National School of Autonomous Systems

1st year
2022/2023

Module: Analysis 1

Chapter 1: Real Numbers

Some Mathematical Notations

x∈A Reads as ”x belongs to A” or ”x is an element of set A.” ∈ is the membership symbol.

A⊂B Reads as ”A is included in B” or ”A is a subset of B.” ⊂ is the inclusion symbol.

A∪B Reads as ”A union B,” meaning the elements that are in A or in B. ∪ is the union symbol.

A∩B Reads as ”A intersection B” or simply ”A intersect B,”

meaning the elements that are in both A and B. ∩ is the intersection symbol.

∅ Reads as ”empty set.”

∀x ∈ A This is a quantifier that means ”for all elements x in A” or ”for any x in A.”

∃x ∈ A This is a quantifier that means ”there exists at least one element x in A.”

P ⇒ Q Reads as ”P implies Q” or ”P entails Q,” meaning that if P is true, then Q is also true.

P ⇔ Q Reads as ”P is equivalent to Q” or ”P if and only if Q,”

indicating that P and Q are true or false together.

A? This represents the set A without the element zero.

1 Set of Numbers
Definition 1. A set is a collection of objects gathered according to a common property.
Example 1.
Let N denote the set of natural numbers, which is defined as

N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} and N? = N \ 0.

Let A be the set defined as A = {2n; n ∈ N} = {0, 2, 4, . . .}, which represents the set of even
natural numbers.
Let B be the set defined as B = {2m + 1; m ∈ N} = {1, 3, 5, . . .}, representing the set of odd
natural numbers.
Remark 1. Equations of the form a + x = b, where a, b ∈ N and a > b, do not have solutions
in N.” For this reason, a new set denoted as Z has been introduced:

Z = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .},

which is called the set of integers.

Remark 2. Equations of the form ax = b, where a and b are integers and are coprime, do not
have solutions in Z. Hence, the set Q is defined as
na o
Q= ; a ∈ Z, b ∈ Z? ,
b
and it is known as the set of rational numbers.
Remark 3. Equations of the √ form xn = a (n ∈ N, a ∈ Q) do not always have solutions in Q.
Proposition 1. The number 2 is not a rational number. √
Proof. To prove this proposition, we will use√ a proof by absurd, assuming that 2 is a rational
number, which leads us to a√contradiction. If 2 ∈ Q, it means there exist two coprime integers
2
a and b (b 6= 0) such that 2 = ab . Therefore, 2 = ab2 , which implies a2 = 2b2 , and thus a2 is
divisible by 2, so a is divisible by 2. This means there exists an integer p ∈ Z such that a = 2p.
2
This leads to 2 = ab2 , which further simplifies to 4p2 = 2b2 , and it follows that b2 = 2p2 , which
means b2 is divisible by 2, so b is divisible by 2.
Conclusion: The greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b is at least 2, which contradicts
the fact that a and b are coprime. √
Example 2. Solve the equation √ x+ √ 2y = 6 in Q.
For y ∈ Q , we have: x + 2y = 6 ⇔ 2 = 6−x
?
y
. Since 6 − x ∈ Q and y ∈ Q? , it follows that
√
2 ∈ Q, which is absurd. The only remaining case is when y = 0, and in this case, we find
x = 6. The equation (∗) has a unique solution in Q, which is x = 6 and y = 0.
Example. Show that there exists no rational number whose square is 8.
We assume by absurd that there exists a rational number whose square is 8. Let p, q two
integers such that
p p p − 2q
8 = ( )2 ⇒ 2 < < 3 ⇒ 2q < p < 3q ⇒ 0 < p − 2q < q ⇒ 0 ≤ <1
q q q
Thus p−2q
q
is not an integer ( it’s a rational number).
Furthermore, we have
p p2 p2
( )(p − 2q) = − 2p = 2 q − 2p = 8q − 2p ∈ Z .
q q q
which is a contradiction!
Remark 4. There are √ other well-known numbers that are not rational, called irrational num-
bers, such as π, e, 3, and more. Thus, we have the set that includes both rational and
irrational numbers, denoted as R, which is called the set of real numbers. We have the follow-
ing inclusions:
N ⊂Z ⊂Q ⊂R

