Biotechnology

Second Year

Dr. Mukaram Shikara

Chemical Biotechnology Division

Applied sciences Department
University of Technology

2008-2009
 Subjects of Biotechnology Page
Technology 1
Biotechnology 2
Sub-fields of biotechnology 3
Bioleaching 4
Biological control 5
Bioremediation 5
Phytoremedition 6
Biostimulation 8
Bioagumentation 9
Bioaccumulation 9
Half-life 9
Biofilm 11
Cancer treatment 12
Causes 12
Classification 13
Nomenclature 13
Adult cancer 15
Signs and symptoms 15
Diagnosis 16
Treatment 16
Chemotherapy 17
Targeted therapy 17
Hormonal therapy 18
Symptom control 18
Alternative medeicine 19
CT-Scan 20
Endoscopy 21
Sweets and Enzymes 24
Sweets 24
Nutritional significance 24
Inversion 25
Sucrose 26
Glucose 26
Fructose 26
Beverages 27
Alcoholic drinks 28
Carbonation and pasteurization 29
E numbers 32
Single cell proteins 37
Advantages 37
Disadvantages 38
Production plan 39
Dandruff 42
Flow cytommetry 45
Immbolized enzymes 47
Cough 50
1 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Technology is a Greek word consists of two words: techne

means "craft" and logia means "knowledge". Technology is used
as a broad term that means (the use and knowledge of
humanity's tools and crafts).

Science, engineering and technology

The distinctions between science, engineering and technology
are not always clear. Generally, science is the reasoned
investigation or study of nature, aimed at discovering
relationships among elements. Engineering is the use of
scientific principles to achieve a planned result. However,
technology broadly involves the use and application of
knowledge (e.g., scientific, engineering, mathematical,
language, and historical), both formally and informally, to
achieve some "practical" result.

For example, science might study the flow of electrons in

electrical conductors. This knowledge may then be used by
engineers to create artifacts such as computers and other forms
of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers
may both be considered technologists, but scientists generally
less so.

Naturally, since these fields are so broad, it is difficult to obtain

precise definitions. Generally, these distinctions can be made:

Science is the process of investigating natural phenomena.

Scientists are researchers who study these fundamental
principles.

Engineering is the process of designing and building tools to

exploit natural phenomena for a practical means.

Engineers work within the constraints of natural laws and

societal needs to create technology.

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Technology is the result of these two processes. It usually

embodies the physical result, such as a device or machine which
was designed by engineers (and/or scientists).

Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a technology based on biology, especially
when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.

Or

Biotechnology means any technological application that uses

biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for specific use.

Or

Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms to do practical

things and to provide useful products.

Uses
There are many uses of biotechnology, like:

- use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products

(examples include beer, milk products, and skin).
- Use microorganisms in the mining industry (bioleaching).
- Use microorganisms to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites
contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation),
- Use microorganisms to produce biological weapons
(Biological warefare).
- Use DNA as a genetic and radioactive tracers in medicine.
- DNA fingerprinting

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Sub-fields of biotechnology
There are a number of jargon (commom person) terms for sub-
fields of biotechnology.

Red biotechnology is biotechnology applied to medical

processes. (Examples: designing of organisms to produce
antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures to cure diseases
through genomic manipulation).

White biotechnology, also known as grey biotechnology, is

biotechnology applied to industrial processes. (Example: the
designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical).

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural

processes. (Examples: the designing of an organism to grow
under specific environmental conditions, the engineering of a
plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for
external application of pesticides).

Bioinformatics (computational biology) is a field which solve

biological problems using computational techniques. It plays a
key role in various areas like functional genomics, and structural
genomics, and forms a key component in biotechnology and
pharmaceutical sector.

Blue biotechnology describes the marine and aquatic

applications of biotechnology.
In situ = in the same place
Ex situ = out the place
In vitro = outside living body
In vivio = inside the living body
GMF = Genetic modified food
GMOs = Genetic modified organisms

iv = intrvsencous
sc = subcutanously
bid= twice daily
tid= three times daily

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Bioleaching
Leach = filtration

Bioleaching is the extraction of specific metals from their ores

through the use of microorganisms.

Bioleaching is a technique used by the mining industry to

extract minerals such as gold and copper from their ores.
Traditional extractions are expensive which require sufficient
concentrations of elements in ores and big work force.

Low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they

simply ignore the waste which surrounds the metals, and yields
over 90% in some cases. These microorganisms actually gain
energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent
elements. The company simply collects the pure metals out after
the bacteria have finished.

Some advantages associated with bioleaching are:

• economical: bioleaching is generally simpler and therefore

cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes.
It needs small work force.

• environmental: The process do not damage (pollute) the

area around mines. Less dioxide gases and less landscape
damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally
in the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled.

Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching are:

• economical: the bacterial leaching process is very slow

comparing to traditional methods. The profit is low and
over many yeears.
• environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced
in the process. Sulfuric acid and H+ ions formed can leak
into the ground- and surface- water turning it acidic,
causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron,

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5 Biotechnology 2008-2009

zinc, and arsenic obtained as side-products during the

beaking of bacteria to metals components.

The traditional method of mining is more economical and

gives profits, if concentration of metal in its ore is generally
quite high.

However, if the concentration of the metal is generally very

low, then bioleaching is used and has a profit after long
years.

Bioleaching with fungi

Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can
mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more
than 95%.

Biological control
1) Bioremediation
Remediation = restoring balance

Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses

microorganisms, fungi, green plants or their enzymes to
return the environment altered by contaminants to its
original condition.

Uses
- Use of bacteria to attacks specific soil contaminants, such
as degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons
- Clean oil contaminations from shores

Bioremediation technologies can be generally classified as in

situ or ex situ.

In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated

material at the site while ex situ involves the removal of the
contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.

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Advantages and Disadavanteges

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap not expensive method to Heavy metals such as cadmium
clean and restore the and lead are not readily
environment adsorbed by organisms.
Mercury will contaminate the
food chain and worsen matters.
Do not pollute the environment Not always successful
especially with heavy metals

Genetic engineering approaches

Genetic engineering aims to create organisms specifically

designed for bioremediation. Some bacteria such as
(Deinococcus radiodurans) has been modified to consume and
digest toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive
nuclear waste.

2) Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the treatment of environmental problems
(bioremediation) through the use of plants.

What is phytoremediation ?
Greek « phyto » = plant,
Latin « remedium » = restoring balance

Phytoremediation is a process of depolluting contaminated soils,

water or air with plants able to contain, degrade or eliminate
metals, pesticides, solvants, explosives, crude oil and its
derivatives, and various other contaminants, from the mediums
that contain them.

Or

Phytoremediation is a process of removing coontaminated

materials by plants.

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The plants can depollute the soil, water and air through using
several processes:

- adsorbs the polluted substances from the environment into

its biomass. The plants absorb contaminants through the root
system and store them in the root biomass and/or transport
them up into the stems and/or leaves.
- Reduce the mobility of contaminated substances in the
environment
- Modify the chemical structures of the polluted materials
through its metabolism
- Increases the activity of microorganisms that associate with
roots which will breakdown the polluted materials.

A living plant may continue to absorb contaminants until it is

harvested. After harvest a lower level of the contaminant will
remain in the soil, so the growth/harvest cycle must usually be
repeated through several crops to achieve a significant cleanup.
After the process, the cleaned soil can support other vegetation.

Examples of phytoextraction from soils

- Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) can adsorb arsenic

compounds
- Sugar beets is salt-tolerant
- Uranium is adsorb by sunflowers. After Chernobyl accident,
sunflowers planted in the area..

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
o the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of
traditional processes both in situ and ex situ
o the plants can be easily monitored
o efficient method
o soil stays in the same place
o the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable
metals (by companies specializing in “bioleaaching”)

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o it is the least harmful method because it uses

naturally occurring organisms and preserves the
natural state of the environment.

• Disadvantages
o Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and
depth occupied by the roots.
o slow growth and low biomass require a long-term
commitment
o It is not possible completely to prevent the leaching
of contaminants into the groundwater (without the
complete removal of the contaminated ground which
in itself does not resolve the problem of
contamination)
o the survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of
the contaminated land and the general condition of
the soil.
o possible bio-accumulation of contaminants which
then pass into the food chain, from primary level
consumers upwards.

