St.

Arnold’s School
Lalaram Nagar, Indore

Physics Investigatory Report

To find the refractive indices of, a) water, b)

coconut oil using a plane mirror, and an
equiconvex lens made of glass (of known
refractive index) and an adjustable object
needle.

Submitted by : Submitted to:

Sameer Bajaj Ravindra K Das
 Certificate

This is to certify that Sameer Bajaj of class 12, St. Arnold’s

school has successfully completed the project on topic “To find
the refractive indices of, a) water, b) coconut oil using a plane
mirror, and an equiconvex lens made of glass (of known
refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.” under the
guidance of Mr. Ravindra K Das sir in session 2023-2024.

Internal Examiner External

Examiner

Principal
 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank CBSE for providing me the opportunity

to carry out the investigatory project. I also take this
opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to my physics
teacher Mr. Sukhraj Singh sir for guiding me and improving a
sound base of knowledge pertaining to this project which
ensures the successful completion of this project. I wish to
express great thank to my principal Fr. Muthuselvam SVDwho
helped me to accomplish this project by providing me all
necessary facilities and support,
 Index

S.No. Topic Page No.

1. Introduction 05
2. Invention of the liquid Lens 06
3. Aim 07
Apparatus required
4. Theory 08
5. Procedure 09
6. Diagrams 10
7. Observation and calculations 11-13
8. Results 14
9. Precautions 14
10. Sources of error 14
11. Working principle and types of liquid lenses 15-16
12. Types of Liquid Lenses 17
13. Application 18-19
14. Merits and demerits of liquid lens 20-22
15. Comparative analysis between liquid lens and 23-24
conventional lens
16. Bibliography 25
 Introduction

For many optical activities, many lenses are necessary to do them at

a level that is acceptable. Consider the image created by each lens
as the subject for the next lens, and so on, as one possible method
for combining lenses. This is a good strategy, but it takes a lot of
time and effort. You can use a liquid lens experiment to determine a
lens’ optical constants as well as the refractive indices of various
liquids.

The liquid lens's principle is based on the ability of one or more

liquids to create magnification in a condensed region. The liquid’s
surface regulates the focus of a liquid lens. When water adheres to
surfaces like glass, it typically forms a bubble-like structure. Water
is a very appropriate option for the development of liquid lenses
because of its desirable feature. To examine a liquid’s qualities, it
must essentially be transparent.

A liquid is placed between two pieces of transparent plastic or glass

to create a liquid lens. Another fluid that can be utilized in the
liquid lens system is glycerin. The liquid lens system’s focal length
and the way the liquid lens concentrates light rays depend on the
surface profiles of the liquid. The object’s image will be generated
at the same focus as the object if the mirror is kept in front of the
lens and the object is placed above the lens’ focus. If the object is
enlarged, its image will be reversed and will be the same size as the
object. This characteristic has made it possible to efficiently employ
liquid lenses to determine a fluid’s refractive index. Knowing the
combined focal length and the convex lens’ focal length allows one
to calculate the liquid lens’ focal length, which makes it simple to
determine the fluid’s refractive index
 Invention Of the Liquid Lens

In the middle of the 1990s, a French scientist named Bruno Berge

created the liquid lens. In 1995, physicist-turned-entrepreneur Berge
unveiled this revolutionary optical gadget. His discovery was founded
on the idea that changing a liquid's structure may change its refractive
characteristics, much like how variously shaped glass lenses can refract
light.
Berge's grasp of fluid dynamics and the behaviour of liquids in optics
led to his discovery. He developed a technique to alter the shape and
curvature of a liquid lens, enabling adjustable focus and dynamic
imaging capabilities by utilising the principles of fluid manipulation.
The liquid lens is made up of a clear liquid enclosed in a curved, usually
airtight, container. The form of the liquid inside the lens can be
changed, which alters the focal length of the lens, by applying electrical
signals or fluid pressure. With no requirement for mechanical motion,
this adaptability enables quick and accurate focusing, offering a flexible
solution for many optical applications.
The liquid lens, created by Berge, revolutionised the world of optics and
has many advantages over conventional lenses. Liquid lenses are perfect
for situations where size and weight considerations are crucial since
they are small, light, and extremely adjustable. In products like digital
cameras, cell phones, and medical imaging equipment, they also offer
quicker autofocus capabilities, better image quality, and greater optical
performance.
At present, liquid lenses are still developing and finding use in many
other fields, such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR),
machine vision, and more. Bruno Berge's work and the creation of the
liquid lens paved the path for optics developments and helped to create
more compact, effective, and high-performance optical systems.

