING BASICS
else’s words)
SAMPLING – Process of selecting individuals to
- Greatly tempting to lift whole phrases or catchy participate in research study
words from another source
- Sampling methods fall into two basic categories
- Use your own words instead, or use direct quotes, be
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
sure to give credit to your sources
- Entire population is known, each individual in
- Include complete list of references at the end of the
population has a specifiable probability of selection,
paper
and sampling occurs by random process based on
- References should include all the information listed probabilities
in item 1
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
- If in doubt about whether citation is necessary, cite
- Population is not completely known, individual
the source
probabilities cannot be known, and sampling method is
- No harm by being especially cautious based on factors such as commonsense or ease, with
effort to maintain representative and avoid bias
SELECTING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
POPULATION – Entire set of individuals of interest to
a researcher PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- The results from the study are generalized to the SIMPLE RANDOM – Obtained using random process
entire population to select participants a list containing the total
population
SAMPLE – Set of individuals selected from a
population and usually is intended to represent the - Selection process is fair and unbiased, but there is no
population in research study guarantee that the sample is representative
DIFFERENT TYPES OF POPULATION: SYSTEMATIC – Obtained by selecting every nth
participant from a list containing the total population
TARGET POPULATION – Entire set of individuals
after random start
who have the characteristics required by the
researchers - Easy method for obtaining an essentially random
sample, but the selections are not really random or
ACCESSIBLE POPULATION – Portion of target
independent
population consisting of individuals who are accessible
to be recruited as participants in study STRATIFIED RANDOM – Sample is obtained by
dividing the population into subgroups and then
REPRESENTATIVENESS OF A SAMPLE – Refers to
randomly selecting equal numbers from each of
extent to which the characteristics of the sample
subgroups
accurately reflect the characteristics of the population
- Guarantees that each subgroup will have adequate
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE – Sample with the
representation, but the overall sample is usually not
same characteristics as population
representative of population
- Major threat to selecting representative sample is bias
PROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED – Obtained by
BIASED SAMPLE – Sample with different subdividing the population intro strata and then
characteristics from those of the population randomly selecting from each stratum a number of

SAMPLE SIZE
participants so that the proportion in sample CORRELATIONAL
correspond to the proportions in the population
- Produce description of the relationship between two
CLUSTER – Obtained by randomly selecting clusters variables but do not attempt to explain the relationship
(pre-existing groups) from list of all the clusters the
- Measure two variables (two scores) for each
exist within population
individual in group being studied
- Easy method for obtaining a large, relatively random
CATEGORY 3: Strategies examine relationships
sample, but selections are not really random or
between variables by comparing two (or more) groups
independent
of scores
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
EXPERIMENTAL
CONVENIENCE – Obtained by selecting individual
- Produce cause-and-effect explanation for the
participants who are easy to get
relationship between two variables
- Easy method for obtaining sample, but the sample is
- Create two treatment conditions by changing the
probably biased
level of one variable, then measure second variable for
QUOTA – Sample is obtained by identifying the participants in each condition
subgroups to be included, then establishing quotas for
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
individuals to be selected through convenience from
each subgroup - Attempt to produce a cause-and-effect explanation
but fall short
- Allows researchers to control the composition of
convenience sample, but the sample probably is biased - Measure before/after scores for one group that
receives treatment and for different group that does not
receive treatment
LESSON 5: Research Strategies and Validity
NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH STRATEGIES
- Produce description of the relationship between two
- General approach to research determined by the kind variables between two variables but do not attempt to
of question that the research study hopes to answer explain the relationship
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH STRATEGY: - Measure scores for two different groups of
EXAMINING INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES participants or for one group at two different times
- Only strategy that focuses on individual variables RESEARCH DESIGNS
- Strategy intends to answer question about the current - Specifies whether the study will involve groups or
state of individual variables for specific group of individual participants, will make comparisons within
individuals group or between groups, and how many variables will
be included in study
- Goal is to obtain description of specific
characteristics of specific groups of individuals DETERMINING RESEARCH DESIGN REQUIRES
DECISIONS ABOUT THREE BASIC ASPCETS OF
FIVE RESEARCH STRATEGIES ORGANIZED BY
RESEARCH STUDY:
THE DATA STRUCTURES THEY USE
GROUP VS. INDIVIDUAL
CATEGORY 1: Strategies that examine individual
variables - Will study examine group of individuals, producing
overall description for entire group, or should the study
DESCRIPTIVE
focus in single individual?
- Produce a descript of individual variables as they
exist within a specific group
- List of scores obtained by measuring each individual
in group being studied SAME INDIVIDUALS VS. DIFFERENT
INDIVIDUALS
CATEGORY 2: Strategies that examine relationships
between variables by measuring two (or more) - Some research examines changes within the same
variables for each participant group of individuals
- Other research uses a different group of individuals - Each research study is unique event, conducted at
for each specific time and place using specific procedures with
specific group of individuals
THE NUMBER OF VARIABLES TO BE INCLUDED
GENERALIZATION FROM RESEARCH STUDY
- Simplest study involves examining the relationship
TO REAL-WORLD SITUATION
between two variables
- Research is conducted under relatively controlled
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
conditions with individuals who know that they are
- Step-by-step description of specific research study, participating in research study
including precise determination of:
INTERNAL VALIDITY – If it produce a single,
- Exactly how many individuals will be involved unambiguous explanation for the relationship between
two variables
- Exactly how the variables will be manipulated,
regulated, and measured - Threat to internal validity is any factor that allows for
an alternative explanation
- Exactly how individual participants or subjects will
proceed through the course of the study THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