3) Biostimulation
It involves the modification of the environment to stimulate
existing bacteria capable of bioremediation. This can be done by
addition of various forms of nutrients such as phosphorus,
nitrogen, oxygen, or carbon (e.g. in the form of molasses).
Additives are usually added to the sub-surface through injection
wells. Removal of the contaminated material is also an option.
Biostimulation is an alternative to bioaugmentation.

The primary advantage of biostimulation is that bioremediation

will be undertaken by already present native microorganisms
that are well suited to the environment, and are well distributed
within the surface. The primary disadvantage is that the delivery
of additives is difficult to penetrate the surface.

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4) Bioaugmentation
It is the introduction of a group of natural microbial strains or a
genetically engineered variant to achieve bioremediation.

The steps involve studying the indigenous varieties present in

the location to determine if biostimulation is possible. If the
indigenous variety do not have the metabolic capability to
perform the remediation process, exogenous varieties with such
sophisticated pathways are introduced.

Bioaccumulation
It is a process that measures the uptake over time of a substance,
called a bioaccumulant that can accumulate in a biological
system.

Half-life
It is the interval required for the quantity to decay to half of its
initial value. The concept originated in the study of radioactive
decay which is subject to exponential decay but applies to all
phenomena including those which are described by non-
exponential decays.

Biological half-life
It the time required for half of that substance to be removed
from an organism by either a physical or a chemical process.
Biological half-life is an important pharmacokinetic parameter
and is usually denoted by the abbreviation t1/2

Examples of biological half-lives

Water
The biological half-life of water in a human is about 7 to 10
days. It can be altered by behavior. Drinking large amounts of
beer will reduce the biological half-life of water in the body.
This has been used to decontaminate humans who are internally
contaminated with tritiated water (radioactive water). Drinking
the same amount of water would have a similar effect, but many

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would find it difficult to drink a large volume of water. The

basis of this idea is that the water in the body is replaced with
new water.

Alcohol
The removal of ethanol (alcohol) through oxidation by alcohol
dehydrogenase in the liver from the human body is limited. To
save the life of a person that take a formaldehyde, he must take
an appropriate amount of ethanol. A person who has ingested
ethylene glycol can be treated in the same way.

Metals
It is important to think of the human or animal body as being
made up of several parts, each with their own affinity for the
substance, and each part with a different biological half-life.
Attempts to remove a substance from the whole organism may
have the effect of increasing the burden present in one part of
the organism. For instance, if a person who is contaminated with
lead (Pb) is given EDTA, then while the rate of Pb is reduced in
the body, it increased in the brain where it can do the most
harm.
Polonium (Po) in the body has a biological half-life of about 30
to 50 days.
Cesium (Cs) in the body has a biological half-life of about one
to four months.
Lead (Pb) in the bone has a biological half-life of about ten
years.
Cadmium (Cd) in the bone has a biological half-life of about 30
years.
Plutonium (Pu) in bone has a biological half-life of about 100
years, while in the liver has a biological half-life of about 40
years.

In clinical practice, this means that it takes just over 4.7 times
the half-life for a drug's serum concentration to reach steady
state after regular doses are started, stopped, or the dose
changed.

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This means that a change in the drug will take 3-7 days to take
full effect. For this reason, drugs with a long half-life
(elimination t½ of about 90 days) are usually started with a high
dose to achieve their desired clinical effect more quickly.

The problem arises when toxic substances stay in the body for a
long period of time. They are not acute poisonous, but chronic
poisonous.
Uranium (U), arsenic (As), nicotine, lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) can
accumulate easily and cause damages to health. Other
compounds that are not normally considered toxic can be
accumulated to toxic levels in organisms such as the
accumulation of Vitamin A in liver.

Biofilm
It is a complex aggregation of microorganisms (mostly single
celled organisms) adheres together and usually held by
extracellular polymeric matrix. It is floating in water or attached
to a solid surface (a rock). Biofilms are important components
of foodchains in rivers and streams.

In industry, biofilms can develop inside the pipes and clogging

and corrosive them. Biofilms are also present on the teeth and
responsible for tooth decay.

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Cancer Techniques
Cancer is a group of diseases in which cells are aggressive
(grow and divide without respect to normal limits), invasive
(invade and destroy adjacent tissues), and/or metastatic (spread
to other locations in the body). These three malignant properties
of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors.

A benign tumor is a tumor that lacks all three of the malignant

properties of a cancer. Thus, by definition, a benign tumor:

- does not grow in an unlimited, aggressive manner

- does not metastasize
- does not invade surrounding tissues

Causes
Cancer may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but risk
for the more common varieties tends to increase with age.
All cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material
of the transformed cells. These abnormalities may be caused by:
1) Effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke,
2) Exposures to chemicals such as radon gas, lead and copper
3) Exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and other types of
radiation
4) Infectious agents such as viruses or bacteria
5) Heredity
6) Immune system dysfunction
7) Hormonal imbalances
8) unknown factors

Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two

general classes of genes. They are:

- Cancer-promoting oncogenes are activated in cancer cells,

giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive
growth and division, protection against programmed cell
death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the

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ability to become established in diverse tissue environments.

- Tumor suppressor genes are often inactivated in cancer cells,
resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such
as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle,
orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with
protective cells of the immune system.

Classification
Cancer is usually classified according to the tissue (or organ)
from which the cancerous cells originate. Malignant tumors are
usually named using the Latin or Greek root of the organ of
origin as a prefix and the above category name as the suffix. For
instance, a malignant tumor of the liver is called
hepatocarcinoma; a malignant tumor of the fat cells is called
liposarcoma. For common cancers, the English organ name is
used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is
called ductal carcinoma of the breast.

Benign tumors are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ
name as the root. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth
muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma (the common name of
this frequent tumor is fibroid). However, some cancers also use
this prefix for historical reasons, examples being melanoma
and seminoma.

Nomenclature
The following closely related terms may be used to designate
abnormal growths:
Neoplasm: a scientific term which refers to an abnormal
proliferation of genetically altered cells.
Biopsy: a removal of cells or tissues for examination ‫أﺧﺬ ﻋﯿﻨﺔ‬
Malignant neoplasm: synonymous with cancer.
Tumor: broadly defined, can be any swelling or mass.
However, the vast majority of entities referred to
as 'tumors' in common usage are in fact
neoplasms. Specifically, a tumor is a solid

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neoplasm; some neoplasms, such as cancers of

the blood, are not solid.
Benign tumor: a tumor (solid neoplasm) that has self-limiting
growth and does not invade other tissues nor
metastasize. Usually not cancerous.
Pre-malignancy or pre-cancer: A non-invasive neoplasm that
may not form an obvious mass or lesion but has
the potential to progress to cancer if left
untreated.
Transformation: the concept that an indolent or minimally
aggressive neoplasm can transition to a state of
more malignant behavior over time. Example:
Richter's transformation.

Cancers are classified by the type of cell that resembles the

tumor and, therefore, the tissue presumed to be the origin of
the tumor. Examples of general categories include:

Carcinoma: Malignant tumors derived from epithelial cells.

This group represents the most common cancers,
including the common forms of breast, prostate,
lung and colon cancer.
Sarcoma: Malignant tumors derived from connective tissue, or
mesenchymal cells.
Lymphoma and leukemia: Malignancies derived from
hematopoetic (blood-forming) cells
Germ cell tumor: Tumors derived from totipotent cells. In
adults most often found in the testicle and ovary;
in fetuses, babies, and young children most often
found on the body midline, particularly at the tip
of the tailbone; in horses most often found at the
poll (base of the skull).
Blastic tumor: A tumor (usually malignant) which resembles an
immature or embryonic tissue. Many of these
tumors are most common in children.

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Adult cancers
In the U.S. and other developed countries, cancer is presently
responsible for about 25% of all deaths. On a yearly basis, 0.5%
of the population is diagnosed with cancer. The statistics below
are for adults in the United States, and may vary substantially in
other countries:
Male Female
most common most common
most common most common
(by mortality) (by mortality)
(by occurrence) [3] (by occurrence) [3]

prostate cancer lung cancer breast cancer lung cancer

(33%) (31%) (32%) (27%)
lung cancer Prostate lung cancer breast cancer
(13%) cancer (10%) (12%) (15%)
colorectal colorectal colorectal cancer colorectal
cancer (10%) cancer (10%) (11%) cancer (10%)
bladder cancer pancreatic endometrial ovarian
(7%) cancer (5%) cancer (6%) cancer (6%)
cutaneous leukemia non-Hodgkin pancreatic
melanoma (5%) (4%) lymphoma (4%) cancer (6%)

Signs and symptoms

Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:
Local symptoms: unusual lumps or swelling (tumor),
hemorrhage (bleeding), and pain.
Symptoms of metastasis (spreading): enlarged lymph nodes,
cough and hemoptysis (coughing blood),
hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), bone pain,
fracture of affected bones and neurological
symptoms. Although advanced cancer may
cause pain, it is often not the first symptom.

