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Definition of sociology
Sociology primarily focuses on social relationships and the study of human behavior in groups.
It is concerned with understanding the patterns, regularities, and order in social behavior and
expressing these findings as theoretical propositions or generalizations. Sociology utilizes scientific
methods, which involve formulating research problems, hypotheses, and conducting public,
systematic, and replicable research.
Sociology examines the formation and transformation of groups, as well as the relationships
between groups and their individual members. It recognizes that within groups, there are
tendencies for participation, cohesion, and conflict. Additionally, sociology explores how human
groups operate through established institutions and institutionalized patterns of behavior. These
patterns are adapted to fulfill specific functions assigned to each institution within society.sociology
is a scientific study that focuses on social relationships, human behavior in groups, the formation
and transformation of groups, and the role of institutions in society.
Definition of Education
Durkheim argued that education is a social process shaped by society and specific social
milieus. It plays a crucial role in maintaining social homogeneity while also accommodating
necessary diversity for cooperation. Education organizes the individual self and the social self into a
disciplined and meaningful unity by internalizing values and discipline.
Swift defined education as the process by which individuals acquire the physical, moral, and social
capacities demanded by their social group. It encompasses all aspects of teaching and learning in
society, intended or unintended, to make individuals functional members of that society. Education
goes beyond socialization, which is a narrower concept.
The role of sociology in education is to adopt a sociological standpoint and appreciate the influence
of education on individuals. Sociologists view education not only as a means to achieve abstract
cultural ideals but also as a way to shape and influence individuals in society. Understanding the
societal context and social positions for which pupils are being educated is essential.
Education is often seen as an optimistic endeavor aimed at progress, equality, and personal
development. It is perceived as a means to overcome disadvantages, achieve social equality, and
fulfill individual potential. However, there are criticisms that education can perpetuate social
inequality and serve as a tool for social reproduction.
To create a better society, the educational system should be analyzed in relation to societal
strengths, weaknesses, needs, demands, and aspirations. It should align with the society's
philosophy and be responsive to its cultural, industrial, political, religious, and family contexts.
Education should not only meet current needs but also cater to future aspirations of individuals and
society as a whole.
Definition of education according to swift
Jonathan Swift, an Irish satirist and author, is best known for his works such as "Gulliver's Travels"
and A Modest Proposal.
Swift's views on education can be understood through his satirical portrayal of the fictional
Academy of Lagado in "Gulliver's Travels." In this section of the book, Swift presents a society
where the pursuit of knowledge and education has become detached from practicality and real-
world application. The academy's scholars are depicted as absorbed in absurd experiments and
intellectual pursuits that have little relevance to the needs of society.
Through this satire, Swift criticizes educational institutions that focus solely on theoretical and
abstract knowledge, disconnected from practical skills and the real needs of individuals and
society. He suggests that education should have a practical purpose and be grounded in the
realities of life.
While Swift's writings do not offer a concise definition of education, they convey his belief that
education should be meaningful, relevant, and focused on practical application rather than mere
intellectual pursuits. His satirical commentary serves as a critique of educational systems that
prioritize abstract knowledge over real-world skills and the practical needs of individuals and
society.
It's important to note that Swift's views on education are just one aspect of his satirical works, and
his writings should be interpreted within the context of his satirical style and the broader themes he
addresses.
Definition of sociology of education
The sociology of education is a scientific study of the social processes and patterns within
educational institutions. It examines the relationship between education and society, focusing on
educational aims, methods, institutions, administration, and curricula in relation to economic,
political, religious, social, and cultural forces. According to Ottaway (1962), it is a social study and a
branch of social science when its methods are scientific. The sociological study of education
emphasizes the sociological aspects of educational phenomena and institutions. It highlights the
influence of social life and social relationships on the development of personality.
Brookover and Gottlieb suggest that the sociology of education assumes education is a combination
of social acts and that sociology is an analysis of human interaction. It encompasses both formal
and informal educational situations and aims to develop scientific generalizations about human
relations within the educational system.