Bruno Berge
 Aim
To determine: -
1. Optical constants of a convex lens and
2. Refractive index of a liquid lens.

Apparatus required

1. The convex lens

2. Plane mirror
3. The liquid
4. Glycerine
5. Retort stand
6. An optical needle
7. Plumb line
8. Knitting needle
9. Half meter scales
10. Glass slab
11. Spherometer
 Theory

Let “f” be the focal length and “R1”and “R2”be the radii of curvature of a convex
lens. Then,

1 = (n-1) 1 + 1
f R1 R2
Hence the refractive index “n” of the material of the lens is,

n = 1 + (R1R2)
f (R1+R2)

When the lens is placed over some drops of the given liquid on a combination of
the convex and the plane mirror, a plane-concave liquidlens is obtained.

If f is the focal length of the combination of theconvex lens and the plane-concave
liquid lens, the focal length of the liquid lens is given by,

F1 = Ff
(f – F)

If the first face of convex lens is in contact with the liquid surface, the radius
of curvature of the upper surface of the liquid lens is R1. For the liquid lens,
R1 = R1 and R2 =∞.

Hence,
n1 = 1 + R1
f1
 Procedure

 To find the focal length of a convex lens

The convex lens is placed over a plane mirror which is kept
horizontally. A bright pointer O is arranged horizontally on the
clamp of a retort stand, vertically above the lens. Looking from
above, the pointer is moved up or down until the pointer and its
inverted image coincide without parallax. The distance X 1 and X2
of the pointer from the top of the lens are measured. The average
distance [X1 + X2]/2 give the focal length “f” of the convex lens.
The experiment is repeated and the mean focal length is
calculated.

 To find the focal length of the liquid lens

The lens is then removed, a few drops of the given liquid placed
on the plane mirror. The lens is placed in contact with the liquid.
The liquid lens forms a plane-concave lens. The pointer is
arranged horizontally above the lens. Looking from above, the
pointer is moved up or down until the pointer and its inverted
image coincide with parallax. The distances X1 and X2 are
measured as before. The average distance [X1 + X2]/2 give the
focal length f1 of the combination of the convex lens and liquid
lens. The focal length f1 is calculated from the equation,

f1 = Ff
(f – F)

 Repeat the experiment by keeping the second surface on water

and determine f2.
Also find R1 and R2 by using formula,

1 = (n-1) 1 + 1
f R1 R2

 Find the focal length f for glycerine

Few drops of glycerine are added on a mirror. Lens is placed upon
it such that it formed a plane-concave lens. The pointer is arranged
horizontally to get a coinciding object and image without parallax.
Distances X1 and X2are noted as before. Focal length is calculated
by using formula,
f = [X1 + X2]
2
 Diagrams

Fig: -liquid lens apparatus

Fig: - To find radius of curvature of lens

 Observations and Calculations

(i) To find focal length of lens

S.no Distance of pointer from Focal length

(cm)
Top of lens Top of mirror
(cm) (cm)
1 10.1 11.1 10.6

2 10.2 11.2 10.7

3 9.9 10.9 10.4
4 10 11 10.5
5 10.3 11.3 10.8

Mean: - 10.6cm

(ii) To find the focal length of the combination

1st surface

S.no Distance of pointer from Focal length

Top of lens Top of mirror (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1 15 16 15.5
2 15.2 16.2 15.7