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Systemic symptoms: weight loss, poor appetite and cachexia

(wasting), excessive sweating (night sweats)
and anemia

Every symptom in the above list can be caused by a variety

of conditions (a list of which is referred to as the differential
diagnosis). Cancer may be a common or uncommon cause of
each item.

Diagnosis
Most cancers are initially recognized either because signs or
symptoms appear or through screening. Neither of these lead to
a definitive diagnosis, which usually requires the opinion of a
pathologist. People with suspected cancer are investigated with
medical tests. These commonly include histological
examination, blood tests, X-rays, CT scans and endoscopy.

Treatment
Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation
therapy, immunotherapy, monoclonal antibody therapy or other
methods. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and
grade of the tumor and the stage of the disease, as well as the
general state of the patient (performance status). A number of
experimental cancer treatments are also under development.

Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases, it is unlikely

that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more
than there will be a single treatment for all infectious
diseases.

Surgery
In theory, cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery,
but this is not always possible. When the cancer has
metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete
surgical excision is usually impossible.

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Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy, X-ray therapy, or
irradiation) is the use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells
and shrink tumors. The effects of radiation therapy are
localised and confined to the region being treated. Radiation
therapy injures or destroys cells in the area being treated (the
"target tissue") by damaging their genetic material, making it
impossible for these cells to continue to grow and divide.

Although radiation damages both cancer cells and normal cells,

most normal cells can recover from the effects of radiation and
function properly. The goal of radiation therapy is to damage as
many cancer cells as possible, while limiting harm to nearby
healthy tissue. Hence, it is given in many fractions, allowing
healthy tissue to recover between fractions.
Radiation therapy has side effects.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs ("anticancer
drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy drugs
interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with
the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed
chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly
dividing cells and are not specific for cancer cells, although
some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many
cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally
can.

Targeted therapies
Targeted therapy, which first became available in the late 1990s,
has had a significant impact in the treatment of some types of
cancer, and is currently a very active research area.
Several methods are used:

1) Agents specific for the cancerous proteins and will inhibit

them whether they were enzymes or other kinds of proteins.

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2) A therapeutic agent can be used as an antibody which

specifically binds to a protein on the surface of the cancer
cells.
3) The use of small peptides as "homing devices" which can
bind to cell surface receptors or affected extracellular
matrix surrounding the tumor.
4) Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment for cancer
involving a photosensitizer, light, tissue oxygen and often
use of lasers.
5) Several methods to induce the patient's own immune
system to fight the tumor. Vaccines to generate specific
immune responses are the subject of intensive research for
a number of tumors.
6) Stem cell transplantation ("bone marrow transplantation")
can be considered, although the side effects are also more
severe.

Hormonal therapy
The growth of some cancers can be inhibited by providing or
blocking certain hormones. Common examples of hormone-
sensitive tumors include certain types of breast and prostate
cancers. Removing or blocking estrogen or testosterone is often
an important additional treatment.
In certain cancers, administration of hormone agonists, such as
progestogens may be therapeutically beneficial.

Symptom control
Although the control of the symptoms of cancer is not typically
thought of as a treatment directed at the cancer, it is an
important determinant of the quality of life of cancer patients,
and plays an important role in the decision whether the patient is
able to undergo other treatments. Although all practicing doctors
have the therapeutic skills to control pain, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, hemorrhage and other common problems in cancer
patients, the multidisciplinary specialty of palliative care has
arisen specifically in response to the symptom control needs of
this group of patients.

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Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

Many patients use CAM which are not part of conventional
medicine. Unconventional or botanical treatments used by
patients as a cancer therapy.
Treatment trials
Clinical trials, also called research studies, test new treatments
in people with cancer. The goal of this research is to find better
ways to treat cancer and help cancer patients.
A clinical trial first tested in animals but treatments that work
well for animals do not always work well in people. All patients
used for clinical trial

Genes and protein products that have been identified by at least

two independent publications as being involved in cancer are:
ABI1, ABL2, ACSL6, AF1Q, AF5Q31 (also known as MCEF),
AKT1, ARNT, ASPSCR1, ATF1, ATIC, BCL10, BFHD, BIRC3,
BMPR1A, BTG1, CBFA2T1, CBFA2T3, CBFB, CCND1, CDC2,
CDK4, CHIC2, CHN1, COPEB, COX6C, CTNNB1, CYLD,
DDB2, DDIT3, DEK, EIF4A2, EPS15, ERCC2, ERCC3, ERCC5,
ERG, ETV4, ETV6, EWSR1, EXT1, EXT2, FANCC, FANCG,
FGFR1OP, FGFR3, FH, FIP1L1, FUS, GAS7, GATA1, GMPS,
GOLGA5, GPC, GPHN, HIST1H4I, HRAS, HSPCA, IL21R,
IRF4, KRAS2, LASP1, LCP1, LHFP, LMO2, LYL1, MADH4,
MLF1, MLH1, MLLT3, MLLT6, MNAT1, MSF, MSH2, MSN,
MUTYH, MYC, NCOA4, NF2, NPM1, NRAS, PAX8, PCBD,
PDGFB, PIM1, PLK2, PNUTL1, POU2F1, PPARG, PRCC,
PRKACB, PRKAR1A, PTEN, PTPN11, RABEP1, RAD51L1,
RAP1GDS1, RARA, RB1, RET, RHOH, RPL22, SBDS, SDHB,
SEPTIN6, SET, SH3GL1, SS18L1, SSX1, SSX2, SSX4, STAT3,
TAF15, TCF12, TCL1A, TFE3, TFEB, TFG, TFPT, TFRC,
TNFRSF6, TP53, TPM3, TPM4, TRIP11, VHL, WAS, WT1,
ZNF198, ZNF278, ZNF384, ZNFN1A1

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A Multislice CT Scanner

Computed tomography (CT-Scan)

It is a medical imaging method employing to generate a three-
dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series
of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of
rotation.

The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek tomos (slice)

and graphein (to write).

Computed tomography was originally known as the "EMI scan",

but was later known as computed axial tomography (CAT or CT
scan) and body section r öntgenography.

CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated,

through a process known as windowing, in order to demonstrate
various structures based on their ability to block the X-ray
beam. Modern scanners allow this volume of data to be
reformatted in various planes or even as volumetric (3D)
representations of structures.

CT is also used in other fields, such as nondestructive materials

testing and to study biological specimens.

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Endoscopy
Endoscopy is a diagnostic medical procedure that is used to
assess the interior surfaces of an organ by inserting ‫ إدﺧ ﺎل‬a tube
into the body. The instrument may have a rigid ‫ ﺻ ﻠﺐ‬or flexible
tube and not only provide an image for visual inspection and
photography, but also enable taking biopsies and retrieval ‫ﯾ ﺴﺤﺐ‬
of foreign objects.

The patient may receive conscious sedation ‫ ﻣﺨ ﺪر ﻻ ﯾﻔﻘ ﺪه اﻟ ﻮﻋﻲ‬so

they do not have to be consciously aware of the discomfort.

Many endoscopic procedures are considered to be relatively

painless and, at worst, associated with mild discomfort; for
example, in esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy, most patients
tolerate the procedure with only topical anaesthesia of the
oropharynx using lignocaine spray. Complications are not
common (only 5% of all operations).

