Design And Fabrication of Regenerative Braking System

Course Code: ME-400

Course Title: Project and Thesis
Group No: G80

Under the supervision of

Nuruzzaman Rakib
Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering

SUBMITTED BY
1.Md Ariful Islam [BME1703013382]
2.Md Jashim Uddin [BME1803016238]
3.Rayhanul Islam [BME1803016269]
4.Md Mostafijur Rahaman [BME1803016270]

Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sonargaon University (SU)
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree
of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

SEPTEMBER 2022
 DECLARATION
Design And Fabrication of Regenerative Braking System

Submitted to the Sonargaon University, recorded of an Original Work Done

by us. Under the Guidance of Nuruzzaman Rakib, Lecturer of Sonargaon
University.

SUBMITTED BY
1.Md Ariful Islam [BME1703013382]
2.Md Jashim Uddin [BME1803016238]
3.Rayhanul Islam [BME1803016269]
4.Md Mostafijur Rahman [BME1803016270]

…………………………..
Supervisor
Nuruzzaman Rakib
Lecturer of Mechanical Engineering
Sonargaon University (SU)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At first, we are grateful to the Allah subhanahu wa ta’ala. Without the blessing

of the Allah subhanahu wa ta’ala, we couldn’t reach this far. Allah subhanahu

wa ta’ala is the Greatest Planner.

We would like to thank Nuruzzaman Rakib, Lecturer of the Department of

Mechanical Engineering. We are blessed to get an opportunity to work with

him. Throughout the thesis, he was very helpful, dedicated and loyal with us.

He was strict, ambitious and always encouraged us to work harder. With his

proper guidance and valuable time, this thesis was possible to complete in time.

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 ABSTRACT

In this thesis, series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle (Toyota, Prius THS II) is
studied. The energy storage system of this vehicle is batteries. It is not good to
use batteries or ultra-capacitor alone. In this thesis, two energy storage devices
are used together to form the hybrid energy storage system. The advantages of
this hybrid energy storage system are the combined advantages of the two
energy storage devices. The two devices compensate the drawbacks of each
device. A performance of series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles (Toyota, Prius
ths II) using hybrid energy storage system are presented. The hybrid energy
storage system consists of nickel-metal hydride batteries and ultra-capacitors.
The hybrid storage system is designed to reduce the total weight of the energy
storage system and in turn increase the overall efficiency. The ultra-capacitor
contributes to the rapid energy recovery associated with regenerative braking
and to the rapid energy consumption associated with acceleration in electric
vehicles. This Ultracapacitor allows acceleration and deceleration of the
vehicle with minimal loss of energy and minimizes the stress of the main
batteries by reducing high power demands away from it. It also leads to longer
battery life by extracting energy at a slower average rate. This paper analyzes
and compares between the performances of the series-parallel hybrid electric
vehicles with the proposed hybrid storage system (batteries/ultra-capacitors)
and with the conventional storage system (batteries only). Simulation works
are carried out to evaluate the performance of the two storage systems under
different operating conditions such as acceleration, constant speed and
deceleration.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT-----------------------------------------------------------------------iii

ABSTRACT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS -----------------------------------------------------------------------v

LIST OF FIGURES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS-----------------------------------------------------------------vii

NOMENCLATURE -------------------------------------------------------------------------viii

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Rational ------------------------------------------------------------1

1.2 Motivation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

1.3 Objectives --------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

1.4 Advantages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------3

1.5 Disadvantages---------------------------------------------------------------------------3

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Hybrid Vehicles -------------------------------------------------------------------------4

2.2 Literature Review ---------------------------------------------------------------------16

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CHAPTER-3 Braking System-------------------------------------------------------------20

3.1 Operation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------20

3.2 Working Methodology---------------------------------------------------------------22

3.3 Fabrication ------------------------------------------------------------------------------23

CHAPTER-4 CALCULATIONS--------------------------------------------------------------30

CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION----------------------------------------------------------------32