3 14.8 15.8 15.3

4 15.3 16.3 15.8

5 15.4 16.4 15.9

Mean of focal length of combination: 15.64 cm

Focal length of combination,
Surface 2

S.no. Distance of pointer from Focal length

(cm)
Top of lens Top of mirror
(cm) (cm)
1 15.5 16.5 16.0

2 15.1 16.1 15.6

3 15.3 16.3 15.8

4 15.0 16.0 15.5

5 15.6 16.6 16.1

Mean focal length: - 15.8cm

F1 = 15.64 cm
F2 = 15.80 cm
We know that, 1= (n-1) 1 + 1
f R1 R2
Because R2 = ∞
Then, 1 = (n-1)
f R1
Therefore,
R1 = f (n-1)

For surface 1,
R1 = f1 (n-1)
R1 = 15.64(1.33-1) (because, n=1.33)
R1 = 5.161

Similarly,
R2 = (n-1) f2
f2 = 15.8
therefore,
R2= 5.214 cm
Also,
f1 = Ff 15.8 cm
(f-F)
 (iii) focal length of liquid lens using glycerine

S.no Distance of pointer from Focal length

(cm)

Top of lens Top of mirror

(cm) (cm)
1 19.6 20.6 20.1

2 19.5 20.5 20.0

3 19.0 20.0 19.5

4 19.2 20.2 19.7

5 19.4 20.4 19.9

Mean focal length of glycerine lens = 19.84 cm

Calculations

n=1+ (R1R2)
f (R1+R2)
= 1 + 2.663
= 3.663

1. For Glycerine 2. For water

n1 = 1 + R1n2 = `1 + R2
f1 f2
= 1 + 5.161 = 1 + 5.161
19.84 15.64
= 1 + 0.46 = 1 + 0.33
= 1.46 = 1.33
Results
1. Focal length of convex lens = 10.6cm
2. Radius of curvature of 1st surface = 1
3. Radius of curvature of 2nd surface = 5.214
4. Refractive index of material of lens = 3.663
5. Refractive index of liquid = 1.33(water), 1.46(glycerine)

Precautions
1. The plane mirror should be clean and must have fully shining
surface.
2. The liquid take should be transparent.
3. The parallax error should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of error
1. Liquid may now be transparent.
2. The parallax error may not be fully removed.
Measurements may not be correct.
 Working Principle

The idea behind a liquid lens' operation is to change the focal length
and create variable focusing by changing the shape of a liquid droplet.
The properties of two immiscible fluids with different refractive indices,
commonly water and oil, are used in liquid lenses.
A transparent container containing a conducting liquid, frequently an
electrolyte, is at the centre of a liquid lens. A hydrophobic substance
makes up this container, resulting in a curved surface that traps the
liquid droplet. A little amount of the immiscible fluid, such as oil, is
poured on top of the electrolyte to create the droplet.
Electro-wetting happens when an electric current is applied to the conductive
liquid. An electric field can change the interfacial tension between two immiscible
fluids, a phenomenon known as electro-wetting. The droplet's shape and
curvature change in response to variations in voltage, which alters the focal
length of the lens.
Higher voltages cause the conductive liquid to spread out over the hydrophobic
surface, flattening the droplet and lessening the lens' curvature. As a result, the
focal length is reduced, enabling the lens to focus on subjects that are nearer to
the camera. In contrast, a lower voltage makes the droplet more spherical,
resulting in an increase in curvature and focal length for focusing on distant
objects.
Since liquid lenses can focus quickly and precisely, they are advantageous for a
variety of applications, including mobile devices, machine vision, medical imaging,
and scientific research. Furthering their desirability in these domains are their
small size, low power consumption, and resistance to shock and vibration.
In the world of mobile photography, where there is an increasing need for high-
quality, adaptable camera systems, liquid lenses have found extensive use.
Smartphone and other portable device manufacturers can give consumers the
ability to take sharp, focused pictures even in poor lighting situations or whether
photographing up-close or far-off subjects by adding liquid lenses into their
products.
In addition to mobile photography, machine vision systems frequently use liquid
lenses. These systems use cameras and image methods to automate robotics,
quality control, and production procedures. The accuracy and productivity of such
systems are increased because to the liquid lenses' variable focusing capabilities,
which enable effective examination and analysis of objects at various distances.
Additionally, liquid lenses are essential in endoscopy and microscopy, two medical
imaging applications. Healthcare experts can easily analyse a variety of
anatomical structures or cellular samples thanks to their quick focal length
adjustments.
 Types of liquid lenses
1. Electro-wetting liquid lens: -The electrowetting liquid lens is a
cutting-edge optical innovation that alters its focus length using
electric fields. The precise and quick focusing capabilities of this
lens are achieved by controlling a liquid droplet. It is excellent for
microscopy, barcode scanning, imaging systems, and adaptive
optics since it is small, strong, and energy-efficient. The
electrowetting liquid lens provides adaptable and effective
focusing across a range of sectors.