DATA STRUCTURES AND STATISTICAL CATEGORY 1: GENERALIZING ACROSS

ANALYSIS PARTICIPANTS OR SUBJECTS

EXPERIMENTAL, QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL, AND SELECTION BIAS – The sampling procedure favors

NON-EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES the selection of some individuals over others

- All involve comparing groups of score COLLEGE STUDENTS – Evidence is accumulating

to suggest that many of the characteristics of college
- Comparison involves looking for mean differences or students limit the ability to generalize the results to
differences in proportion other adults
CORRELATIONS STUDIES VOLUNTEER BIAS – Not perfectly representative of
- Not involve comparing different groups of scores general population

- Measures two different variables (two different PARTICIPANTS CHARACTERISTICS – When study
scores) for each individual in single group and then uses participants who share similar characteristics,
looks for patterns within the set of scores demographic characteristics such as gender, age, race,
ethnic identity, and socioeconomic status can limit the
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES ability to generalize the results
- Intended to summarize single variables for specific CROSS-SPECIES GENERALIZATIONS – External
group of individuals validity is also in question when research is conducted
with nonhuman and presumed to be readily applicable
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL VALIDITY
to humans
EXTERNAL VALIDITY – Extent to which we can
CATEGORY 2: GENERALIIZING ACROSS
generalize the result of research study to people,
FEATURES OF A STUDY
setting, times, measures, and characteristics other than
those used in that study NOVELTY EFFECT – Participating in research study
is novel, often exciting or anxiety-provoking
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
experience for most individuals
GENERALIZATION FROM SAMPLE TO THE
- Novel situation, individuals may perceive and
GENERAL POPULATION
respond differently than they would in normal, real
- Most research questions concern a large group of word
individuals known as population
MULTIPLE TREATMENT INTERFERENCE –
GENERALIZATION FROM ONE RESEARCH Tested in series of treatment condition, participation in
STUDY TO ANOTHER one condition may have an effect on participants that
carries over into the next treatment and influences their
performance or behavior
EXPERIMENTER CHARACTERISTICS – Results of
study are demonstrated with specific experimenter
conducting the study
CATEGORY 3: GENERALIZING ACROSS
FEATURES OF THE MEASURE
SENSITIZATION – Process of measurement, often
called the assessment procedure, can alter participants
so that they react differently to treatment
GENERALITY ACROSS RESPONSE MEASURES –
Results of the study may be limited to that specific
measurement that researcher selects and may not
generalize other definition or other measures
TIME OF MEASUREMENT – Scores for individuals
are measured at specific time after (or during) the
treatment
- Actual effect of the treatment may decrease or
increase with time
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES – Variable in research
study other than the specific variables being studied
CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Extraneous
variables (usually unmonitored) changes
systematically along with two variables being studied
- Provides an alternative explanation for the observed
relationship between two variables and therefore,
threat to internal validity
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES – General threats
to internal validity for all studies
PARTICIPANT VARIABLES – Threats to internal
validity for studies comparing different groups
PARTICIPANT VARIABLE – Personal characteristics
that can differ from one another
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES – Differences from
one participant to another, individual in research study
differ on variety of participant variables such as age,
height, weight, IQ, and personality
TIME-RELATED VARIABLES – Threats to internal
validity for studies comparing one group over time
- Alternative to having different group in each
treatment condition is to have the same group of
individuals participate in all of different treatments
- Basic problem with this type of research is that it not
only compares scores obtained in different treatments
but often compares scores obtained at different times