5.1Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------32

5.2Scope For Future Work---------------------------------------------------------------33

REFERENCES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------34

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Bhp Brake horse power

Cm Centimeter
EMBS Electromagnetic Braking System
Mph Miles per hour
RPM Revolution per minute

NOMENCLATURE DIMENSION

A Ampere [A]
R Radius [L]
V Voltage [ML2T-3A-1]

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Rational

Regenerative braking is a method of recovering energy lost during braking and

storing it as electrical energy in the battery.
As you press the car’s brakes, kinetic energy generates, which uses to move
the car forward. It normally generates heat by the brake pads. However, hybrid
vehicles’ regenerative braking technology can convert this dissipated heat into
electricity.
When you squeeze the accelerator, the battery delivers power to drive the
motor. As the motor receives power, it moves the wheels.
It reverses the process as you remove your foot off the accelerator or apply the
brake. Power to the electric motor is cut, and the wheels transfer kinetic energy
to the electric motor, essentially turning it into a generator and feeding power
back into the battery.
All hybrids are also fitted with standard friction brake discs for sudden stops,
as regenerative braking is not suitable for sudden stops.

1.2 Motivation
An electric vehicle provides a clear alternative to the internal combustion
engine vehicles which run on fossil fuels like petrol and diesel. The fuels are
depleting fast and alternative energy resources must be used as the
consumption of fossil fuels goes on increasing every year due to usage of more
vehicle but the production of these fuels is not keeping pace with the increasing

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demand. An electric vehicle provides many benefits as mentioned above and
is environmentally friendly. Because of such benefits of electric vehicles, it is
important that an electric vehicle be given the latest systems in braking, as it is
an important part in the use of any vehicle. Braking systems like ABS and
regenerative braking which will make the electric vehicle safer and easier to
use as well as make it energy efficient should be implemented in the vehicles.
If such systems are incorporated in electric vehicles and their advantages are
seen by all, then the use and sale of electric vehicles all over the world will
increase, especially in India which has a huge market for vehicles and is
suffering from the ill effects of pollution due to vehicles in major cities.
Increase in the number of electric vehicles will be beneficial to the society and
to the environment. Also, wide use of Anti-lock Braking System will lead to
fewer accidents on the streets and will save many lives by preventing many
accidents.

1.3 Objectives
Objective
As the basic law of Physics says, “Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed it can only be converted from one from to another.”
According to the law of Physics, the automobile wasted energy we will reuse
or reserve.
1. To build a circuit for Anti-Lock Braking System which will prevent the
skidding of wheels during hard braking and keep the control of the vehicle at
all times with the driver in Electric Vehicles by keeping the slip ratio in the
control region.

2. To include a Regenerative Braking sub-system which will recover lost

energy in the circuit and give it back to the battery.

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1.4 Advantages

The advantages of Regenerative Braking are-

i. Energy which is wasted in frictional braking is recovered here.
ii. As load on frictional braking reduces, brake pads last longer.
iii. Energy is given back to battery which increases battery life and vehicle
mileage.

1.5 Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of Regenerative Braking are-

i. It cannot be used a standalone braking system and friction brakes too are
required.
ii. Regenerative brakes are not that effective at lower speeds
iii. Regenerative braking can be used only on wheels which are driven by motor
i.e., only the front axle or the rear axle.

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 CHAPTER 2
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HYBRID VEHICLES

The combination of two or more power sources is known as a hybrid. The
vehicle designed on hybrid technology is known as a hybrid vehicle. Hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV) includes in the world’s most famous vehicles. A hybrid
electrical car has two power sources: an I.C. engine and the other is an electric
motor. The I.C. engine and electric motor are used in the hybrid car to increase
the vehicle power and reduce the emission rate. The engine is known as the
heart of the vehicle. This is the engine that converts the power of the fuel into
the motion of the car.