The sociology of education is concerned with how public institutions and individual experiences
influence education and its outcomes. It is particularly focused on the public schooling systems of
modern industrial societies, including the growth of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.
It is a philosophical as well as a sociological concept, examining the ideologies, curricula, and
pedagogical techniques involved in the inculcation and management of knowledge, as well as the
social reproduction of personalities and cultures. Additionally, it addresses the relationships,
activities, and reactions of teachers and students in the classroom, highlighting sociological
problems within the realm of education.
Definition of society
Society refers to a group of individuals who share a common geographic location or have a sense of
belonging and interact with one another.
Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships, and the behavior of individuals and
groups in society. It examines the patterns, structures, and dynamics of social life, aiming to
understand how society influences individuals and vice versa. Sociologists analyze social
phenomena, such as social inequality, social institutions, social change, culture, and social
interaction, using various research methods and theoretical perspectives.
In summary, society refers to a group of individuals interacting within a shared social context, while
sociology is the scientific study of society, focusing on understanding social structures, processes,
and their impact on individuals and groups.
Definition of society according to Emile Durkheim
Durkheim argued that society is characterized by social facts, which are external to individuals and
have coercive power over them. These social facts include social norms, values, beliefs, institutions,
and collective representations that exist independently of individual consciousness. They exert a
strong influence on individuals' thoughts, actions, and behaviors, shaping social order and
cohesion.
Durkheim viewed society as a moral entity, with shared moral beliefs and values that guide
individual behavior. He emphasized the importance of social integration and solidarity in maintaining
social order and preventing anomie (a state of normlessness or social disintegration).
For Durkheim, society represents a collective consciousness that emerges from social interactions,
and it is this collective consciousness that gives rise to social norms, moral codes, and social
cohesion. Society, in Durkheim's view, is more than the sum of its individual members; it is a distinct
entity with its own characteristics and dynamics.
Historical Roots and Theoretical Perspectives:
Sociological studies, including the works of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, have highlighted the
relationship between education and social stratification. Durkheim emphasized moral education as a
basis for organic solidarity, while Weber examined the role of education, particularly in Chinese
society, as a tool for political control.
After World War II, there was a resurgence of interest in the sociology of education. In the United
States, technological functionalism emerged, emphasizing the need for a skilled labor force in
industrialized societies. In Europe, there was a focus on egalitarian reform and providing equal
opportunities through education. Human-capital theory in economics also contributed to the idea
that education promotes social mobility by developing individuals' skills and knowledge.
However, research in various societies has shown persistent links between an individual's social
class and educational achievement, as well as the reflection of class, racial, and sexual stratification
in schooling patterns. This challenges the notion that education alone can overcome social
inequalities.
In the late 1960s, functionalism faced criticism and neo-Marxist perspectives emerged. Neo-
Marxists argued that education served to produce a compliant workforce necessary for late-
capitalist class relations, rather than challenging social inequalities.
sociological studies have revealed the complex relationship between education and social
stratification. While there have been different perspectives, including technological functionalism,
egalitarian reform, and neo-Marxism, the understanding of education's role in promoting social
mobility and challenging social inequalities remains a contested topic.
Theories of sociology of education
Political Arithmetic
The Political Arithmetic tradition, initiated by Hogben (1938), focuses on politically critical
quantitative research that examines social inequalities resulting from social stratification. Key works
in this tradition have explored the relationship between school structures and social class
disparities in Britain. More recent research within this tradition has expanded its scope to
encompass gender, ethnic differentials, and international variations. While scholars in this tradition
have engaged with sociological theories like Rational Choice Theory and Cultural Reproduction
Theory, they tend to maintain a skeptical stance towards "grand theory" and prioritize empirical
evidence and social policy implications. In the 1970s, the Political Arithmetic tradition faced
criticism from the "New Sociology of Education," which rejected quantitative research methods,
leading to a methodological division within the sociology of education. Nonetheless, the Political
Arithmetic tradition, rooted in quantitative methods, has increasingly embraced mixed methods
approaches.
