CES 4

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

BEAMS

Beams are structural members that support transverse loads and are therefore subjected primarily to
flexure, or bending. If a substantial amount of axial load is also present, the member is referred to as a
beam–column.

Beams are usually thought of as being oriented horizontally and subjected to vertical loads, but that is
not necessarily the case. A structural member is considered to be a beam if it is loaded so as to cause
bending.

Commonly used cross-sectional shapes include the W, S, and M shapes. Channel shapes are sometimes
used, as are beams built up from plates, in the form of I or box shapes. For reasons to be discussed later,
doubly symmetric shapes such as the standard rolled W, M, and S shapes are the most efficient.

For flexure, the required and available strengths are moments.

For load and resistance factor design the design moment is given as

M u  b M n

Where

Mu required moment strength = maximum moment caused by the

controlling load combination from ASCE 7
b resistance factor for bending (flexure) = 0.90
Mn nominal moment strength

For allowable strength design, the allowable moment can be written as

Mn Mn
Ma  = = 0.6M n
b 1.67

Where

Ma required moment strength; maximum moment corresponding to the

controlling load combination

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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 Ωb safety factor for bending = 1.67

To get the allowable stress design, divide both sides by the section modulus, S

M a 0 .6 M n

S S

or

f b  Fb

Where
fb maximum computed bending stress
Fb allowable bending stress

BENDING STRESS AND THE PLASTIC MOMENT

To be able to determine the nominal moment strength Mn, we must first examine the behavior of
beams throughout the full range of loading, from very small loads to the point of collapse.

The stress at any point can be found from the flexure formula:

My
fb =
Ix

Where
M the bending moment at the cross section under consideration
y perpendicular distance from the neutral plane to the point of interest

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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 Ix the moment of inertia of the area of the cross section with respect to the
neutral axis

The above equation is based on the assumption of a linear distribution of strains from top to bottom,
which in turn is based on the assumption that cross sections that are plane before bending remain
plane after bending. In addition, the beam cross section must have a vertical axis of symmetry, and the
loads must be in the longitudinal plane containing this axis.

The maximum stress will occur at the extreme fiber, where y is maximum. Thus there are two maxima:
maximum compressive stress in the top fiber and maximum tensile stress in the bottom fiber.

Maximum stress is given by

Mc M M
f max = = =
Ix Ix Sx
c

Where
c the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber
Sx the elastic section modulus of the cross section
For an unsymmetrical cross section, Sx will have two values: one for the
top extreme fiber and one for the bottom.

The above equations are valid as long as the stress fmax must not exceed Fy and that the bending
moment must not exceed

M y = Fy S x

Where
My bending moment that brings the beam to the point of yielding

Distribution of stress on a simply supported beam with a concentrated load at midspan.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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Plastic analysis

 A
M p = Fy ( Ac )a = Fy ( At )a = Fy  a = Fy Z
2

Where
Mp the plastic moment, the resisting couple formed by the two equal and
opposite forces
A total cross-sectional area
a distance between the centroids of the two half-areas
 A
Z =   a = plastic section modulus
2
Problem 1

For the built-up shape shown in the figure,

determine (a) the elastic section modulus S and
the yield moment My and (b) the plastic section
modulus Z and the plastic moment Mp. Bending
is about the x-axis, and the steel is A572 Grade
50.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

LECTURE 1
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Problem 2

Compute the plastic moment, Mp, for a W10 × 60 of A992 steel.

STABILITY

If a beam can be counted on to remain stable up to the fully plastic condition, the nominal moment
strength can be taken as the plastic moment capacity; that is,

Mn = M p

Otherwise,

Mn  M p

Lateral-torsional Buckling (LTB) - the outward deflection (flexural buckling) of the beam accompanied
by twisting (torsion)

This can be prevented by bracing the beam against twisting at sufficiently close intervals.

Two types of stability bracing:

1. Lateral bracing (figure b) – prevents lateral translation. This should be applied as close to the
compression flange as possible.
2. Torsional bracing (figure c) – prevents twists directly. This can either be nodal or continuous.
This can take the form of either cross frames or diaphragms.