2. Acoustic liquid lens: -For dynamic focusing, acoustic liquid

lenses use sound waves to change the form of a liquid lens. They
offer quick and precise adjustments and have uses in optical
communications, medical imaging, and microscopy. These lenses
are trustworthy, robust, simple to include into optical systems.
3. Pressure –actuated liquid lens: -Pressure changes are used to
alter the form and focal length of liquid lenses via pressure
actuators. They work well for machine vision and microscopy
because they are swift and accurate. These tiny, adaptable lenses
are simple to integrate into many systems. All things considered;
pressure-actuated liquid lenses provide effective dynamic focusing
in optical applications.

4. Thermal liquid lens: -Thermal expansion is used to alter the focal

length of a thermal liquid lens. When the liquid is heated or
cooled, the lens expands or contracts, changing its thickness and
focal length. These lenses have quick adjustments, a small size,
and are used in machine vision, microscopy, and barcode
scanning.

5. Variable Focus liquid Lens: -A variable focus liquid lens may

dynamically modify its focal length. Focus can be changed by
changing the shape of the lens using external controls such as
electrical or mechanical forces. These lenses provide quick and
precise adjustments without the need of mechanical parts.
Microscopy, imaging systems, and virtual/augmented reality all
make use of them. Controlling them involves techniques such as
electrowetting.
 Applications

Liquid lenses have been gaining popularity in recent years due to their unique
properties and versatility. These lenses utilize a thin layer of fluid that can be
controlled electronically, allowing for rapid and precise adjustments to their shape
and focal length. As a result, liquid lenses are finding a wide range of applications
in various fields, including:
1. Smart phones and Cameras: Liquid lenses are increasingly
being used in Smartphone cameras and other imaging
systems. The ability to adjust the focal length of the lens
rapidly and precisely makes them ideal for autofocus
applications, allowing cameras to quickly and accurately
focus on subjects. Additionally, liquid lenses can be used to
create optical zoom without the need for bulky mechanical
zoom systems.
2. Medical Devices: Liquid lenses have a variety of
applications in the medical industry. For example, they can
be used in endoscopes, allowing doctors to focus on
specific areas of the body during diagnostic and surgical
procedures. Additionally, liquid lenses can be used in
eyeglasses and contact lenses, allowing for rapid and
precise adjustments to the wearer's prescription.
3. Virtual and Augmented Reality: Liquid lenses are
also being used in virtual and augmented reality
applications. They can be used to adjust the focus of
displays, improving image quality and reducing eye
strain for users. Additionally, liquid lenses can be
used to create more compact and lightweight head-
mounted displays, making them more comfortable to
wear for extended periods.

4. Industrial Automation: Liquid lenses are finding use

in industrial automation applications, such as machine
vision systems. They can be used to adjust the focus of
cameras and sensors, improving the accuracy of
measurements and inspections. Additionally, liquid
lenses can be used in barcode scanners, allowing for
rapid and precise focusing on a wide range of codes and labels.
5. Scientific and Research Instruments: Liquid
lenses have also found applications in scientific
and research instruments. They can be used in
microscopes, allowing researchers to rapidly
adjust the focal length for high-resolution imaging
of samples. Additionally, liquid lenses can be used
in spectrometers and other analytical instruments,
allowing for rapid and precise adjustments to
focus on specific wavelengths or regions of
interest.
6. Defense and Security: Liquid lenses are finding use in defense and security
applications as well. They can be used in surveillance systems, allowing for rapid
and precise adjustments to focus on specific targets or regions. Additionally, liquid
lenses can be used in optical systems for weapons, allowing for quick adjustments
to focus on targets at different distances.
Merits and demerits of liquid lenses