An endoscope can consist of

• a rigid or flexible tube

• a light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object
under inspection. The light source is normally outside the
body and the light is typically directed via an optical fiber
system

21
22 Biotechnology 2008-2009

• a lens system transmitting the image to the viewer from

the fiberscope
• an additional channel to allow entry of medical
instruments or manipulators

Endoscopy can be used in:

• The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract):

o esophagus, stomach and duodenum (esophago-gastro
-duodenoscopy)
o small intestine
o colon (colonoscopy)

• The respiratory tract

o The nose (rhinoscopy)
o The lower respiratory tract (bronchoscopy)
• The urinary tract (cystoscopy)
• The female reproductive system
o The cervix (colposcopy)
o The uterus (hysteroscopy)
o The Fallopian tubes (Falloscopy)
• Normally closed body cavities (through a small incision):
o The abdominal or pelvic cavity (laparoscopy)
o The interior of a joint (arthroscopy)
o Organs of the chest (thoracoscopy)
• During pregnancy
o The amnion (amnioscopy)
o The fetus (fetoscopy)
• Plastic Surgery

• Non-medical uses for endoscopy

o The planning and architectural community have
found the endoscope useful for pre-visualization of scale
models of proposed buildings and cities (architectural
endoscopy)

22
23 Biotechnology 2008-2009

o Internal inspection of complex technical systems

(borescope)
o Endoscopes are also a tool helpful in the examination
of improvised explosive devices by bomb disposal
personnel.
o The FBI uses endoscopes for conducting surveillance
via tight spaces.

Risks of endoscopy
• Infection
• Punctured organs
• Allergic reactions due to Contrast agents or dyes (such as
those used in a CT scan)
• Over-sedation

After Endoscopy
Occasionally a patient is left with a mild sore throat, which
promptly responds to saline gargles.
When fully recovered, the patient will be instructed when to
resume his/her usual diet (probably within a few hours) and will
be allowed to be taken home.
Because of the use of sedation, most facilities mandate that the
patient is taken home by another person and not to drive on
his/her own or handle machinery for the remainder of the day.

1.

23
24 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Sweets and Enzymes

Sweets ‫اﻟﺤﻠﻮﯾﺎت‬
Sweets are a non-essential commodity, but consumed by people
for pleasure or to get energy. It is called, therefore, junk food.
The variety of products is enormous, ranging from cheap,
individually-wrapped sweets, to those presented in boxes with
sophisticated packaging.

Nutritional significance
The main ingredient used in the production of sweets is sugar
(sucrose). There is a danger that if sweets consumed in excess
over a prolonged period, they may contribute to obesity. Unless
good dental care practiced, over-consumption can also lead to
tooth decay .

Many factors affect the production and storage of sweets :

1) Degree of inversion
Sweets containing high concentrations of sugar (sucrose) that
may crystallized either during manufacture or on storage.

When a sugar solution heated, a certain percentage of sucrose

breaks down to form 'inverted sugar'. This inverted sugar
inhibits the crystallization of sucrose and increases the overall
concentration of sugars in the mixture. This natural process of
inversion, however, makes it difficult to assess the degree of
inverted sugar that produced .
As a way of controlling the amount of inversion, certain
ingredients, such as cream or citric acid are used. These
ingredients accelerate the breakdown of sucrose into inverted
sugars, and thereby increase the overall percentage of inverted
sugars in the solution.
The amount of inverted sugar in the sweet must controlled,
since too much may make the sweets absorbs water from the
air and become sticky. Too little inverted sugar will be
insufficient to prevent crystallization of the sucrose.

24
25 Biotechnology 2008-2009

2) Time and temperature of boiling

The temperature of boiling is very important, as it directly
affects the final sugar concentration and moisture content of the
sweet.
Variations in boiling temperature can make a difference between
a sticky, cloudy sweet and a dry, clear sweet. The increase in
temperature lead to a hard sweets.

3) Moisture content
The water left in the sweet influences its storage behavior and
determine whether the product will dry out, or pick up moisture.
For sweets that contain more than 4% moisture, it is likely that
sucrose will crystallize on storage.

4) Additional ingredients
The addition of certain ingredients can affect the temperature of
boiling. For example, if liquid milk used in the production of
toffees, this will increase moisture content of the mixture
immediately, and will therefore require a longer boiling time in
order to reach the desired moisture content .
Additional ingredients have an effect on the shelf life (storage)
of the sweet. Toffees and caramels that contain milk-solids and
fat, have a higher viscosity, which controls crystallization. On
the other hand, the use of fats may make the sweets ready to
rancidity, and consequently the shelf-life will be shortened .

Inversion
A process where + sucrose is hydrolyzed by dilute aqueous acid
or by the action of the enzyme Invertase to yield equal amounts
of D-(+) glucose and D-(-) fructose

The inversion of sucrose occurs during the making of jams

‫ﻣﺮﺑﯿ ﺎت‬. When sucrose added to the fruits, the acids (especially
citric acids) will hydrolyze sucrose into glucose and fructose
(Inverted sugars). One gram of acid can hydrolyzes 1 kg of
sucrose.

25
26 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Sucrose
- Disaccharide
- Consists of two monosaccharide (glucose and fructose)
connected by a glycosidic bond
- a common table sugar
- obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets ‫ﻗﺼﺐ اﻟ ﺴﻜﺮ واﻟﺒﻨﺠ ﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻜﺮي‬
- molecular formula C12H22O11
- non-reducing sugar
- melting point 186ºC
- when hydrolyzed by dilute aqueous acid or by the action of
the enzyme Invertase, it yield equal amounts of D-(+)
glucose and D-(-) fructose

Glucose and fructose are called (inverted sugars)

Glucose
- monosaccharide
- molecular formula C6H12O6
- During metabolism, all proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
convert into glucose. Excess glucose in the body will store
as fat under skin and as glycogen in the liver.
- Plants produce glucose through photosynthesis.

Fructose (levulose in some books)

- Monosaccharide
- Molecular formula C6H12O6
- It is an isomer of glucose
- Found in many foods and is one of the three most important
blood sugars along with glucose and galactose.
- Honey, tree fruits, berries, melons, and some root
vegetables, such as beets, sweet potatoes, parsnips, and
onions, contain fructose, usually in combination with
sucrose and glucose.
- Fructose is a reducing sugar, as are all monosaccharide.

26
27 Biotechnology 2008-2009

- The free fructose present in fruits, their juice, and honey is

responsible for the greater sweetness of these natural sugar
sources.
- Honey is an inverted sugars since it contains large amounts
of fructose

For information only ‫ﻟﻠﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻓﻘﻂ‬

When the light pass through a solution, it will rotate to the right
(+) or to the left (-). Each liquid has specific degree of rotation.
(+) sucrose has a specific rotation of + 66.5º, while D-(+)
glucose has a specific rotation of + 52.7º, while D-(-) fructose
has a specific rotation of - 92.4º.
When the light pass through equal mixture of D-(+) glucose and
D-(-) fructose, it will rotate to the left (-39.7 º).

All mammals (except felines –cats family- that lack the ability
to taste sweets) eat sweets even when not hungry

Beverages ‫اﻟﻤﺸﺮوﺑﺎت‬
A wide range of plant materials used to manufacture beverages.
These include leaves, stems, sap, fruits, tubers, and seeds
(grains).

The large number of beverages may classify as shown:

27
28 Biotechnology 2008-2009

The beverages bought to stop thirst since they contain a great

deal of water. This does not add many nutrients to the diet, but it
does play an important role in maintaining body balance by
preventing dehydration. Beverages, particularly the fruit drinks,
contain quite a high percentage of sugar and therefore add to the
energy content of the diet. Additionally fruit juices provide a
supply of vitamins and minerals.

Alcoholic drinks
The most common examples of alcoholic beverages are wines
and beers. Beer usually made from a cereal, whereas wine can
produce from either cereals or fruit. Both can distilled to
produce spirits with an alcohol content of 30-50%.
Both wines and beers are produce by fermentation that involves
the conversion of sugars in the raw material or added sugar into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae used to produce wines or beer.
Brandy and whiskey will be distilled after that.