Structural functionalism
Structural functionalists argue that society tends towards social equilibrium and order, viewing it as
analogous to a human body. They perceive educational institutions as crucial organs that contribute
to the overall health and functioning of society. According to this perspective, the role of education
is to instill a shared consensus among new members (children) of society. Drawing from Durkheim's
ideas, educational institutions regulate behavior and impart general moral values through both the
formal curriculum and the hidden curriculum. Additionally, educational institutions sort learners
based on their abilities, preparing them for future occupational roles. High-achieving individuals are
trained for higher-status jobs, while low achievers are directed towards less prestigious positions.
The aim is to regulate the behavior of individuals according to their social status and ensure they
accept their designated roles within society. Consequently, structural functionalism tends to oppose
social mobility.
Socialization
Structural functionalists assert that social health, synonymous with social order, is attained when
the majority of individuals embrace the general moral values of their society. Therefore, they argue
that key institutions, including education, have the objective of socializing children and adolescents.
Socialization refers to the process through which the new generation acquires the knowledge,
attitudes, and values necessary for them to become productive members of society. While this
objective may be explicitly stated in the formal curriculum, it is primarily accomplished through the
hidden curriculum—a more subtle yet influential form of indoctrination that instills the norms and
values of the broader society. Students internalize and accept these values as their behavior is
regulated within the school environment. This process of socialization is crucial for maintaining
social order and is a core focus of structural functionalist theory.
Filling roles in society
In addition to socialization, education is also seen by structural functionalists as serving another
function: the sorting and ranking of individuals for placement in the labor market. The purpose is to
fill job vacancies with individuals who possess the appropriate qualifications. Those who achieve
high academic performance are trained for the most important and highly rewarded positions, while
those with lower achievement are directed towards less demanding jobs with lower incomes.
However, scholars like Sennet and Cobb argue that the belief that ability alone determines rewards
is deceptive. Meighan further emphasizes that many capable students from working-class
backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and consequently miss out on the
status they deserve. Jacob suggests that this may be due to a mismatch between the cultural
experiences provided in school, which are often tailored towards middle-class norms, and the
experiences working-class children receive at home. As a result, working-class children may not be
adequately prepared to succeed in school, leading to their marginalization and limited
opportunities. This perpetuates a cycle where they obtain the least desirable jobs and remain in the
working class.
Sargent supports this perspective, asserting that schooling reinforces continuity, which in turn
upholds social order. Talcott Parsons argued that the identification and labeling of certain students
as educational failures was a necessary function performed by the education system for the benefit
of society as a whole. Despite these critiques, the structural functionalist perspective maintains that
social order and continuity are desired outcomes by the majority of people.
Education and social reproduction
Contrary to the structural functionalist perspective, conflict theory posits that society is
characterized by conflicting social groups with differing aspirations, varying access to
opportunities, and unequal distribution of social rewards. Relationships within society are viewed
through the lenses of exploitation, oppression, domination, and subordination. Teachers often
assume that students come from middle-class backgrounds, but this assumption may not hold true
for all children. Some students are burdened with domestic responsibilities and are expected to
assist their parents after school, which can impede their ability to complete homework and
negatively impact their academic performance.
While a few teachers have adapted the curriculum to incorporate students' preferred learning
methods and observed previously unrecognized strengths in certain individuals, most teachers
adhere to the traditional curriculum. The curriculum, determined by the state and those in power,
conveys a specific notion of knowledge that may be perceived as irrelevant or meaningless by many
students. Wilson and Wyn note that students realize the limited or nonexistent connection between
the subjects they study and their future prospects in the labor market. The anti-school values
exhibited by these students often stem from an awareness of their own interests and the lack of
alignment with the school's middle-class values. Sargent argues that for working-class students,
striving for success and adopting middle-class values is essentially accepting their inferior social
position, akin to accepting failure.