2 Algebraic Structure of R
2.1 Addition in R
The application
R ×R → R
(x, y) → x + y
satisfies the following properties:
i)-Associativity: ∀(x, y, z) ∈ R 3 , we have
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
ii)- Identity Element: For all x ∈ R there exists e ∈ R such that
x + e = x ⇒ e = 0( 0 is the additive identity)
iii) Symmetric Element: For all x ∈ R? there exists x? in R such that:
x + x? = e ⇒ x? = −x( -x is the additive inverse)
iv) Commutativity: For all x, y ∈ R
x+y =y+x
These properties (1), (2), (3), and (4) define what is called a commutative group structure on
the set R . We say that (R , +) is a commutative group.
2.2 Multiplication in R
The application:
R ×R → R
(x, y) → x × y
satisfies the following properties
i)-Associativity: ∀(x, y, z) ∈ R 3 :

(x × y) × z = x × (y × z)

ii)- Identity Element: ∀x ∈ R , ∃e ∈ R such that

x × e = x ⇒ e = 1( l’élement neutre pour la multiplication)

iii)- Symmetric Element: ∀x ∈ R ? , ∃x? ∈ R such that

1
x × x? = e ⇒ x? =
x
1
x
is the multiplication inverse .
iv)- Commutativity: For all x, y ∈ R , we have

x×y =y×x

v) Distribution of Multiplication over Addition: ∀(x, y, z) ∈ R3

(x + y) × z = (x × z) + (y × z).

Conclusion: The aforementioned axioms establish that (R , +, ×) forms a commutative field.

3 Order Relation in R
The set of real numbers R is equipped with an order relation denoted by ”≤,” which means
for any x, y ∈ R , we have x ≤ y. Whether this is true or false depends on the values of x and
y. This order relation satisfies the following properties:
Reflexivity: For every x ∈ R , x ≤ x.
Antisymmetry: For all x, ; y ∈ R , if x ≤ y and y ≤ x,f then x = y.
Transitivity: For all x, ; y, ; z ∈ R , if x ≤ y and y ≤ z, then x ≤ z.
Additionally, this order relation is total, meaning that for all x, y ∈ R :

∀x, y ∈ R , (x ≤ y) or (y ≤ x)

4 Absolute Value
Definition 2. For all real number x we can associate a non-negative real 2
number defined by the following:
 1
x si x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x si x < 0.
−2 −1 1 2
|x| is called the absolute value of xwhich represents the distance between x −1
and the origin (0) on the real number line and is always non-negative.
The graph of the absolute value function is shown in the figure below: −2
We can also define the absolute value as follow

|x| = max(x, −x).

Properties
1)
|x| = 0 ⇔ x = 0
2)
−|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|
3)∀a > 0 :
i) |x| ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a
ii) |x| ≥ a ⇔ x ≤ −a or x ≥ a
4)
x |x|
|xy| = |x||y|, | |= (y 6= 0)
y |y|
5)Triangular inequality
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|
6) Second triangular inequality
||x| − |y|| ≤ |x − y|
Proof.
i) Triangular inequality
One have for all x, y ∈ R

|x + y|2 = (x + y)2 = x2 + y 2 + 2xy = |x|2 + |y|2 + 2xy

we know that ∀a ∈ R , a ≤ |a| then

|x + y|2 ≤ |x|2 + |y|2 + 2|x||y| = (|x| + |y|)2

hence
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|
ii) Second triangular inequality
we write |x| = |(x − y) + y| by the triangular inequality, we get