Any vehicle which can be powered by two or more power sources is called a
Hybrid vehicle. A hybrid car is a type of vehicle which uses both the electric
motor and I.C. engine as a power source is not possible to connect a hybrid
electric vehicle to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged by
regenerative braking and an I.C. engine. The extra power provided by the
electric motor can potentially allow for smaller engines.
The battery also powers the auxiliary load and reduces engine idling when
stopped. These two power sources (electric motor and I.C. engine) improve
fuel economy without sacrificing performance.

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 Fig: Hybrid Vehicle

In contrast to fully operated I.C. engine cars, the hybrid electrical car has
batteries that provide and drive electric motors in addition to a fuel tank that
supplies power to the internal combustion engine. There are several methods
to pack and charge the battery. The main advantage of the hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) is that it is fuel economical.

These types of cars have lower emission rates, higher power, and better fuel
efficiency than conventional vehicles. A hybrid engine provides better fuel
efficiency and power than other types of engines.

When a hybrid car drives or brakes, it creates excess energy to charge the
engine battery. Therefore, you don’t need any external source to charge the
battery manually. Secondly, this process also helps to improve fuel range or
efficiency.

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A conventional hybrid car is a fully electric vehicle. These include an electric
motor that drives the wheels and a battery that powers the electric motor. Then
there’s a completely separate petrol engine that powers the generator.
Conventional hybrid cars have very small engines.

Conventional hybrid vehicles have high weight. These vehicles have to support
the weight of batteries, gasoline engines, generators, and electric motors.

The conventional hybrid vehicle doesn’t require as much battery power as a

pure electric car, so you can save weight, but a full-size electric motor and 10-
kilowatt generator weigh hundreds of pounds.

Now, we are going to study how does a hybrid car work?

Working Principle of Hybrid Car

The main purpose of hybrid car construction is to lower the combustion of fuel
and lower the emission rate of harmful gases. Hybrid vehicles are powered by
at least two types of energy sources.

The old hybrid vehicle had a stationary gas engine to power the generator. This
generator was transmitted electrical energy to an electric motor mounted on
the front wheel hub.
The latest hybrid vehicle uses a combination of electrical and fuel (petrol or
diesel) power. This type of vehicle has a various number of electric motors.

A hybrid car works in the following way:

• First of all, the carburetor of the car engine sucks air from the
environment and makes a mixture of the fuel-air mixture.

• The air-fuel mixture is sent to the compression cylinder of the I.C.

engine.
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 • The compression cylinder contains a reciprocating piston.

• This piston compresses the air and fuel mixture. Due to high
compression, the air-fuel mixture ignites, and power generates.

• The power produced by the engine is sent to the generator to generate

electricity.

• The generated electricity is used to charge the car battery or to run the
motor.

• As the power transfers to the battery, the battery stores it. This stored
power is utilized to run the car when the engine is not working.

How does a Hybrid Vehicle charge battery?

It depends on the hybrid type. Most products, including plug-in and series
hybrids, use a gasoline engine to generate electricity and charge the battery.
Plug-in hybrids can also run-on mains electricity.

Parallel hybrids differ because they only charge the battery by absorbing
additional energy and converting it into electricity. The extra energy, typically
wasted when the car is idling or slowing down, is stored in the battery for later
use (e.g., regenerative braking).
This “regenerative” charging is used in petrol engines and other hybrid
vehicles.

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Types of Hybrid Cars
Automakers use various hybrid designs to achieve maximum fuel efficiency or
keep the price of the hybrid vehicle as low as possible. There are different types
of hybrid cars. The hybrid car has the following major types:
1. Parallel Hybrid
2. Series Hybrid
3. Plug-in Hybrid
4. 2-Mode Hybrid
5. Mild-Hybrid
1) Parallel Hybrid
Parallel hybrid includes in the most famous types of the hybrid electric car.
This design is very famous.
Parallel hybrids use both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor
to produce the power and run the car. In a Parallel hybrid car, both the electric
motor and I.C. engine are connected in parallel to the transmission or gearbox.