28
‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪Biotechnology 2008-2009‬‬

‫‪Carbonation‬‬
‫‪It is a process that involves the addition of carbon dioxide into a‬‬
‫‪drink. The most usual way of achieving this is to use a‬‬
‫‪pressurized cylinder or tank which contains a mixture of water‬‬
‫‪and carbon dioxide. In the case of soft drinks, the bottle is filled‬‬
‫‪to a certain level with the flavored syrup, the bottle is positioned‬‬
‫‪under the cylinder head and carbon dioxide is released. The‬‬
‫‪bottles are capped immediately.‬‬

‫‪4) Pasteurization‬‬

‫‪Pasteurization involves heating the product to a temperature of‬‬

‫‪80-90°C and holding it at that temperature for between 0.5 and 5‬‬
‫‪minutes before filling into clean sterilized bottles.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻐﺵ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬
‫ﻴﻨﺘﺸﺭ ﺒﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺭ ﻤﻥ ﻋﺼﺎﺌﺭ ﻭﺸﺭﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺴـﻭﺍﻕ ﻴـﺩﻋﻲ ﻤـﺼﻨﻌﻭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺤﺘﻭﺍﺌﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻻ ﺘﻘل ﻋﻥ ‪ %١٠‬ﺃﻭ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﻤـﻥ ﻟـﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺍﻜـﻪ ﺃﻭ ﻋـﺼﻴﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﺘﺯﻋﻡ ﺒﻌﺽ ﺸﺭﻜﺎﺕ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻋﺼﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﺒﺄﻨﻪ ﻴﺤـﻀﺭ ﻤـﻥ ﻋـﺼﻴﺭ‬
‫ﻓﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ‪ %١٠٠‬ﻤﻌﺎﺩ ﺘﻜﻭﻴﻨﻪ ﻤﻊ ﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﻭﺒﺸﻜل ﺨﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻭ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ‪ ،‬ﻭﻴﺤﺘﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺭ ﻤﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺃﻨﻭﺍﻉ ﺸﺭﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻔﻭﻅﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠـﺏ ﻋﻠـﻰ‬
‫ﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﻨﻜﻬﺔ ﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻴﻘﺎل ﺒﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺃﺨﺭﻯ ﻤﻠﻭﻨـﺔ ﻤﺜـل ﺘﺭﺘـﺯﺍﺯﻴﻥ ﻟﻭﻨـﻪ‬
‫ﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻭﺭﻤﺯﻩ ‪ E 102‬ﻭﺃﺼﻔﺭ ﻏﺭﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺱ ﻭﺭﻤﺯﻩ ‪ E 110‬ﻭﺴﻜﺭ ﻭﺤﻤـﺽ‬
‫ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ﻭﺘﺼل ﻨﺴﺏ ﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺒﻌﺽ ﺃﻨﻭﺍﻋﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ‪%. ١٠٠‬‬

‫ﻜﻤﺎ ﻴﺯﻋﻡ ﻤﺼﻨﻊ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻨﻭﻉ ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل ﺍﺤﺘﻭﺍﺌﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻭﻨـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﺼﻴﺭ ﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺒﺤﺩ ﺃﺩﻨﻰ ‪ %١٠‬ﻭﺴﻜﺭ ﻭﺤﻤـﺽ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻤـﻭﻥ ‪ E330‬ﻭﺒﻴﺘـﺎ‬
‫ﻜﺎﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ )ﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻠﻭﻨﺔ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺼﻔﺭﺍﺀ ( ﻭﻨﻜﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻭﺒﻜﺘـﻴﻥ )ﻤـﺜﺨﻥ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻘﻭﺍﻡ ( ﻭﻓﻴﺘﺎﻤﻴﻥ ‪ C‬ﻭﺃﻨﻪ ﻴﺤﻔﻅ ﺒﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﺘﺭﺓ ﻟﺘﺠﻨﺏ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﺤﺎﻓﻅـﺔ‬
‫ﻀﺩ ﻓﺴﺎﺩﻩ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻴﻜﺭﻭﺒﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﺼﺒﺤﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺭﻭﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻭﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻴﺘـﺎﻤﻴﻥ ‪ C‬ﻜﺜﻴـﺭﺓ‬

‫‪29‬‬
‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪Biotechnology 2008-2009‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻭﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﻕ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎﹰ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺘﺎﻤﻴﻥ ﻴﺘﺼﻑ ﺒﺎﻟﺤﺴﺎﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺭﻁـﺔ ﻟﻅـﺭﻭﻑ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺯﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺌﺔ ﻟﻌﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﻴﺭ ﻤﺜل ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺘﺅﺩﻱ ﻁﻭل ﻓﺘـﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺯﻴﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻓﻘﺩﻩ ﻤﻌﻅﻡ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﻴﺔ ﺨﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭﺠﺩ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﺭﻀﻴﺎﹰ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻴﻤﻜـﻥ‬
‫ﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﻤﺸﺭﻭﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺘﺸﺎﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﺒﺎﺴـﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻤـﻭﺍﺩ ﻤـﻀﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻸﻏﺫﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺘﺤﺴﻥ ﻤﺫﺍﻗﻬﺎ ﻤﺜل ﺃﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﺔ ﻜﺤﻤـﺽ ﺍﻟـﺴﺘﺭﻴﻙ ‪citric‬‬
‫‪ acid‬ﻓﻲ ﻤﺸﺭﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل ﻭﺤﻤﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﻙ ‪ maleic acid‬ﻓﻲ ﻋـﺼﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔـﺎﺡ‬
‫ﻭﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﻤﻠﻭﻨﺔ ﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻨﻜﻬﺎﺕ ﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﻤﻨﻅﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻤﻭﻀﺔ ﻤﺜل ﺴـﺘﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ‪ ،‬ﻭﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﺘﺜﺨﻥ ﻗﻭﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤـﺸﺭﻭﺏ ﻤﺜـل ﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘـﻴﻥ ﻭﺍﻟـﺼﻤﻎ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺒـﻲ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻴﻼﺘﻴﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﺸﺎﻉ ﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻤﺭﻜﺏ ﻤﻴﺜﺎﻴل ﺴﻠﻴﻠﻭﺯ ‪ methyl cellulose‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤل‬
‫ﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎﺕ ﺘﺸﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺼﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﺘﻘﺎل ‪.‬‬
‫‪.‬ﻭﺘﺘﺼﻑ ﻤﻌﻅﻡ ﺍﻷﺼﺒﺎﻍ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺩﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺌﻴﺔ ﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺼﺎﺌﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺍﻜﻪ ﺒﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻨﺴﺒﻴﺎﹰ ﻏﻴﺭ ﺜﺎﺒﺘﺔ ﻜﻴﻤﺎﻭﻴﺎﹰ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺘﺭﻜﻴﺒﻬﺎ ﻏﻴـﺭ ﺍﻟﻤـﺸﺒﻊ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺒﻁﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﺎﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﺒﻬﺕ ﻟﻭﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺘﻌﺭﻀﻬﺎ ﻟﻀﻭﺀ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻷﺤﻴـﺎﺀ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺘﺨﺯﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﻁﻭﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﺘﺼﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﺘﺘﺄﻜﺴﺩ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻜﺒـﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺘﺘﻔﺎﻋل ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻤل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺯﻟﺔ ﻜﺎﻷﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺩﻴﺩﺓ ﻓﺘﺅﺩﻱ ﺃﺤﻴﺎﻨﺎﹰ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻅﻬـﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺒﻘﻊ ﻭﻟﻁﺦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻜﻤﺎ ﻴﺘﻜﻭﻥ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﺘﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﺼﺒﺎﻍ ﻤﻊ ﺒﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺼﺭ‬
‫ﻜﺎﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺭ ﺫﺍﺌﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻭﻡ ﻭﺘﻠﻭﺜﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻴﻨﺘﺸﺭ ﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﻨﺸﻭﻴﺔ ﻤﺎﻟﺌﺔ ﻭ ﺒﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﺍﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﺫﺒﺎﺌﺢ ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻭﻡ ﻜﺎﻷﻤﻌـﺎﺀ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺭﺵ ﺒﻌﺩ ﻁﺤﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺴﺤﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺘﺤﻀﻴﺭ ﺒﻌﺽ ﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﺤـﻭﻡ ﻤﺜـل ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺭﺘـﺩﻻ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻨﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻤﺒﺭﺠﺭ ﻭﻴﻀﺎﻑ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﺒل ﻭﻏﻴﺭﻫﺎ ﻟﺘﻐﻁﻴﺔ ﻋﻴﻭﺏ ﻗﺩ ﺘﻅﻬـﺭ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﻤﺫﺍﻗﻬﺎ ﻭﻨﻜﻬﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺘﺤﺴﻴﻥ ﻟﻭﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻤﻅﻬﺭﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻜﻤﺎ ﺸﺎﻉ ﺍﺴـﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻠﺤـﻡ ﺍﻟـﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻀﺭ ﺭﺌﻴﺴﺎﹰ ﻤﻥ ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺒﺫﻭﺭ ﻓﻭل ﺍﻟﺼﻭﻴﺎ ﻜﺎﻟﻬﻤﺒﺭﺠﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻨﻕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺴل ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ‪ ،‬ﻓﻤﻌﻅﻤﻪ ﻤﺼﻨﻊ ﻤﻥ ﻨﺤل ﻴﺘﻐﺫﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﺴﻜﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺯﻫﻭﺭ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺅﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺭﻜﺘﻭﺯ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻓﻴﻤﻴل ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﻠﻭﺭ‪.‬‬