Whether the beam can sustain a moment large enough to bring it to the fully plastic condition also
depends on whether the cross-sectional integrity is maintained.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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This integrity will be lost if one of the compression elements of the cross section buckles. This type of
buckling can be either compression flange buckling, called flange local buckling (FLB), or buckling of
the compression part of the web, called web local buckling (WLB). Either type of local buckling will
occur depending on the width-to-thickness ratios of the compression elements of the cross section.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES

AISC classifies cross-sectional shapes as compact, non-compact, or slender depending on the width-to-
thickness ratios.

A compact section means that the section can achieve the plastic moment with local buckling on the
web or the flange. But a noncompact section is a section that can reach the yields for the lower and
bottom fiber only without causing local buckling to the web or the flange.

A slender section has a width to thickness ratio that is very high that the elements buckle locally even
before reaching yield stress. These sections can not attain the yield moment.

Let

λ = width-to-thickness ratio

λp = upper limit for compact category

λr = upper limit for noncompact category

Then

If λ ≤ λp and the flange is continuously connected to the web, the shape is compact

If λp < λ ≤ λr the shape is noncompact

If λ > λr the shape is slender

The category is based on the worst width-to-thickness ratio of the cross section. For example, if the
web is compact and the flange is noncompact, the shape is classified as noncompact.

Below is a table of width-to-thickness parameters.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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BENDING STRENGTH OF COMPACT SHAPES

A beam can fail by reaching Mp and becoming fully plastic, or it can fail by

⚫ lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), either elastically or inelastically;

⚫ flange local buckling (FLB), elastically or inelastically; or
⚫ web local buckling (WLB), elastically or inelastically

If the maximum bending stress is less than the proportional limit when buckling occurs, the failure is
said to be elastic. Otherwise, it is inelastic.

If the beam is compact and has continuous lateral support, or if the unbraced length is very short, the
nominal moment strength, Mn, is the full plastic moment capacity of the shape, Mp. For members with
inadequate lateral support, the moment resistance is limited by the lateral-torsional buckling strength,
either inelastic or elastic.

Problem 3

A W16 × 31 simply-supported beam of A992 steel is 30 feet long. It supports a reinforced concrete floor
slab that provides continuous lateral support of the compression flange. The service dead load is 450
lb/ft. This load is superimposed on the beam; it does not include the weight of the beam itself. The
service live load is 550 lb/ft. Does this beam have adequate moment strength?

The moment strength of compact shapes is a function of the unbraced length, Lb, defined as the
distance between points of lateral support, or bracing.

Points of lateral support are indicated with an “x” as shown below.

The relationship between the nominal strength, Mn, and the unbraced length is shown in figure below.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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If Lb < Lp, the beam is considered to have full lateral support, and Mn = Mp.

𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 (AISC Equation F2-1)

If Lp < Lb ≤ Lr, the strength is based on inelastic LTB.

  Lb − L p 
M n = Cb  M p − (M p − 0.7 Fy S x )   M p (AISC Equation F2-2)
  − 
L
 r L p 

If Lr < Lb, the strength is based on elastic LTB.

𝑀𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑆𝑥 ≤ 𝑀𝑝 (AISC Equation F2-3)

Where

2
C  2E Jc  Lb 
Fcr = b 1 + 0.078   (AISC Equation F2-4)
(Lb rts )2
S x h0  rts 

Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) is the deformation of an unrestrained beam due to the applied loads
away from its longitudinal axis – both lateral displacement and twisting.

Elastic LTB occurs when the beam reaches its critical buckling load, which depends on its elastic
properties and geometric imperfections. Inelastic LTB occurs when the beam reaches its plastic
moment capacity, which depends on its yield stress and cross-sectional area.

The equation for the theoretical elastic lateral-torsional buckling strength can be found in Theory of
Elastic Stability (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961).