Fig: Parallel Hybrid Vehicle

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The parallel hybrid uses a microcontroller to control the energy transfer
process. This microcontroller determines whether the engine and motor operate
separately or together.
A battery pack uses to power the electric motor, and a fuel tank uses to supply
fuel to the engine. The electric motor also acts as the engine’s starting
mechanism. These motor shafts are connected directly to the clutch less
transmission.
Therefore, when the vehicle is driven solely by the engine, the shaft continues
to rotate. This allows the motor to act as a generator. The electricity generated
uses to charge the battery.
Examples of parallel hybrid vehicles are the Hyundai Sonata, the Toyota Prius,
the Honda Accord, Toyota Camry, etc.
Nowadays, almost all hybrid vehicles are parallel hybrids, not serial hybrid
cars. The powertrain of Toyota’s hybrid car is equipped with an Internal
combustion (I.C.) engine and two electric motors that can also use as a
generator. These electric motors charge the engine batteries. Otherwise, energy
will be wasted, for example, when breaking the car.
The energy stored in a relatively small battery is sufficient to power the
powertrain or drive a car for about a mile as needed. Therefore, Toyota hybrid
cars can only run-on electricity; these can also run-on I.C. engines or both.
However, the only source of power for cars is fuel.

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2) Series Hybrid
The process in which the one source power is converted into the power of
another one, and this power runs the car is known as a series hybrid. The
vehicle works on the “series hybrid,” is known as the series hybrid vehicle.

Fig: Series Hybrid Vehicle

The series hybrid car has a generator and engine in series. The generator uses
the electricity produced by the engine to generate electrical power. This power
is used to run the engine or charge the battery.
When the engine is not operating, the electricity stored in the batteries may
utilize to move the vehicle. These cars are similar to electric cars in that the
final drive is provided solely by the electric motor.
The speed of the motor can be changed simply by changing the power supply,
eliminating the need for a complicated transmission system.
This system increases the engine efficiency and permits the engine to drive at
the most efficient RPM regardless of vehicle speed.

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The power produced during these idle situations is saved in the battery for later
use. Series hybrid cars are more efficient but require a lot of energy conversion.
Each of these conversions loses power and reduces the overall efficiency of the
system. Another disadvantage of this series system is that it requires more parts
than parallel systems. This increases the overall mass of the car.
Series hybrid power transmission systems are very popular in ships and
locomotives. The nuclear submarine is an example of a series hybrid car. The
nuclear reactors produce heat, which drives steam turbines, which further drive
generators. The diesel locomotive is a hybrid vehicle.
Nowadays, this method is used because it is much easier to move a vehicle on
electrical power than to get raw power from a nuclear reactor or a large Diesel
engine. Besides, the trains run hundreds of tons of weight, and the provision of
clutch-less transmission is compulsory to run a train.

3) Plug-in Hybrid Car

The plug-in hybrid car allows traditional hybrid vehicles to have larger
batteries that need to be recharged. Typically, these hybrid cars use a 110V
socket to charge the battery, just like you would with an electric vehicle.
The plug-in hybrid cars rely on internal combustion engines and can run after
a full charge, significantly improving the car’s fuel efficiency. Volvo XC40
Recharge Plug-in Hybrid, Hyundai Ionis Plug-in Hybrid, and BMW 330e are
examples of the plug-in hybrid electric car.

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Fig: PHEV Vehicle

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4) 2-Mode Hybrid Cars
These types of hybrid design work in two distinct ways. In the first mode, it
works like a normal hybrid car. In the 2nd mode, you can adapt the design to
various engine requirements for a precise vehicle task.