Fitzgerald contends that regardless of their academic abilities or desire to learn, students from
disadvantaged backgrounds have relatively limited chances of achieving success. In contrast,
maintaining their privileged position in society requires minimal effort for middle and upper-class
children. The government's subsidization of independent private schools allows the affluent to
acquire a "good education" by paying for it, resulting in better performance, higher achievements,
and greater rewards for rich children. This perpetuates the continuation of privilege and wealth for
the elite.
Conflict theorists assert that social reproduction persists because the entire education system is
imbued with the ideology propagated by the dominant group. This perpetuates the myth that
education is accessible to all as a means of attaining wealth and status. According to this myth,
those who fail to achieve these goals are solely responsible for their own shortcomings. Wright
agrees, stating that the myth prevents individuals from recognizing that their personal troubles are
rooted in broader social issues. Many parents endure menial jobs for years, believing that their
sacrifices will provide their children with opportunities they themselves did not have. These
impoverished and disadvantaged individuals become victims of a societal deception, led to believe
that schooling aims to promote equality while, in reality, schools uphold the existing unequal
distribution of status and power.
it is important to acknowledge that this perspective has been criticized for its determinism and
pessimism. It should be recognized as a theoretical model that captures a significant aspect of
reality but is not the complete picture.
Bourdieu and cultural capital:
Pierre Bourdieu, a prominent social theorist, has significantly contributed to the theory of social
reproduction. His theoretical framework revolves around the concepts of habitus, field, and cultural
capital, which address the interplay between structure and agency. Bourdieu argues that objective
structures shape individuals' opportunities through the mechanism of habitus, where individuals
internalize these structures. However, habitus is also influenced by factors such as an individual's
position in various fields, their family background, and their everyday experiences. Thus, one's class
position does not solely determine their life chances but interacts with other factors.
Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital to explore the disparities in outcomes for
students from different social classes within the French educational system. He examined the
tension between the conservative reproduction of knowledge and the innovative production of
knowledge and experience. Bourdieu found that this tension is heightened by the selective
preservation and reproduction of specific cultural traditions and practices in schools. According to
Bourdieu, the culture and cultural capital of dominant groups are embodied in schools, leading to
social reproduction.
The cultural capital of the dominant group, expressed through practices and cultural relations, is
assumed by the school to be the natural and superior form of cultural capital, thus legitimizing it.
The school demands that all students possess this legitimate cultural capital, despite not providing
it. This legitimate cultural capital enables students who possess it to acquire educational capital in
the form of qualifications. However, lower-class students are disadvantaged as they must exchange
their own typically working-class cultural capital to gain qualifications. This exchange is not
straightforward due to the class ethos of lower-class students, which refers to their dispositions
and subjective expectations towards school and culture, influenced by their objective chances in
society. Lower-class students not only face challenges in learning a new way of being and relating
to the world, particularly in terms of language, but they must also act against their instincts and
expectations.
The subjective expectations shaped by the objective structures found in schools perpetuate social
reproduction by discouraging less-privileged students from persisting in the system, resulting in
fewer of them advancing through the educational levels. While the process of social reproduction is
not perfect or complete, only a small number of less-privileged students achieve success. For those
who do succeed, they often have had to internalize the values of the dominant classes,
relinquishing their original habitus and cultural values.
Bourdieu's perspective highlights the significant role of objective structures in determining
individual success in school. However, it also acknowledges the exercise of individual agency to
overcome these obstacles, albeit with potential consequences.
Functions of Education in Society
Education is no longer seen solely as a means for the acquisition of knowledge and the
development of an individual's personality. Functions are now believed to occur naturally without
deliberate effort. From the sociological point of view, education has the following functions:
1. Assimilation and transmission of culture/traditions:
Education plays a crucial role in consciously and selectively transmitting traditions and values that
are deemed valuable and desirable in today's democratic society. For example, propagating the idea
of "Sarva Dharma Samabhav," which emphasizes the equality and harmony of all truths or religions,
can be an important aspect of education. Simultaneously, education should discourage harmful
customs such as child marriage and untouchability.