M n = Fcr S x

Where

Fcr the elastic buckling stress (in ksi)

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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 2
  E 
* Fcr = EI y GJ +   I y Cw
Lb S x  Lb 

Where
Lb unbraced length (in)
Iy moment of inertia about the weak axis of the cross section
(in4)
G shear modulus of structural steel = 11,200 ksi
J torsional constant (in4)
Cw warping constant (in6)

*this equation is valid as long as the bending moment within the unbraced length is
uniform

If the bending moment is nonuniform, the nominal moment strength is given by

M n = Fcr S x  M p (AISC Equation F2-3)

Where

2
C  2E Jc  Lb 
Fcr = b 1 + 0.078   (AISC Equation F2-4)
(Lb rts )2
S x h0  rts 

Cb factor that accounts for nonuniform bending within the unbraced

length Lb

I y Cw
rts =
2
(AISC Equation F2-7)
Sx

c = 1.0 for doubly-symmetric I shapes (AISC Equation F2-8a)

h0 Iy
c= for channels (AISC Equation F2-8b)
2 Cw

h0 = d − t f distance between flange centroids

If the moment when lateral-torsional buckling occurs is greater than the moment corresponding to first
yield, the strength is based on inelastic behavior. The moment corresponding to first yield is

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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 M r = 0.7 Fy S x

The yield stress has been reduced by 30% to account for the effect of residual stress. the boundary
between elastic and inelastic behavior will be for an unbraced length of Lr, which is the value of Lb
obtained from AISC Equation F2-4 when Fcr is set equal to 0.7Fy with Cb = 1.0. Therefore,

2 2
E Jc  Jc   0.7 Fy 
Lr = 1.95rts +   + 6.76  (AISC Equation F2-8b)
0.7 Fy S x h0  S x h0   E 

  Lb − L p 
M n = Cb  M p − (M p − 0.7 Fy S x )   M p (AISC Equation F2-2)
  − 
L
 r L p 

Where

0.7 Fy S x the yield moment adjusted for residual stress

E
L p = 1.76ry (AISC Equation F2-5)
Fy

Problem 4

Determine the flexural strength of a W14 × 68 of A242 steel subject to

a. Continuous lateral support.

b. An unbraced length of 20 ft with Cb = 1.0.
c. An unbraced length of 30 ft with Cb = 1.0.

The moment gradient factor, Cb, is determined by comparing the elastic critical moments of a beam
subject to a varying moment condition (e.g., a point load or a UDL) with that subject to a constant
moment condition.

If the moment within the unbraced length Lb is uniform (constant), there is no moment gradient and
Cb = 1.0. If there is a moment gradient, the value of Cb is given by

12.5𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑏 =
2.5𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑀𝐴 + 4𝑀𝐵 + 3𝑀𝐶

This formula is valid for doubly-symmetric members and for singly-symmetric members in single
curvature.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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 Where

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 absolute value of the maximum moment within the unbraced length
(including the end points of the unbraced length)

𝑀𝐴 absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of the unbraced length

𝑀𝐵 absolute value of the moment at the midpoint of the unbraced length

𝑀𝐶 absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter point of the unbraced

Length

When the bending moment is uniform,

12.5𝑀
𝐶𝑏 = = 1.0
2.5𝑀 + 3𝑀 + 4𝑀 + 3𝑀

Problem 5

Determine Cb for a uniformly loaded, simply supported W shape with lateral support at its ends only.

BENDING STRENGTH OF NONCOMPACT SHAPES

In general, a noncompact beam may fail by lateral-torsional buckling, flange local buckling, or web local
buckling. Any of these types of failure can be in either the elastic range or the inelastic range. The
strength corresponding to each of these three limit states must be computed, and the smallest value
will control.