|x| ≤ |x − y| + |y| ⇔ |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|

We do the same for |y|, one finds

|y| ≤ |y − x| + |x| ⇔ |y| − |x| ≤ |y − x| = |x − y|

as ||x| − |y|| = max(|x| − |y|, |y| − |x|) so ||x| − |y|| ≤ |y − x| = |x − y|

Proposition 2. ∀ε > 0, |x| ≤ ε ⇒ x = 0.
Proof. We will prove this result by absurd, assuming that |x| ≤ ε et x 6= 0.
ε being arbitrary, we can take for example ε = |x| 2
> 0, one has |x| ≤ ε ⇔ |x| ≤ |x|
2
⇔1< 1
2
which is absurd.
Exercise Show the following properties

• ∀x ∈ R , |x|n = |xn |
n
X n
X
• ∀x1 , x2 , ..., xn ∈ R , xk ≤ |xk |
k=1 k=1
5 Interval
Definition 3. A non-empty subset I of R is called an interval if ∀(a, b) ∈ I × I satisfying
a ≤ b, the relation a ≤ x ≤ y implies x ∈ I.
Example 3: let A be a non-empty subset of R defined as
n1 o
A= , n ∈ N?
n
1 1 2
A is not an interval. for example, if we take a = 2
et b = 3
which are elements of A and x = 5
which lies between a and b but it is not in A.

We distinguish several forms of intervals:

1-Bounded intervals

• Open interval
]a, b[= {x ∈ R , a < x < b}

• Closed interval
[a, b] = {x ∈ R , a ≤ x ≤ b}

• Half-open interval (left-open)

]a, b] = {x ∈ R , a < x ≤ b}

• Half-open interval (right-open)

[a, b[= {x ∈ R , a ≤ x < b}

2-Unbounded intervals

• Open interval
]a, +∞[= {x ∈ R , x > a}
] − ∞, b[= {x ∈ R , x < b}

• Closed Interval
[a, +∞[= {x ∈ R , x ≥ a}
] − ∞, b] = {x ∈ R , x ≤ b}

5.1 Neighbourhood
Definition 4. Let V be a non-empty subset R . We say that V is a neighbourhood of x ∈ R if
it contains an open interval ]a, b[ containing x which means a a < x < b. In other words, there
exists a positive number r > 0 such that

]x − r, x + r[⊂ V.

The set of neighbourhood of x is denoted by V(x).

Example
• The sets R , ] − 1, 1[ are neighbourhood of 0.
• the sets {0}, ]0, 1[, [0, 1[, ] − 1, 0[∪]0, 1] are not neighbourhood of 0.
6 Upper bound, lower bound, the greatest and smallest
members
Definition 8.
• A non-empty subset A of R is said to be bounded above if there exists an element M ∈ R
such that ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M . M is called an upper bound of A. we write

M ∈ R is an upper bound of A if ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M

• A non-empty subset A of R is said to be bounded below if there exists an element m ∈ R

such that ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m. m is called a lower bound ofA. We write

m ∈ R is a lower bound A if ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m

• A non-empty subsetA of R is said to bo bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded

below.
Remark 5. If a set is bounded above (respectively below) that it has an infinitely upper
bounds (respectively lower bounds).
Attention Note that M et do not necessarily belong to the set A.
Example
• The set A1 = [1, 6[ is bounded above, because M = 7 is an upper bound of A ( 6 is also an
upper bound of A). The set [6, +∞[ is the set of upper bounds of A.
A is bounded below, because m = 0 is a lower bound of A (1 is also a lower bound of A). The
set ] − ∞, 1] is the set of lower bounds of A.
• The set A2 = [0, +∞[ is not bounded above and bounded below by 0.
• The set Z is neither bounded above nor bounded below.
n
• Let the set A3 = { 2n+1 , n ∈ N }.
n
We observe that for all n ∈ N ,we have n < 2n + 1 which means < 1 for all n ∈ N .
2n + 1
Therefore A3 is bounded above . Furthermore, this set is bounded below by 0. So it is a
bounded set.
3
Example 4:
Let A be a non-empty subset of R defined by 2

A = {1 − x2 , ∀x ∈ R } 1

Show that A is bounded above and unbounded below.

