Chapter 4

AC Analysis

• Time-Domain Analysis
• Complex numbers
• Frequency-Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Introduction

To analyze the behavior of circuit we use certain types of inputs

• Step input (used when circuit/system is first turned ON or for sudden changes at
input)

• Sinusoid inputs (used to study repetitive or regular input response)

• We use concepts of phasors and complex numbers to perform AC analysis.

• We will also understand the concept of power when input is AC.

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Time Domain Analysis
Sinusoid is the most important function in electrical engineering.

2𝜋
𝑇= seconds
𝜔

1 𝜔 −1
or = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇 2𝜋

𝜔
𝑓= 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋

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Time Domain Analysis
Sinusoid function can have variation in time and angle.

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Example: Time-Domain Analysis

Q: Consider the series RC circuit below with AC source, find the v 0(t) across
capacitor.

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Solution
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑣
Solution: Apply KVL in the loop 𝑉𝑠 − 1𝑖 − 𝑣0 = 0, 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑡0
ⅆ𝑣0
+ 2𝑣0 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
One form of solution to this type of differential equation is 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 2𝑡
𝟑𝝅 𝝅
Solving this we get 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 = 𝟑 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒕 − = 𝟑 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 −
𝟒 𝟒

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Solution
As shown in last example:

• Sinusoid analysis is straight forward but amount of arithmetic required is too much.

• To eliminate such tedious math, we will use the concept of complex numbers to
represent sinusoidal functions.

• This will not just help in simpler math but also explain other concepts.

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Complex numbers

−1 = 𝑗, 𝑗 2 = −1, 𝑗 3 = −𝑗, 𝑗 4 = 1

Represented by:
• 𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏
• 𝑓 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
• 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃

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Complex numbers
𝑏
• 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑗𝜃 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑎
• Note that ‘a’ and ‘b’ are completely independent of each other.
• YouTube link for basics of complex numbers.
• www.welchlabs.com for more about complex numbers.

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Complex number Representation
Argand Plane

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Complex number Representation
Exponential Form Polar Form

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Addition and Subtraction
Consider two vectors, A = 4+j1 & B = 2 + j3
Determine the sum and difference of the two vectors in both rectangular ( a + jb ) form
and graphically as an Argand Diagram.
Addition A + B = (4+j1) + (2 + j3) = (4 + 2) + j(1 + 3) = 6 + j4
Subtraction A – B = (4+j1) – (2 + j3)= (4 – 2) + j(1 – 3) = 2 – j2

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Multiplication and Division
Multiplication in Polar Form

Multiplying together 6 ∠30o and 8 ∠– 45o in polar form gives us.

Division in Polar Form

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

A phasor is a complex number that contains the amplitude and

phase angle information of a sinusoidal function.

A phasor diagram is a graph of phasors on the complex plane

(using real and imaginary axes). It helps to visualize the
relationships between currents and voltages.

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

The voltage and the current are ‘‘in phase’’ for resistor.

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

For an inductor the voltage leads the current by 90 degrees, or

equivalently, the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

Series Connections of Impedances

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

Series Connections of Impedances

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

Parallel Connections of Impedances

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Frequency-Domain Analysis

Parallel Connections of Impedances

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Power: Average Power
The average power absorbed by the element is

The average power absorbed by a resistor is

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Average Power

Impedance is Z = R + jX,
It could be purely real for a resistor element or imaginary for inductive or
capacitive element.

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Maximum Power Transfer

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Power Factor

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Important Power concepts

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Polyphase Circuits
Single-Phase Three -Wire Circuits

• A single phase, three wire system is basically a normal residential utility circuit.
• There are three wires which come from a power line into a home service panel.
One is neutral or ground wire. The other two wires are red and black where red is
positive and black is negative.
• A single phase three wire circuit contains a source that produces two sinusoidal
voltages that have the same amplitude and the same angle.
• The ordinary household voltage is sinusoidal having an approximate rms value of
115 V and a frequency of 60 Hz.

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Polyphase Circuits
Single-Phase Three -Wire Circuits

•Single phase circuits are usually used

for household appliances since very high
power is not needed.

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Polyphase Circuits
Single-Phase Three -Wire Circuits

•The circuit consists of a single phase ,

three wire source and three load impedances.

•The short circuit s between nodes a and

A and between b and B are the lines
of the circuit.

•The short circuit between nodes n and N

is the neutral wire of the circuit.

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Example:

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Three phase circuits (systems)
• A circuit that contains a source that produces sinusoidal voltages with different
phases is called a poly phase system or a three-phase system.
• It is the most common method for power generation in industries and is used in
electric grids to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy
loads.
• It is more economical than a single-phase system since less conductor material is
used to transmit power since no neutral wire is needed. This is because the phase
currents tend to cancel each other ( summing to zero in case of a balanced load).
• There are two connections possible for a three-phase system.
1. Y (wye), Star connection
2. Delta connection (Δ)

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Three phase circuits (systems)

¼ Cycle
½ Cycle

¾ Cycle
Start

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Y-Connected three phase source

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Y-Connected three phase source

• In the previous figure terminals a,b,c are called the line terminals and n is the
neutral terminal.
• The source is said to be balanced if the voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn called the phase
voltages have the same magnitude and sum to zero. The voltages have the same
amplitude , frequencies and are separated from each other by 120⁰

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Line Voltages
• Voltage between the line terminals are called line voltages.

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Line Voltages
• Voltage between the line terminals are called line voltages.

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Balanced Y-Y network
• The short circuit between nodes a and A,
between b and B, and between nodes
c and C are the lines of the system.
• The line currents are:-

• Thus, there is no current in the neutral wire.

• Hence neutral wire can be removed without affecting the currents and voltages.
• A balanced system is therefore one in which the source is balanced and load and line
impedances are balanced.

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Balanced Y-Y network
• Thus, there is no current in the neutral wire.
• Hence neutral wire can be removed without affecting the currents and voltages.
• A balanced system is therefore one in which the source is balanced, and load and line
impedances are balanced.

In star connections,
Line voltage VL = √3 times the phase voltage,
Line current = phase current

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Delta Network
• A delta Δ connected load is more commonly used than a Y connected load since the
individual loads are connected directly between the lines and hence it is easier to add or
remove one of the components of a Δ connected load than a Y connected load.
• A typical three phase system with a balanced Δ – connected load and a Y supply looks
like :

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Delta Network
• For Balanced source

• And the line voltages are:

These are the phase voltages for a Δ – connected load.

• The phase currents for the load are:

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Delta Network

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Example
Q: For a balanced three phase circuit , determine the impedance Z for the case that the line voltage is 250V
rms and the total power absorbed by a Δ- connected load is 600 W at a pf of 0.866 leading.

Soln: Per phase power absorbed is 600/3 = 200 W.

PAB = I Vab I x I I AB I Cos θ

Therefore, the magnitude of the rms phase current IAB is:

The rms line current IaA has magnitude

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Example

Regardless of whether a balanced load is Y-connected or Δ- connected , in terms of the rms line voltage VL ,
the rms line current I L , and the angle θ of the load impedance (ie the pf angle) the total power absorbed
by the load is:

Or P = 3VP I P cos 

Where VL = Vab volts rms and the line current IL = I aA = IAN amp rms.

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Outline

• Introduction
• Time Domain Analysis
• Complex Numbers
• Frequency Domain Analysis
• Power
• Polyphase circuits
• Three phase loads
• Star-delta transformation

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Δ – Y and Y – Δ Transformations:

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Δ – Y and Y – Δ Transformations:
Example

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