For flange local buckling,

If 𝜆𝑝 < 𝜆 < 𝜆𝑟 , the flange is noncompact and buckling will be inelastic
𝜆 − 𝜆𝑝
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 − (𝑀𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) ( )
𝜆𝑟 − 𝜆 𝑝
Where
𝑏
𝜆 = 2𝑡𝑓
𝑓
𝐸
𝜆𝑝 = 0.38√𝐹
𝑦

𝐸
𝜆𝑟 = 1.0√𝐹
𝑦

The webs of all hot-rolled shapes in the Manual are compact, so the noncompact shapes are subject
only to the limit states of lateral-torsional buckling and flange local buckling. Built-up welded shapes,
however, can have noncompact or slender webs as well as noncompact or slender flanges. These cases
are covered in AISC Sections F4 and F5.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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Problem 6

A simply supported beam with a span length of 45 feet is laterally supported at its ends and is subjected
to the following service loads:
Dead load = 400 lb/ft (including the weight of the beam)
Live load = 1000 lb/ft
If Fy = 50 ksi, is a W14×90 adequate?

For noncompact shapes, the tabulated value of Lp is the value of unbraced length at which the nominal
strength based on inelastic lateral-torsional buckling equals the nominal strength based on flange local
buckling, that is, the maximum unbraced length for which the nominal strength can be taken as the
strength based on flange local buckling.

Recall: For compact shapes, Lp is the maximum unbraced length for which the nominal strength can be
taken as the plastic moment.

SUMMARY OF MOMENT STRENGTH

1. Determine whether the shape is compact.

2. If the shape is compact, check for lateral-torsional buckling as follows.

If Lb ≤ Lp, there is no LTB

Mn = M p .

If Lp < Lb ≤ Lr, there is inelastic LTB

  Lb − L p 
M n = Cb  M p − (M p − 0.7 Fy S x )   M p
  − 
L
 r L p 

If Lb > Lr, there is elastic LTB

M n = Fcr S x  M p

2
C  2E Jc  Lb 
Where Fcr = b 1 + 0.078  
(Lb rts )2
S x h0  rts 

3. If the shape is noncompact because of the flange, the nominal strength will be the smaller of
the strengths corresponding to flange local buckling and lateral torsional buckling.
a. Flange local buckling:
If 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑝 , there is no FLB
If 𝜆𝑝 < 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑟 , the flange is noncompact

𝜆 − 𝜆𝑝
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 − (𝑀𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) ( )
𝜆𝑟 − 𝜆 𝑝
CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
LECTURE 1
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 b. Lateral-torsional buckling:
If Lb ≤ Lp, there is no LTB

If Lp < Lb ≤ Lr, there is inelastic LTB

  Lb − L p 
M n = Cb  M p − (M p − 0.7 Fy S x )   M p
  − 
L
 r L p 

If Lb > Lr, there is elastic LTB

M n = Fcr S x  M p

2
C  2E Jc  Lb 
Where Fcr = b 1 + 0.078  
(Lb rts )2
S x h0  rts 

SHEAR STRENGTH

The shear stress distribution for a W shape is shown below.

The average stress in the web, V/Aw , does not differ much from the maximum web stress.

The web will completely yield long before the flanges begin to yield. Because of this, yielding of the web
represents one of the shear limit states.

The equation of the stress in the web at failure is written as

𝑉𝑛
𝑓𝑣 = = 0.6𝐹𝑦
𝐴𝑤

𝑉𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑤

Where
𝐴𝑤 area of the web
𝑉𝑛 nominal shear strength provided there is no shear buckling
of the web

AISC SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEAR

For LRFD,
𝑉𝑢 ≤ 𝜙𝑣 𝑉𝑛
CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
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 Where
𝑉𝑢 maximum shear based on the controlling combination of
factored loads
𝜙𝑣 resistance factor for shear, 0.90

For ASD,
𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝑎 ≤
Ω𝑣
Where
𝑉𝑎 maximum shear based on the controlling combination of
service loads
Ω𝑣 safety factor for shear, 1.67

The basic strength equation is

𝑉𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑤 𝐶𝑣
Where
𝐴𝑤 ≈ 𝑑𝑡𝑤 area of the web
𝑑 overall depth of the beam
𝐶𝑣 ratio of critical web stress to shear yield stress

The value of Cv depends on whether the limit state is web yielding, web inelastic buckling, or web
elastic buckling.