Merits of Liquid Lenses

1. Adjustable Focal Length: -The ability of liquid lenses to

adjust focal length dynamically is one of its primary advantages.
The refractive power of the lens can be modified by adjusting the
curvature of the liquid contact, allowing for rapid and precise
changes in focus. Because of this versatility, liquid lenses are well
suited for applications requiring changeable focal length, such as
autofocus systems in cameras or optical devices requiring variable
magnification
2. Compactness and Lightweight: -In comparison to standard
lens systems, liquid lenses are inherently compact and lightweight.
They reduce the overall size and weight of optical systems by
eliminating the need for complex mechanical components like as
zoom or focus mechanisms. Because of their small size, liquid
lenses are perfect for portable devices such as smartphones,
drones, and medical imaging instruments when space and weight
are limited.
3. Faster Response Time: -Liquid lenses have extremely fast
response times, enabling for quick focusing or zooming. The
electro-wetting or shape-changing mechanisms used in liquid
lenses allow for rapid changes in lens curvature, resulting in near-
instantaneous focal length alterations. This function is especially
useful in applications requiring rapid focusing, such as high-speed
imaging or real-time optical inspections.
4. Power Efficiency: -When compared to motorised lens systems
used for focusing or zooming, liquid lenses often require less
power. Liquid lenses' actuation mechanisms require less power to
adjust the curvature of the lens, making them energy-efficient.
This benefit is especially important in battery-powered devices
such as cell phones and portable cameras, where power
consumption must be optimised for longer operation.
5. Durability and Reliability: - Liquid lenses are built to be
tough and long-lasting. They are resistant to mechanical stress,
temperature changes, and climatic conditions. Because there are
no moving parts, as in typical lens systems, there is less chance of
mechanical failure or wear and tear, providing long-term
durability and performance stability.
6. Design Flexibility: -Liquid lenses provide new and small
optical system designs by providing design flexibility. Because of
their compact form factor and changeable focal length, they allow
for imaginative optical configurations, which can lead to novel
products and better user experiences. Liquid lenses also enable
miniaturisation in areas where space is constrained.

7.Cost Effectiveness: -Liquid lenses are getting more cost-

effective as production techniques and materials improve. Cost
savings are aided by mass production capabilities and the ability to
integrate with other components. As demand for liquid lenses
grows, economies of scale are likely to drive down production
costs further, making them more accessible for a variety of
applications.
 Demerits of Liquid Lenses
1. Restricted Aperture size: -Because of the physical design limits
of the liquid interface, liquid lenses frequently have a limited
aperture size. This can result in limited light-gathering capabilities
and poor performance in low-light environments. Liquid lenses
may have difficulties in applications where a high aperture is
required for light sensitivity or depth of field control.
2. Sensitivity To Environmental Factors: -Environmental elements
such as temperature, humidity, and pressure can all affect liquid
lenses. Environmental changes might impact the refractive index
or mechanical properties of the liquid, resulting in variations in
lens performance. Temperature changes, for example, might cause
the liquid to expand or contract, changing the focal length of the
lens. To compensate for these environmental sensitivity, special
procedures may be required.
3. Complexity in Control andIntegration: - Control techniques for
managing liquid lenses can be complicated. Liquid lens systems
may necessitate complex control circuits or algorithms to correctly
and fast modify the lens curvature. Integrating liquid lenses into
existing optical systems may also provide difficulties, as precise
alignment and synchronisation with other components is required.
4. Limited compatibility with Harsh Environment: - Liquid lenses
may not be suited for use in extreme temperatures, high pressures,
or corrosive situations. The materials used in liquid lenses,
particularly the liquid medium and substrate, may not be able to
survive such severe temperatures, limiting their application in
certain industries or situations.
5. Limited Depth in the field: -Liquid lenses have limits when it
comes to achieving a high depth of field, especially in situations
requiring a wide focus range. Because of the shape-changing
mechanism utilised in liquid lenses, the range of feasible focus
distances is limited. This constraint may have an impact on
applications that need precise depth of field control, such as macro
photography or microscopy.
6. Limited Market Availability and Compatibility: - In comparison
to traditional lenses, the market availability and compatibility of liquid
lenses may be more limited. Integration issues and the requirement for
specialized control systems may limit their widespread deployment across
several devices or platforms. Furthermore, existing systems or devices may
not be easily convertible to liquid lens technology, necessitating significant
modifications or redesign.
7. Potential of Contamination or Leakage: - Because liquid lenses include a
liquid media, there is a possibility of contamination or leaking. Impurities or
contaminants in the liquid can compromise optical performance, resulting in
poor image quality. Furthermore, liquid leaking might harm the lens or other
sensitive components of the optical system. It is critical to ensure proper
sealing and maintenance in order to mitigate these dangers.
 Comparative analysis Between
Liquid lens and Conventional lens