The functions of education in this context include:
1. Acquisition and clarification of personal values
2. Self-realization and self-reflection: awareness of one's abilities and goals
3. Development of self-esteem and self-efficacy
4. Encouraging creative thinking
5. Fostering cultural appreciation, including art, music, and humanities
6. Promoting well-being, encompassing mental and physical health
7. Acquisition and clarification of values related to the physical environment
8. Cultivating respect, both in giving and receiving recognition as fellow human beings
9. Building the capacity and ability to lead a fulfilling life.
education should consciously promote positive values, critical thinking, cultural understanding, and
personal growth to enable individuals to thrive and contribute to society.
2.Development of new social patterns
In today's rapidly changing world driven by technological and communication advancements, the
development of new values and social patterns is essential alongside the preservation of traditional
values. These new values should aim to:
1. Foster citizens who are rooted in their own cultures while remaining open to other cultures.
2. Cultivate a global outlook among individuals.
3. Advance knowledge in a way that promotes economic development while responsibly managing
the physical and human environment.
4. Produce citizens who understand and fulfill their social responsibilities.
5. Develop citizens who possess the ability to evaluate information, make predictions about future
outcomes, and actively participate in decision-making processes.
6. Train individuals to seek out alternative solutions and evaluate them effectively, emphasizing
problem-solving skills.
3. Activation of constructive and creative forces
Education should:
1. Build a qualified and creative workforce capable of adapting to new technologies and
participating in the "intelligence revolution" driving our economies.
2. Ensure the capacity and ability to earn a living through career education.
3. Develop mental and physical skills encompassing motor, thinking, communication, social, and
aesthetic abilities.
4. Produce citizens who can adapt and adjust to the social environment.
5. Cultivate citizens who contribute to the progress of society.
6. Foster citizens who live democratically.
7. Create individuals who make proper use of leisure time.
8. Train individuals to adapt to and prepare for change, and ideally, to initiate change in society.
9. Develop individuals who are open to others, promote mutual understanding, and value peace.
10. Promote knowledge of moral practices and ethical standards accepted by society and culture.
11. Develop the capacity to recognize and evaluate different points of view.
12. Foster an understanding of human relations and motivations.
Socialization and agent of socialization

Socialization refers to the process through which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, values,
and behaviors that are necessary for functioning effectively within a particular society or culture. It
is a lifelong process that begins from infancy and continues throughout an individual's life.
Agents of socialization:
are the various individuals, groups, institutions, and experiences that contribute to the socialization
process. They play a crucial role in shaping an individual's beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors.
The primary agents of socialization include:
1. Family: The family is the first and most influential agent of socialization. It is within the family that
children first learn about social norms, values, and expectations. Family members transmit cultural
traditions, beliefs, and practices to the younger generation.

2. Schools: Schools are formal institutions designed to provide education and socialize children. In
addition to academic learning, schools socialize children by teaching them appropriate behaviors,
conformity to rules, and interaction with peers from diverse backgrounds.
3. Peers: Peer groups have a significant impact on socialization, especially during adolescence.
Peers influence individual behavior, attitudes, and values, as young people seek acceptance and
conformity within their social groups.
4. Media: Mass media, including television, movies, the internet, and social media, are powerful
agents of socialization. They shape people's perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors by providing
information, influencing opinions, and presenting social norms and values.
5. Religion: Religious institutions provide moral and ethical guidance, impart religious beliefs and
values, and shape individuals' worldview. Religious practices and rituals contribute to the
socialization process.
6. Community: The broader community, including neighborhoods, local organizations, and cultural
events, helps individuals develop a sense of belonging, civic responsibility, and cultural identity.
7. Government: Government institutions and policies influence socialization through laws,
regulations, and public policies that shape
societal values, attitudes, and behaviors.
These agents of socialization work together to shape an individual's social identity, beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors. They provide the necessary socialization experiences and contribute to
the formation of an individual's social self, helping them navigate and participate effectively in their
society or culture.