Case 1: For hot-rolled I shapes with

ℎ 𝐸
≤ 2.24√
𝑡𝑤 𝐹𝑦
The limit state is shear yielding, and
𝐶𝑣 = 1.0
𝜙𝑣 = 1.00
Ω𝑣 = 1.50

Case 2: For all other doubly and singly symmetric shapes,

𝜙𝑣 = 0.90
Ω𝑣 = 1.67

And 𝐶𝑣 is determined as follows:

For
ℎ 𝑘𝑣 𝐸
≤ 1.10√ ,
𝑡𝑤 𝐹𝑦
There is no web instability, 𝐶𝑣 = 1.0

For
𝑘𝑣 𝐸 ℎ 𝑘𝑣 𝐸
1.10√ < ≤ 1.37√ ,
𝐹𝑦 𝑡𝑤 𝐹𝑦
Inelastic web buckling can occur,
𝑘 𝐸
1.10√ 𝐹𝑣
𝑦
𝐶𝑣 =
ℎ
𝑡𝑤

For

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

LECTURE 1
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 ℎ 𝑘𝑣 𝐸
> 1.37√ ,
𝑡𝑤 𝐹𝑦
Elastic web buckling will occur,
1.51𝑘𝑣 𝐸
𝐶𝑣 =
ℎ 2
(𝑡 ) 𝐹𝑦
𝑤
Where
𝑘𝑣 = 5
Shear is rarely a problem in rolled steel beams; the usual practice is to design a beam for flexure and
then to check it for shear.

Example 7

Check the beam in Example 6 for shear.

BLOCK SHEAR

Consider the coped beam below that is connected with bolts. The applied load in this case will be the
vertical beam reaction, so shear will occur along line AB and there will be tension along BC. Segment
ABC will tend to tear out. Thus, the block shear strength will have to be considered.

𝑅𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑣 + 𝑈𝑏𝑠 𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡 ≤ 0.6𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑣 + 𝑈𝑏𝑠 𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡

Where
𝑅𝑛 block shear strength
𝐴𝑔𝑣 gross area in shear
𝐴𝑛𝑣 net area along the shear surface or surfaces
𝐴𝑛𝑡 net area along the tension surface
𝑈𝑏𝑠 = 1.0 when the tensile stress is uniform (for most coped
beams)
=0.5 when the tension stress is not uniform (coped beams with two lines of
bolts or with nonstandard distance from bolts to end of beam) (Ricles and
Yura, 1983)

For LRFD, f = 0.75. For ASD, Ω = 2.00.

Problem 8

Determine the maximum reaction, based on block shear, that can be resisted by the beam shown.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

LECTURE 1
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DEFLECTION

Excessive deflection is usually an indication of a very flexible beam, which can lead to problems with
vibrations. The deflection itself can cause problems if elements attached to the beam can be damaged
by small distortions. In addition, users of the structure may view large deflections negatively and
wrongly assume that the structure is unsafe.

Problem 9
Compute the dead load and live load deflections for the beam shown. If the maximum permissible live
load deflection is L/360, is the beam satisfactory?

DESIGN

As far as strength is concerned, flexure is almost always more critical than shear, so the usual practice
is to design for flexure and then check shear. The design process can be outlined as follows.

1. Compute the required moment strength (i.e., the factored load moment Mu for LRFD or the
unfactored moment Ma for ASD). The weight of the beam is part of the dead load but is
unknown at this point. A value may be assumed and verified after a shape is selected, or the
weight may be ignored initially and checked after a shape has been selected. Because the
beam weight is usually a small part of the total load, if it is ignored at the beginning of a design
problem, the selected shape will usually be satisfactory when the moment is recomputed.
2. Select a shape that satisfies this strength requirement. Assume a shape, compute the available
strength, and compare it with the required strength. Revise if necessary. The trial shape can
be easily selected in only a limited number of situations.
3. Check the shear strength.
4. Check the deflection.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

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Problem 10

Select a standard hot-rolled shape of A992 steel for the beam shown. The beam has continuous lateral
support and must support a uniform service live load of 4.5 kips/ft. The maximum permissible live load
deflection is L/240.

CES 4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

LECTURE 1
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