Fig: 2-Mode Hybrid Cars

5) Mild-Hybrid Car
In recent years, the cost has become very high for manufacturing hybrid
vehicles having high efficiency. Vehicle companies are developing new plans
to bring hybrid technologies to an ordinary person.
Automotive companies have adopted a mild hybrid design to meet emissions
standards and slightly improve the efficiency of the fuel without significantly
increasing costs.
In the mild hybrid car, an electric motor helps the petrol or gasoline engine to
improve performance, improve fuel efficiency, or both. It is also used as a
starter for the automatic stop or start functions, which reduce fuel consumption

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by turning off the engine as the vehicle is stationary and reducing fuel use.
Baleno, Ciaz, and Maruti Suzuki Ertiga are examples of mild hybrid vehicles.

Fig: Mild-Hybrid Car

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Khatun P, Mellor P H, Bingham C M; “Application of Fuzzy Control
Algorithms for Electric Vehicle Antilock Braking/Traction Control Systems”.
In paper [1], author P Khatun has described the preliminary research and
implementation of an experimental test bench set up for an electric vehicle
Antilock Braking System (ABS)/Traction Control System. Here a low-cost test
bench is used to develop fuzzy control algorithms. In the test bench, a brushless
permanent magnet motor is used which is driven by a power inverter and is
controlled by a DSP controller. The PM motor is connected to a three-phase
induction motor which is used to simulate actual road load. Simulation studies
are employed to derive an initial rule base that is then tested on an experimental

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setup representing the dynamics of a braking system. Fuzzy logic membership
functions are described for parameters like slip and observed load torque. On
basis of the fuzzy rules set, the output torque demand function is derived. By
using these fuzzy rules, the slip ratio is limited to 0.1 for dry surfaces.
According to the fuzzy rules, the algorithm identifies unstable regions in the
graph of torque-slip and reduces the slip. Eventually the slip stabilizes around
0.25 and the control region extends up to 0.35 for a dry road surface. The
results indicate that ABS substantially improves performance and has potential
for optimal control of wheels under difficult driving conditions.
2. Dixon J, Cortazar M; “Regenerative Braking for an Electric Vehicle using
Ultracapacitors and Buck-Boost Converter”.
This paper [2] describes a method to recover energy during braking by using a
system of Buck-Boost converter and an Ultracapacitor bank. The buck-boost
converter is made using IGBTs and the entire system has been tested on a
Chevrolet electric truck. Using a control strategy, the [10] maximum current
going to the battery, minimum and maximum voltages of the Ultracapacitor
bank are set. The control strategy uses a reference table and has inputs like the
state of charge of the battery, vehicle speed, load current etc. A strategy is also
given which uses sensors to determine the wheel decelerations so that the
converter can be used optimally to recover maximum energy. Results are
shown using graphs of battery current, voltage and the capacitor bank voltage.
The graphs indicate the proper working of the buck-boost converter. This
designed system allows higher acceleration and proper decelerations with
minimal loss of energy and minimal degradation of the battery pack.
3. Xiang Y, Xin Z; “Study of control logic for Automobile Anti-lock Braking
System”.
In this paper [3], to find the ideal logic principle for antilock braking, Simulink
is used to create the state flow model for the ABS electronic control unit. The
state flow diagram for a four channel ABS system is also charted out. The
Page | 15
control logic uses logic threshold control method. It uses parameters like
reference slip ratio and angular speed threshold to calculate the optimum
braking pressure to be applied. The acceleration of the wheel is measured and
plotted. When the acceleration is negative, i.e., deceleration is taking place, the
logic keeps on monitoring the value till it is of lower value. When it increases,
the logic detects when the wheel is about to lock up. This unstable region is
detected and the braking pressure is now adjusted so that this unstable region
is not encountered again and the wheel is decelerated without the wheel being
locked up. A method of alternate boost pressure and decompress is employed
so that the vehicle can stay in the stable region for as long as possible and the
optimum braking pressure can be applied. [11]
4. Xu C, Sha L, Cheng K; “Simulation of Integrated Controller of the Anti-
Lock Braking System”.
In this paper [4], the simulation of a braking system is done by using an
integrated controller consisting of a PID controller and a finite state machine.
The parameters given to the system are wheel speed, vehicle speed, slip and
braking distance. According to these parameters, the braking pressure is
controlled. The drawback is that only a single wheel model is used to simulate
the braking conditions. The results are compared when the slip ratio is the
control parameter and when the integrated controller is used. The use of
integrated controller gives a much better control over the slip ratio and the
braking pressure can be stabilized to a stable value with much less time than
without the controller and the braking distance too reduces significantly.
5. Piroddi L, Tanelli M; “Real time identification of tire- road friction
conditions”.
This work [5] aims at the real-time estimation of the wheel slip value
corresponding to the peak of the tire–road friction curve, in order to provide
anti-lock braking systems (ABS) with reliable information on its value upon
activation. Different techniques based on recursive least squares and the