Liquid Lens Conventional Lens

 Working Principle: -A liquid lens uses  Working principle: -Conventional
liquids for variable focal lengths and focus lenses manipulate light through
control. It consists of a transparent refraction. They have curved surfaces
container with a liquid, enclosed by made of transparent materials like
flexible membranes. Applying voltage or glass or plastic. Convex lenses
current changes the liquid's shape, altering converge light, while concave lenses
the focal length. This enables rapid focus diverge it. Shape and curvature
changes, similar to the eye's ability to adjustments control the focal length
adapt. Liquid lenses excel in applications and optical power. Lens elements can
requiring fast autofocus and precise correct aberrations and improve
focusing. image quality. Conventional lenses
are used in photography, microscopy,
telescopes, and other optical systems.
 Optical performance: -The optical  Optical performance: -The optical
performance of a liquid lens is vital for performance of a conventional lens is vital
high-quality images. Key factors include for image quality. Key factors include
resolution, sharpness, chromatic aberration, resolution, sharpness, chromatic aberration,
and depth of field. Liquid lenses provide and distortion. High-quality materials,
clear, high-resolution images with minimal advanced designs, and precise
aberrations, making them ideal for manufacturing optimize performance.
applications like microscopy and machine Conventional lenses deliver clear, sharp
vision. images with accurate color reproduction,
finding applications in photography and
various optical systems.
 Optical Aberrations: - Optical aberrations  Optical Aberrations: -Optical aberrations in
impact image quality. Spherical aberration conventional lenses affect image quality.
causes blurring, coma leads to Spherical and chromatic aberrations cause
asymmetrical blurring, astigmatism distorts blurring and color fringing, respectively.
shapes, and chromatic aberration results in Coma, astigmatism, and distortion also
color fringing. Liquid lenses minimize impact image clarity. Lens designers
these aberrations for clearer, more accurate minimize these aberrations through
images. advanced techniques and coatings for
improved performance.
 Liquid Lens Conventional Lens
 Integration in optical systems: -In  Integration in optical systems: -In
different ways, liquid lenses can be numerous methods, solid lenses are
integrated into optical systems. integrated into optical systems.
They can be employed as stand- They can be employed as fixed
alone components for variable components, arrayed for enhanced
focusing, grouped in arrays for functionality, stacked together for
sophisticated optical functions, specific optical qualities, integrated
incorporated into modular lens into zoom systems, or as part of
modules, or used in zoom lens modular lens modules. Additional
systems. Control methods for exact components may be required for
adjustments are frequently included stability and accurate alignment
in integration. during integration. The specific
integration method chosen is
determined by the application's
needs and desired performance.
 Impact on Environment: -The  Impact on Environment: - Solid lenses
extensive usage of liquid lenses has have a huge environmental impact. Their
serious environmental manufacture results in resource depletion
consequences. From resource and carbon emissions. Non-biodegradable
depletion and carbon emissions items wind up in landfills, potentially
during manufacturing to disposal damaging soil and water supplies, posing
issues, these lenses raise another concern. To solve this, promoting
environmental concerns. Adopting lens recycling and sustainable
sustainable production practises, manufacturing methods is critical for
supporting responsible disposal, and mitigating their negative consequences
investigating alternative materials and developing a more environmentally
can help optical technology reduce friendly future in optical technology.
its environmental footprint and pave
the path for a greener future.
 Bibliography

1. Physics net book

2. www.exprimentalphysics.com
3. www.edmund.com
4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.scribd.com
6. Practical physics