‫‪30‬‬
 31 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Pepsi Frisco Dania Lemonita Nice Malita Ugarit

up
‫داﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﺮﯾﺴﻜﻮ ﺑﯿﺒﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﻟﯿﻤﻮﻧﯿﺘﺎ‬ ‫ﻧﺎﯾﺲ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺘﺎ‬ ‫اوﻏﺎرﯾﺖ‬
‫آب‬
Carbonated Yes yes Yes Yes yes Yes Yes
water
Crystals sugar Yes yes Yes Yes yes yes Yes
Citric acid No yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Caramel yes yes no
coloring E150
Extract of yes
orange
Sodium yes yes yes
benzoate
Sodium citrate yes yes
Peach pulp and 30% no
dices
Maleic acid yes
Ascorbic yes Yes yes
Cellulose E466 Yes
Phosphoric acid Yes
Caffeine Yes
Preservation Yes
Natural flavor Yes yes
Food color yes yes
yellow E102
Food color yes
yellow E110
Food color Yes yes
yellow E112
Arabic gum yes yes
E414
Natural orange 15%
juice
betacarbonate yes
Extracts of yes
blackberry and
strawberry
Concentrated ‫؟؟‬%
lemon juice

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32 Biotechnology 2008-2009

E numbers
E numbers are codes for food additives and are usually found on
food labels throughout the European Union. The numbering
scheme follows that of the International Numbering System
(INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee.

Classification by numeric range

100–
Yellows
109
110–
Oranges
119
120–
Reds
129
100–199 130–
blues & violets
Colors 139
140–
Greens
149
150–
browns & blacks
159
160–
Others
199
200–299 200–
sorbates
Preservatives 209
210–
benzoates
219
220–
sulphites
229
230– phenols & formates
239 (methanoates)
240–
nitrates
259
260–
acetates (ethanoates)
269
270– lactates

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33 Biotechnology 2008-2009

279
280–
propionates (propanoates)
289
290–
Others
299
300–
ascorbates (vitamin C)
309
310–
gallates & erythorbates
319
320–
lactates
329
330–
300–399 citrates & tartrates
339
Antioxidants & acidity
regulators 340–
phosphates
349
350–
malates & adipates
359
360–
succinates & fumarates
369
370–
Others
399
400–499 400–
alginates
Thickeners, stabilisers 409
& emulsifiers 410–
natural gums
419
420–
other natural agents
429
430–
polyoxythene compounds
439
440–
natural emulsifiers
449
450–
phosphates
459
460– cellulose compounds

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34 Biotechnology 2008-2009

469
470–
fatty acids & compounds
489
490–
Others
499
500–
mineral acids & bases
509
510–
chlorides & sulphates
519
520–
sulphates & hydroxides
529
500–599
530–
pH regulators & anti- alkali metal compounds
549
caking agents
550–
silicates
559
570–
stearates & gluconates
579
580–
Others
599
620–
glutamates
629
600–699 630–
inosinates
Flavour enhancers 639
640–
Others
649
900–999 900–
waxes
Miscellaneous 909
910–
synthetic glazes
919
920–
improving agents
929
930–
packaging gases
949
950– sweeteners

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35 Biotechnology 2008-2009

969
990–
foaming agents
999
1100–1599 New chemicals that do not fall into
Additional chemicals standard classification schemes

E100–E199 (colors)
• E100 Curcumin, turmeric (food coloring)
• E101 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2), formerly called lactoflavin
(Vitamin G) (food coloring)
• E101a Riboflavin-5'-Phosphate (food coloring)
• E102 Tartrazine (FD&C Yellow 5) (food coloring)
• E103 Chrysoine resorcinol (food coloring)
• E104 Quinoline yellow (food coloring)
• E105 Fast Yellow AB (food coloring)
• E106 Riboflavin-5-Sodium Phosphate (food coloring)
• E107 Yellow 2G (food coloring)
• E110 Sunset Yellow FCF, Orange Yellow S, FD&C
Yellow 6 (food coloring)
• E111 Orange GGN (food coloring)
• E120 Cochineal, Carminic acid, Carmines, Natural Red 4
(food coloring)
• E121 Orcein, Orchil (food coloring)
• E122 Carmoisine, Azorubine (food coloring)
• E123 Amaranth (FD&C Red 2) (food coloring)
• E124 Ponceau 4R, Cochineal Red A, Brilliant Scarlet 4R
(food coloring)
• E125 Ponceau SX, Scarlet GN (food coloring)
• E126 Ponceau 6R (food coloring)
• E127 Erythrosine (FD&C Red 3) (food coloring)
• E128 Red 2G (food coloring)
• E129 Allura Red AC (FD&C Red 40) (food coloring)
• E130 Indanthrene blue RS (food coloring)
• E131 Patent Blue V (food coloring)
• E132 Indigo carmine, Indigotine, FD&C Blue 2 (food
coloring)

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36 Biotechnology 2008-2009

• E133 Brilliant Blue FCF (FD&C Blue 1) (food coloring)

• E140 Chlorophylls and Chlorophyllins: (i) Chlorophylls (ii)
Chlorophyllins (food coloring)
• E141 Copper complexes of chlorophylls and
chlorophyllins (i) Copper complexes of chlorophylls (ii)
Copper complexes of chlorophyllins (food coloring)
• E142 Greens S (food coloring)
• E143 Fast Green FCF (FD&C Green 3) (food coloring)
• E150a Plain Caramel (food coloring)
• E150b Caustic sulfite caramel (food coloring)
• E150c Ammonia caramel (food coloring)
• E150d Sulphite ammonia caramel (food coloring)
• E151 Black PN, Brilliant Black BN (food coloring)
• E152 Black 7984 (food coloring)
• E153 Carbon black, Vegetable carbon (food coloring)
• E154 Brown FK, Kipper Brown (food coloring)
• E155 Brown HT, Chocolate brown HT (food coloring)
• E160a Alpha-carotene, Beta-carotene, Gamma-carotene
(food coloring)
• E160b Annatto, bixin, norbixin (food coloring)
• E160c Capsanthin, capsorubin, Paprika extract (food
coloring)
• E160d Lycopene (food coloring)
• E160e Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) (food coloring)
• E160f Ethyl ester of beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid (C 30)
(food coloring)
• E161a Flavoxanthin (food coloring)
• E161b Lutein (food coloring)
• E161c Cryptoxanthin (food coloring)
• E161d Rubixanthin (food coloring)
• E161e Violaxanthin (food coloring)
• E161f Rhodoxanthin (food coloring)
• E161g Canthaxanthin (food coloring)
• E161h Zeaxanthin (food coloring)
• E161i Citranaxanthin (food coloring)
• E161j Astaxanthin (food coloring)
• E162 Beetroot Red, Betanin (food coloring)

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37 Biotechnology 2008-2009

• E163 Anthocyanins (food coloring)

• E170 Calcium carbonate, Chalk (food coloring)
• E171 Titanium dioxide (food coloring)
• E172 Iron oxides and hydroxides (food coloring)
• E173 Aluminium (food coloring)
• E174 Silver (food coloring)
• E175 Gold (food coloring)
• E180 Pigment Rubine, Lithol Rubine BK (food coloring)
• E181 Tannin (food coloring)

Single cell protein (SCP)

Definition
Dry microorganisms' cells (rich in proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, vitamins and minerals) produce through the culture of
single celled microorganisms. These cells known as (single cell
proteins) consumed as proteins-rich food by humans and
livestock.

Another definition
Microbial biomass or proteins extracted from processes in which
bacteria, yeasts, other fungi or algae are cultivated in large
quantities as human or animal protein supplement in animal feed
or in human nutrition.