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maximum likelihood approach are used for friction curve fitting and their
merits and drawbacks thoroughly examined. Also, optical and pressure sensors
are used for measuring the brake pad pressure and working. Their output is
then filtered and made sure that there is phase coherence between all signals.
The algorithm selects the wheel which has the relatively fastest speed among
the four wheels, i.e., the wheel which has the lowest longitudinal slip. The
estimated vehicle speed is then found out according to the algorithm. Also, a
comparison is made between the value of coefficient of friction μ obtained
through estimation and its actual value.

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 CHAPTER 3
Regenerative Braking System
Working Methodology
3.1 Operation
In regenerative braking, when a car needs to be braked, the motor is rotated in
the reverse direction, or if the motor is an ac motor, it is then operated in the
third quadrant of operation. The effect is that the motor now acts as a generator
and provides energy back to the battery. In some cases, this energy may be
stored in some alternative storage systems temporarily, like capacitor bank,
flywheel, spring systems etc.

Fig: Operation of Regenerative Braking

Regenerative Braking is used in conjunction with friction brakes. In some

cases, at slow speeds, the regenerative braking alone may not be sufficient to
bring the vehicle to a complete halt. If the regenerative torque cannot be made
high enough to match the braking torque, then the friction brakes make up the
difference. Also, if the regenerative brakes fail, then the friction brakes act as
[23]

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a backup braking system. Regenerative braking can be used in both pure
electric as well as hybrid electric vehicles [17]. In hybrid vehicles, the gas
consumption is reduced because of it.
The regenerative braking along with friction brakes can be used in two ways.
First, the available braking power from regenerative braking can be calculated
and the rest can be supplied by the friction brakes. In such a case, a
microcontroller calculates such values in real time using the system
parameters. The parameters involved are battery state of charge, vehicle
velocity, motor capacity etc. Secondly, without using a controller, both
regenerative brakes and the friction brake

Fig: Regenerative Braking in a Hybrid Electric Vehicle

can be applied in tandem. Regenerative braking is applied to only those wheels

which are driven by the motor [16]. Hence, either only front axle or rear axle

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can have it. The other set of wheels can have frictional brake systems. Friction
brakes systems need not be conventional brakes, and systems like Anti-lock
Brake System can be used along with the regenerative brakes.
When a motor is used for regenerative braking, it is reversed in direction of
operation. The shaft rotates in the same direction. But as a motor it consumes
electricity to generate rotation of the wheels while as a generator, it uses the
kinetic energy of the rotating wheels to generate electricity to give back to the
battery.

3.2 Working Methodology

This project consists of two 12-volt permanent DC motor to drive the wheel.
During Regenerative action as battery have a good quality of quickly charges
and discharges while braking. When we will give the supply as this wheel are
rotate, on that time we will see the multi meter where we will see the voltage.
The voltage is zero that means there is no voltage drop on that time. In this
case the battery will go to zero volts. But when we will press the brake pedal
on that moment the wheel will stop and the voltage will go to the battery for
reserve and the bulb will glow.

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 Fig: Regenerative Braking System

3.3 FABRICATION
a) Wheel
Wheel gets in motion with the help of running motor. Both motor and wheel is
connected with the help of connecting universal coupling.