One has ∀x ∈ R , x2 ≥ 0 so 1 − x2 ≤ 1. it follows that the set A is bounded −3 −2 −1 1 2
above by 1. −1
We can make a graphical representation of the function f (x) = 1 − x2 to
confirm that 1 is indeed an upper bound of A and A is unbounded below −2
(see the figure below).
−3
To show that A is unbounded below, we ill proceed by absurd. Suppose that A is bounded
below, which means there exists m ∈ R such that 1 − x2 ≥ m for all x ∈ R . This implies that
x2 ≤ 1 − m for all x ∈ R , which is absurd.
Definition 9.
• Let A be a non-empty subset of R . We called the largest element of A an element M ∈ R
which satisfies the following two conditions f

M ∈A
(

M is an upper bound of A
• Let A be a non-empty subset of R . We called the smallest element of A an element M ∈ R
which satisfies the following two conditions

m∈A
(

m is a lower bound of A

The largest element of set A, when it exists, is denoted as max(A), and the smallest element,
when it exists, is denoted as min(A).
Remark 6. For a non-empty subset of R to have a largest element (respectively, a smallest
element), it is necessary for the subset to be bounded above (respectively, bounded below), but
this condition is not sufficient. In other words, a bounded subset (respectively, lower-bounded
subset) does not always have a largest element (respectively, a smallest element).
Proposition 3. If the largest element or the smallest element of a non-empty subset of R
exists, then they are unique.
Proof. We assume that there exist M and M 0 in R that are both the largest elements of the
non-empty set A in R , meaning that:

M ∈A M0 ∈ A
( (
and
∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M 0

this implies that M 0 ≤ M et M ≤ M 0 (M and M 0 are elements of A) therefore M = M 0 .

Example 5:
N , Q , R do not have a maximum.
N possesses a minimum, which is 0.
A1 = [0, 1[ has a minimum min A = 1 but max A does not exist.
A2 = { n1 , n ∈ N } one has max A2 = 1 et le min A2 does not exist.
2
√
A3√= {x√ ≤ 2, x ∈ R } possesses a maximum which is 2. We can write A3 as an interval
[− 2, 2].

7 Supremum and Infimum

Definition 10. Let A be a non-empty subset of R .
A real number M is called the supremum of A, denoted as M = sup(A), if and only if:

M is an upper bound of A, meaning that for all x ∈ A, x ≤ M . If M 0 is an upper bound

of A, then M ≤ M 0 .

In other words, M is the smallest among all the upper bounds of A.

A real number m is called the infimum of A, denoted as m = inf(A), if and only if:

m is a lower bound of A, meaning that for all x ∈ A, x ≥ m. If m0 is a lower bound of

A, then m ≥ m0 .

In other words, m is the largest among all the lower bounds of A.

Remark 7. 1. For a non-empty subset of R to have a supremum, it must be bounded above;
similarly, for it to have an infimum, it must be bounded below.
2. If a non-empty subset of R has a supremum (respectively, an infimum), it is unique.
3. The supremum of a non-empty set A in R is not necessarily an element of A, and the same
applies to the infimum.
Example 6. • Let A = [5, 7]. In this case, sup A = 7 and inf A = 5.
2 2 +2
• Consider the set B = { xx2 +2+1
, x ∈ R }. We can express xx2 +1 1
as 1 + 1+x 1
2 . Since 0 < 1+x2 ≤ 1
 2
for all x ∈ R , we have 1 < xx2 +2
+1
≤ 2. Consequently, the set B is bounded (bounded above by
2 and bounded below by 1).
Since 2 is an element of B (for x = 0), we have sup B = max B = 2”.
Now, you asked whether inf B = 1. The answer will be provided later in the course.
Proposition 4. (Axiom of the Supremum) Every non-empty, bounded subset of R has a
supremum.
Remark 8. This property does not hold in Q (the rational numbers).
Example. Consider A as a non-empty subset of Q given by:

A = {x2 < 2, x ∈ Q }

It’s clear that this set is bounded above by numbers like 27 , etc. Now, let’s show that it doesn’t
have a supremum in Q .
2
Suppose M is a rational number that’s an upper bound of A. Let’s define M 0 = M2M+2 . We’ll
demonstrate that M 0 is also a rational number, which is an upper bound of A, and is less than
M . This means that for every upper bound M of A, there exists another upper bound M 0 that
is smaller, indicating that A doesn’t have a supremum in Q .
M 0 as an upper bound of A : We can show that (M 0 )2 > 2 by noting that:

(M 2 + 2)2 (M 2 − 2)2
(M 0 )2 − 2 = =
4M 2 4M 2
√
Since M is a rational number, M 2 − 2 6= 0 (because M 6= 2), which means that (M 0 )2 − 2 > 0.
M 0 is less than M : We can prove that M − M 0 > 0 as follows:

M2 + 2 M2 − 2
M − M0 = M − = >0
2M 2M
Here, we use the fact that M is an upper bound of A, which implies M 2 > 2.

7.1 Caracterization of Supremum and Infimum

Proposition 5. Let A be a non-empty subset of R .
If A is bounded above by a real number M , then

M = sup(A) if and only if for every ε > 0, there exists x ∈ A such that x ∈]M − ε, M [.

If A is bounded below by a real number m, then

m = inf(A) if and only if for every ε > 0, there exists x ∈ A such that x ∈]m, m + ε[.

Proof. Let’s prove the first part (1) as an example: If M is the supremum of A, it’s the smallest
upper bound. So, for any ε > 0, if M − ε were an upper bound of A, we’d have M ≤ M − ε,
which is not true. Therefore, there must exist an x ∈ A such that M − ε < x < M .
Conversely, if for every ε > 0, there exists x ∈ A such that x ∈]M − ε, M [, then M is the
supremum. Suppose it’s not, and there exists M 0 such that M 0 < M . Set ε = M − M 0 > 0.
By the property, there exists x ∈ A such that x ∈]M − ε, M [=]M 0 , M [. This means M 0 is not
an upper bound, which is a contradiction. Therefore, M must be the supremum.
Example 7:
Let’s consider the set A as a non-empty subset of R , defined as:
nn − 1 o
A= , n ∈ N? .
n
For any n ∈ N ? , we have n−1
n
= 1 − n1 . Since 0 < n1 ≤ 1, we have A ⊂ [0, 1[ (Note: A is
not an interval). The set A is bounded below by 0 (which is the smallest lower bound), so
inf A = min A = 0.
A is bounded above by 1. The question is whether this upper bound is the supremum of A?
Suppose, by contradiction, that 1 is not the supremum of A, meaning that there exists M ∈ R
which is an upper bound of A and M < 1. Let M = 1 − ε where ε > 0. Then, for all n ∈ N ? ,
we have n−1
n
≤ 1 − ε, which implies 1 − n1 ≤ 1 − ε, or n ≤ 1ε for all n ∈ N ? . This proposition
means that the set N ? is bounded above by 1ε , which is absurd.
Now, let’s show, using the characteristic of the infimum, that the infimum of the previous
example is 1.
Suppose ε > 0, and we want to show that there exists αx ∈ B such that αx ∈]1, 1 + ε[. We
have:
x2 + 2 1 1
αx < 1 + ε ⇔ 2 <1+ε⇔ 2
< ε ⇔ x2 > − 1.
x +1 1+x ε
As a result:
q
• If 0 < ε < 1, we can take x > 1ε − 1.
1
• If ε ≥ 1, the inequality x2 > ε
− 1 is satisfied for all x ∈ R .