Single cell protein was called (microbial protein).

Advantages
The microorganisms used to produce proteins must have several
advantages such as:
- fast growth
- the growth media must consists of simple and available
components
- non-toxic
- harvesting microbial proteins must be at low-costs
- a high rate of production of concentrated protein must
achieved.

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38 Biotechnology 2008-2009

- do not form excretions that contaminate the food during the

growth
- extract easily
- The produced protein can be digested easily with accepted
color and smell.

SCP is a good food product as it has the texture ‫ ﺗﺮﻛﯿ ﺐ‬of meat,
and the taste can be easily overcome by flavoring and cooking.
It is rich in protein (45% or more), low in fat and has a sufficient
amount of fiber, which makes it a healthy protein source
Disadvantages
- Most expensive operation is the removal of large amounts
of water necessary to stabilize the material for storage. This
operation is not economic in small size operation.
- Single cell protein must be dried to about 10 % moisture,
or condensed and acidified to prevent spoilage from
occurring, or fed shortly after being produced.

For Knowledge ‫ﻟﻠﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬

Human beings were eating microorganisms for a long time, for
example, algae, yeast and bacteria in bread, cheese, milk, yogurt
and other kinds of food. During First World War (1914-1918),
Beaker's yeast used as protein supplement for human
consumption, while Molas used as a carbohydrate source.

Single cell protein can be produced on a number of different

substrates such as (whey*, orange peel residue‫ﻣﺨﻠﻔﺎت ﻗﺸﻮر اﻟﺒﺮﺗﻘﺎل‬,
sweet orange residue, sugarcane bagasse ‫ﺛﻔ ﻞ‬, paper waste, rice
husks ‫ﻗ ﺸﻮر اﻟ ﺘﻤﻦ‬, wheat straw residue, coconut waste, potato
waste, banana waste, mango waste, grape waste, straws ‫;اﻟﻘ ﺶ‬
wood and wood processing wastes; food processing wastes; and
residues from alcohol production or from human and animal
excretes ‫)ﻣﺨﻠﻔﺎت‬
*whey = (‫ﻣﺼﻞ اﻟﻠﺒﻦ )ﺣﻠﯿﺐ ﻣﺨﻔﻒ ﺟﺪاً ﯾﻨﻔﺼﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟﺠﺒﻦ‬

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39 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Information
Today, protein with 72% concentration can produce from
ethanol and crude petroleum.

Single cell protein has the potential to be developed into a very

large source of supplemental protein that could be used in
livestock feeding. In some regions single cell protein could
become the principal protein source that is used for domestic
livestock and humans, depending upon the population growth
and the availability of plant feed protein sources.

Milk production and milk production efficiency was increased

when single cell protein replaced groundnut meal in lactating
goat diets. Same thing occurred when single cell protein was fed
to layers (poultry lay on eggs). When single cell protein was fed
to layers no depression in egg production was observed.

Single cell proteins can produce by photosynthetic

microorganisms or non-photosynthetic microorganisms. In both
cases, a carbon and nitrate sources must provide since CO2 will
not be enough.

Chlorella species (photosynthetic algae) are used mostly and

can produce 2tons/day of single cell proteins. Other
photosynthetic algae (Spurulina species) used to produce very
expensive SCP in Hawaii, Thailand and Taiwan that sold 1Kg
SCP for 18 US dollars.

Production plan
1) Heavy water is collected in artificial bonds
2) Chosen microorganisms grow in the upper layer of these
bonds, 10-30 cm depth, where light intensity is strong and
temperature constant.
3) The water in bonds must stirred regularly by pumps or
paddle wheels to prevent microorganisms from settle
down.

39
40 Biotechnology 2008-2009

4) In successful bonds, 1-2 tons of microorganisms can

harvest daily.
5) After harvesting, microorganisms' cells concentrated
through several methods (participation, centrifugation or
filtration), then dry with heat to kill harmful
microorganisms.
6) Addition of artificial smell and taste will be the last
process.

The use of heavy water as a source of SCP has two advantages:

1) clean the environment from pollutants
2) produce high quality economic proteins

Many microorganisms can used for the production of SCP, most

important are:

Bacteria
Bacteria can grow (20-120 minutes) on any media and under
any circumstances. It can use carbohydrates, hydrocarbons,
alcohol, crude oil and many other components as a source of
energy. They can tolerate low and high temperatures.

Bacteria can grow on almost everything; however, only one

group of bacteria - those which can oxidize methane - has been
thoroughly investigated for the production of single-cell protein.
These bacteria have not been isolated and clearly defined;
usually called Methanomonas methanica Söhngen, they are
probably not a single species. Methane-oxidizing bacteria need
more oxygen for growth than yeast and algae, and this increases
the cost of production. There are also problems in obtaining a
concentration of bacteria in the medium that is high enough for
profitable production.
Methane is among the most inexpensive and abundant sources
of energy to be found.
The Methanomonas bacteria are the only ones that can utilize
methane as a source of energy. The risk of contamination is
minimal.

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41 Biotechnology 2008-2009

In laboratory, the bacteria are cultivated as a submerged culture

in a water solution of mineral salts and a source of nitrogen
(ammonia or urea). Air and methane are bubbled through the
liquid and dispersed with an impeller. A batch culture is
harvested after three days and yields about 12 g of wet bacteria
per litre. The dried biomass of bacteria is pinkish white,
odourless, tasteless and non-toxic and consists of about 70-80%
protein of balanced amino acid composition.

For practical industrial application it has been suggested that

natural gas together with air (certain proportions of air and
methane are explosive) can be bubbled through a lake or a pond.
As a source of mineral and nitrogen, manure will do. As the
bacteria produce acid it will probably be necessary to add
limestone to maintain a constant pH. The bacterial biomass may
either be collected and used for feed or allowed to remain in the
water as a food for fish.

Molasses ‫ اﻟﻤﻮﻻس‬is a thick syrup produce by the boiling of the

sugarcane, sugar beet, grape or dates, so it contains concentrated
amounts of sugar. The name in Greek means honey, and for that
it called ‫ﻋﺴﻞ اﻟﺴﻜﺮ‬.

The quality of molasses depends on the amount of sugar

extracted from it and upon the method of extraction. If the
concentrated of sugar is high, the color of the syrup will be
darker-brown.

Molases have high concentration of sucrose and inverted sugars.

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42 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Dandruff
The excessive shedding ‫ إزاﻟﺔ‬of dead skin cells from the scalp.

It is normal for skin cells to die and flake off ‫ﯾﺘﻘ ﺸﺮ‬. A small
amount of flaking is normal and in fact quite common. Some
people, however, either chronically or as a result of certain
triggers, experience an unusually large amount of cells' flaking,
which can also be accompanied by redness and irritation ‫ﺗﮭ ﯿﺞ‬
‫اﻟﺠﻠﺪ‬.

Most cases of dandruff can be easily treated with specialized

shampoos. Simple dandruff does not cause hair loss.

Dandruff is a global phenomenon ‫ ﻇ ﺎھﺮة ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿ ﺔ‬and many people

find that dandruff can cause social or self-esteem problems.
Treatment may be important purely for psychological reasons.

As the epidermal layer continually replaces itself, cells are

pushed outward where they eventually die and flake off. In most
people, these flakes of skin are too small to be visible. However,
certain conditions cause cell turnover to be unusually rapid,
especially in the scalp.

For people with dandruff, skin cells may mature and be shed in
2-7 days, as opposed to around a month in people without
dandruff. The result is that dead skin cells are shed in large, oily
clumps, which appear as white or grayish patches on the scalp
and clothes.

Causes
Dandruff has been shown to be the result of three required
factors:
1) Excessive skin oil secretion (sebaceous secretions);
2) The presence of fat-consuming fungi, most specifically
Malassezia ; that grows near sebaceous glands ‫ اﻟﻐﺪد اﻟﺪھﻨﯿﺔ‬.

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43 Biotechnology 2008-2009

3) An individual susceptibility (stress, nutritional deficiencies,

hormone shifts, and environmental factors).