Fig: Wheel

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b) Electric Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The basic working principle of the DC motor is that
whenever a current carrying conductor places in the magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force.

Fig: Electric DC motor

c) Digital Multi Metter

A digital multi meter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values
principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a
standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries.

Fig: Digital Multi Metter

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d) Generator Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The basic working principle of the DC motor is that
whenever a current carrying conductor places in the magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force.
There are 4 major types of DC motor and they are,
• Series DC Motor.
• Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
• Shunt/Parallel DC Motor.
• Compound DC Motors.

Fig: Generator Motor

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e) Arduino Nano Microcontroller
Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects.
Arduino consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often
referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated
Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and
upload computer code to the physical board.It can simply use a USB cable.
Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor
that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible
package.

Fig: Arduino Nano Microcontroller

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Program:
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
int relay = 13;
char sms;
SoftwareSerial BT(2,3);
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
BT.begin(9600);
pinMode(relay,OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
sms = 'D';
if (BT.available())
{
sms=BT.read();
}
if(sms=='F')
{
Serial.print(" SMS=");
Serial.print(sms);
Serial.println();
digitalWrite(relay,HIGH);
}
if(sms=='S'){
Serial.print(" SMS=");
Serial.print(sms);
Serial.println();
digitalWrite(relay,LOW);
}
}
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f) HC-06 Bluetooth Module
The HC-06 is a very cool module which can add two-way (full-duplex)
wireless functionality to your projects. You can use this module to
communicate between two microcontrollers like Arduino or communicate
with any device with Bluetooth functionality like a Phone or Laptop. There
are many android applications that are already available which makes this
process a lot easier. The module communicates with the help of USART at
9600 baud rates hence it is easy to interface with any microcontroller that
supports USART. We can also configure the default values of the module by
using the command mode.

Fig: HC-06 Bluetooth Module

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g) Inverter
An inverter can be defined as it is a compact and rectangular shaped electrical
equipment used to convert direct current (DC) voltage to alternating current
(AC) voltage in common appliances. The basic role of an inverter is to
change DC power into AC power. The AC power can be supplied to homes,
and industries using the public utility otherwise power grid, the alternating-
power systems of the batteries can store only DC power. In addition, almost
all the household appliances, as well as other electrical equipment can be
functioned by depending on AC power.

Fig: Inverter

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 Chapter 4
CALCULATIONS

Fig: Multimeter

Page | 28
Relationship between power generation and braking time.

Braking Time Voltage Generate

3sec. 4.14 v

7 sec. 4.21 v

10 sec 4.25 v

12 sec. 4.31 v

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 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
FUTURE WORK
5 CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Conclusion
Regenerative braking systems require further research to develop a better
system that captures more energy and stops faster. As the time passes,
designers and engineers will perfect regenerative braking systems, so these
systems will become more and more common. All vehicles in motion can
benefit from these systems by recapturing energy that would have been lost.
The Regenerative circuit stores and returns the energy back to the battery
which would have been otherwise wasted. The buck-boost converter depends
on signals from the microcontroller and operates in real time so that the
energy can be stored at the exact moment of deceleration and can be returned
back during the few seconds of acceleration. The battery bank too charges
and discharges fast so that the energy flow can be fast and efficient without
much loss. This makes a battery last longer as well as allows an electric
vehicle to travel further on a single battery charge i.e., the mileage of the
electric vehicle increases substantially.

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5.2 Scope for Future Work
The extension of the project work carried out here will be to test the circuits on
a prototype vehicle. Slip can be more effectively measured when all the four
wheels are present and braking is applied on only one of the axles. This will
increase the accuracy of the braking pattern provided. Also, the capacitor bank
can be replaced by Ultracapacitors when the system works on a higher voltage
level. Ultracapacitors are costly but they can store 20 times the energy stored
in conventional capacitors and have much less energy loss. The ultracapacitors
when used in an actual electric vehicle which may be working around a
300Volt DC battery supply prove to be cost effective as well as capable of
providing a superior performance.

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