The fungus Malassezia globosa causes dandruff. These fungi is

found naturally on the skin surface of both healthy people and
those with dandruff Malassezia lives on the scalps of most
healthy adults without causing problems, but sometimes it
grows out of control, feeding on the oils secreted by the hair
follicles (or added by the person) and causing irritation that
leads to increased cells.
All skin cells die and are replaced by new cells. Normally, it
takes about a month for new cells to move from the lowest layer
of the skin, where they form, to the outermost layer, where they
die and scale off in flakes. Since cells renew themselves slowly,
this process usually isn't noticeable.
If malassezia thrives, the whole process can take as little as 11
days. The result is a large number of dead skin cells. As the cells
fall off, they tend to clump together with oil from the hair and
scalp, making them appear white, flaky and all too visible.

Treatments
There have been many strategies for the control of dandruff.
Most clinics recommended the following procedures:
- Human must learn to manage stress
- Shampooing often will remove flakes.
- Elimination of the fungus results in dramatic improvement.
- Minimized hair style products (like oils and gels)
‫ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﺯﻴﻭﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺠﻴل ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺭ‬
- East a healthy diet
- Washing hair with a dilute alcohol will rid the hair of the
dandruff and leaves hair feeling soft and clean
- The sun will help.

43
44 Biotechnology 2008-2009

For Knowledge ‫ﻟﻠﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬

Some researchers suggest the use of:
- Head & Shoulders anti-dandruff shampoo containing active
ingredient Zinc pyrithione.
- Nizoral Shampoo anti-fungal/anti-dandruff shampoo
containing active ingredient Ketoconazole.
- Selsun Blue anti-dandruff shampoo containing active
ingredient Selenium sulfide.
- The antifungal properties of Tea Tree Oil (Melaleuca Oil)
have been reported as useful in the treatment of dandruff.
- Apple Cider Vinegar helps destroy the bacteria that cause
Dandruff thus, eliminating your dandruff.

Misconceptions ‫اﻋﺘﻘﺎدات ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ‬

- Dandruff is sometimes confused with dried shampoo. This
usually occurs when hair isn't rinsed properly.
- Dandruff is not an organism like lice ‫ ;اﻟﻘﻤ ﻞ‬it is just dead
skin that accumulates in the scalp.
- Dandruff is unlikely to be the cause of hair loss.

‫ﻴﺠﺏ ﻤﻼﺤﻅﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺤﺩﻭﺙ ﺤﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺫﻥ ﻗﺩ ﻴﻜﻭﻥ ﺒﺴﺒﺏ ﻗﻴﺎﻡ ﺸﻌﺭ ﺍﻷﺫﻥ ﺒﺘﻜـﻭﻴﻥ‬
‫ ﻭﻟﻬﺫﺍ ﻴﻔﻀل ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﻗﻁﺭﺓ ﺘﺤﻭﻱ ﻜﺤﻭل )ﺃﻭ ﺘﻨﻅﻴـﻑ‬، ‫ﻗﺸﺭﺓ ﺘﻬﻴﺞ ﺨﻼﻴﺎ ﺍﻷﺫﻥ‬
.‫ﺍﻷﺫﻥ ﺒﻘﻠﻴل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺤﻭل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻔﻑ( ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺸﺭﺓ‬

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45 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Flow cytometry
Flow Cytometry is a test that can be used to measure the
amount of DNA in cells. By measuring the amount of DNA in
cells, this test is able to identify the proportions of cells in
different parts of the cell cycle.

It can also detect populations of cells that have abnormal

amounts of DNA (cells that have a lot of gene abnormalities).

Normally, in a biopsy of a cancerous tissue, most of the cells

are in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle will have a 2N DNA
content, the content of most of the normal cells of our bodies.
Normally, in a biopsy from cancerous tissue, 6% or less of the
cells have a 4N DNA content. In that case, the patient has a low
risk progression of cancer.

If the percentage increased to 20% 4N DNA, then the patient

has a high risk progression of cancer.

Disadvantages

The chance of developing cancer over a five year period was

0% in patients who had biopsy results of negative, 28% in
patients with low-grade and 59% with patients with high-grade,
so at present, treatment is not recommended based solely on
flow cytometric results as 41% of patients who have flow
cytometric abnormalities DO NOT progress to high-grade
cancer during long-term.

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46 Biotechnology 2008-2009

the .

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47 Biotechnology 2008-2009

Immobilized Enzyme
The enzyme is a protein that catalyzes, or speeds up, a chemical
reaction. Enzymes are protein molecules which serve to
accelerate the chemical reactions of living cells. Not all proteins
are enzymes but all enzymes are proteins.

Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules such as:

- Inhibitors which are molecules naturally occurring (or
synthetic molecules) that decrease or abolish enzyme
activity;
- Activators which are molecules naturally occurring (or
synthetic molecules) that increase enzyme activity.

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48 Biotechnology 2008-2009

The active site

Most enzymes are larger than the substrates they act on, so only
a very small portion of the enzyme, around 10 amino acids,
come into direct contact with the substrate. This region who is
binding the substrate(s) and responsible for the reaction, is
known as the active site of the enzyme.

The active site is a small portion of the enzyme, about 10

amino acids that binds to the substrate and permit the
reaction to proceeds.

Without enzymes, most biochemical reactions would be too

slow. Enzymes display great specificity and are not
permanently modified by their participation in reactions. Since
they do not change during the reactions, it is cost-effective (or
cheaper) to use them more than once.

Why immobilized enzymes?

In industry, enzymes used in large quantities, but must be kept
(when not in use) frozen, so they will not loss their activities.
Immobilized enzymes can stay at liquid form without degrading
for long periods of time.

The term "immobilized" means unable to move. That is

exactly what an immobilized enzyme is: an enzyme that is
physically attached to a solid support and can participate
with substrates without losing activity.

Benefits of Immobilization
To keep the enzyme's catalytic activities stable due to the
microenvironment of the support material and its characteristics.

Methods of Immobilization
There are several methods can immobilize the enzyme (or
entrapped it), but all methods must:

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- Prevent loss of enzyme activity by not changing the

chemical nature or reactive groups in the binding site of the
enzyme.
- The entrapped enzyme suffers little damage as possible, so
a considerable knowledge of the active site of the enzyme
will be helpful in achieving this task.
- The active site must be protected during attachment as long
as the protective groups can be removed later on without
loss of enzyme activity.
- The immobilized enzyme is attached to its support medium
through hydrogen bonds or the formation of electron
complexes. These links will prevent vibration of the
enzyme and thus increase thermal stability and pH stability.

The support or entrapped medium must be insoluble in water,

gel-like material that can cross-link with the enzyme. Examples
are: Glass, silica, Celite, Bentonite, alumina, or titanium oxide.

Choice of Immobilization Methods

It is important to choose a method of enzyme attachment either:
aimed at reactive groups outside the active site of that
enzyme. The active sites of a particular enzyme must not be
touched. Alternatively, the active site can protected during
attachment by protective groups, if the protective groups can
removed without loss of enzyme activity.

The surface on which the enzyme is immobilized has vital roles

to play and must chose carefully, so it will not affect the active
site of the enzyme. For industrial purposes, it is preferable to use
supports (to the enzyme) that are non-bio-degradable such as
glass, silica, Celite, Bentonite, alumina, or titanium oxide, if
possible.

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Cough ‫اﻟﺴﻌﺎل‬

A cough is a sudden, often repetitive ‫ﻣﺘﻜ ﺮر‬, spasmodic

contraction ‫ ﺗﻘﻠﺺ ﺗﺸﻨﺠﻲ‬of the thoracic cavity, resulting in violent
release of air from the lungs, and usually accompanied by a
distinctive sound.

Coughing is an action the body takes to get rid of substances

that are irritating the air passages. A cough is usually initiated to
clear a buildup of phlegm in the trachea; air may move through
this passage at up to 480 km/h during a contraction.

Coughing can also be triggered by a piece of food going down

the trachea instead of the esophagus, due to a failure of the
epiglottis ‫ﻟ ﺴﺎن اﻟﻤﺰﻣ ﺎر‬, although this may result in choking
instead.

Frequent or chronic coughing usually indicates the presence of a

disease. When cough lasts for more than a few weeks multiple
causes are likely and only when all the causes are treated will
the patient be symptom free.

Psychological and social reasons for coughing are well known.

A person usually coughs or clears their throat before a public
speech or answering a question in order to relieve nervousness.

Complications
The complications of coughing can be:

1) increase intrathoracic pressure

2) insomnia
3) chest pain due to muscular strain
4) decrease blood flow to the brain

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