- ey evel ent; a Chil Agoncillo explains that nationalism is a historical seen ns 3 Child “French Revolution”. It was exported to other nations through lapoleonic Of the tiade and commerce and by colonialism itself, wa Nationalism inthe Philippines developed only in the 19° cone ot Span there was a feeling of resentment among the Filipinos during the early par a s aa : ; rul le, No sentiment of nationalism developed due to the colonial policy of divide and ru} le, the country’s geographic condition and the absence of a common language. Renato Constantino explains that the emergence of Filipino nationalism came as a culmination of a long process of Spanish misrule, hastened by political and economic developments in Europe and the Philippines. CHALLENGE OF THE 19th CENTURY Meantime, e€conomicand political developments that were toaffect the: Philippines either directly or j indirectly were shaping up in Europe. These developments were the advances of industriali and man’s new knowledge of chemistry and physics greatly enl revolution. The use of steel as the base metal of industry, , gasoline, and electricity as basic Sources of power and industri vention of the internal combustion engine, heralded the advent Man was able ‘o apply the science of electricity to practical DI ransportation communication and other forms of transmission as man able to conquer time and distance, merce. Faster means of « Such as the telephone, telegraph and cable facilities enabled People to have by contracts for business and trade. Closer Communication between the Philippines ct Spain and between Europe and Asia was now feasible 'Ppines and Industrialism mechanized production that i F raw materials and markets for finished products, tt encouraged free ¢qacmand for that hastened the development of international commerce, Trading conte © Policies flourished and people enjoyed material and economic prosperity better nad cities living, better education, and social opportunities, Andards of in turn increas, ‘The Philippines as a source of raw materials and asa market for fin was eventually drawn into the orbit of international trade espec ally afte ished Produe Ss Thi, 7 ' was opened to foreign traders. This marked a change in the econec T1834 wh and socign pe? it lite of 10those Filipinos who eventually came into contact with the political and suein examen developments in Europe. The struggle for the recognition of the farney was now imminent. A the wenken The industrial system created a fast tempo of economic Progress id mde the bourgeoisie a rich, powerful and influential class in western sociely. ft brought whajut the emergence of a new social class, the proletariat or the modern working uss, thus was largely illiterate and propertyless. The continuous improvement of muwhinery wn the keen competition among capitalists made the workers victims of the yiissitude of competition and fluctuations of the market, But as the industrial system generated more capital and expanded lucrative business, so did the new working cliss neyense in number and strengthen in unity. Eventually the workers organized Wade unions Wo solidify their pleas for better wages. They gained the support of socialist philosophers who clamored against the distress and the need of the exploited workers, Before 1848, socialism was expanded in various ways but they expounded a common cause: “The equitable distribution of the fruits of production.” One of the socialist philosophers was Karl Marx wha brilliantly expounded the philosophy of socialism now known as Marxism which has become the most influential concept among labor circles. With the publication of the Communist Manifesto in 1848, socialism “passed permanently into the tradition of Western Civilization." Karl Marx's now famous “Working men of all countries unite!” served as a rallying point for labor. The proletariat became more aware of their identity in the economic system. The workers began to make demands from their employers, ‘Their insistent agitation for recognition resulted in the enactment of labor laws which stipulated fixed working hours, universal education, better pay, old age pension, and better working conditions. They had gained official recognition of the workingman’s contribution to world progress. This set significant values on the increased power of the proletsriat The Filipinos were aware of these matters. Juan Luna asked for Rizal's advice on what to read to be inspired to paint. In his letter, Luna informed Rizal that he was reading Le Socialismo Contemporain by E de Levalye, which is a “compilation of the theories of Karl Marx, Lasalle, etc; Catholic socialism, the conservative, the evangelical, etc.” (Cf Rizal's correspondence With Fellow reformists, pp. 561-562.) Although socialism was gaining popularity even in traditional Spain causing further social and political unrest, the Filipino middle class members who went to Europe in the last two decades of the 19th century were apparently more attracted to the manifestations of democratic and nationalistic ideals such as the adoption of 4 constitution that guaranteed natural and civil rights, movements toward popular suffrage, and setting up of parliaments as exemplified in England, France, the Low countries, and the Scandinavian states. Even more impressive of the 19th century European innovations was the militant nationalism, which began to emerge among young nations like Germany and Italy, and VWRizal was j, among the oppressed colonies like the Balkan peas os fa Wop he was mainly concerned with the nationalistic spirit of i i Germany whi eve internal reforms as well as national projects, especially came strongly unified under Bismarck. The Altered Position of the Catholic or (Century, The Catholic Church in Europe was a most powerful influenti ne medieng © Church has been identified with the monarchy and aristocracy Soa elements ae In the struggle for power between the monarchial and the republics dherence fe . le Ch upheld the status quo or retention of the monarchy to infuse a ‘adition, The Church therefore was considered an adversary of the young Republican States and the recently unified countries. The French viewed the Church a8 a threat to their newly established republican State, and Bismarck of Germany Considered the Church as a threat to the new unified German Empire. The Pope opposed the Unification of Italy under the liberals because it would mean the annexation of the Papal States to the recently liberated and unified Italian petty states. In Spain, the liberals considereq the Church an enemy of reforms. In separate moves, other countries sought to curtail the Church’s influence, to break down it its political power, and to destroy its traditional control over education, This movement was called “anti-clericalism.” Anti-clericalism : ypsperity, materialism, development of science resulting in the improvement of man’s health, republicanism and nationalism—secularized man’s thought and way of life. To maintain what was left of its Power and j the leadership of Pope Leo XII acceded Pe demands oe the Church through Surrendering its dogmas. Pope Leo XII] sctePted the changes i, Prat Society without He aimed at making the church the spiritual leader j the que ne 2nd Germany. Thomism and faith and through Cathol faculties ana universitet Huth through democratic state of France which was a virtg:) Fepudiation of he’: He recognized the and the State. He came to terms with Bismarck an accepted Pree HON of the Church Germany. Five years before he ascended the Papal throne, the Teant@ hegemony in curtailed Papal sovereign authority in the Vatiery through a scalian Parliament hat Pope Leo XIII did not question the acts of the Italian Overnment’® Ff laws in 187), do much to resolve the controversy with the latter This was a tagje™4 Meither did he government politics in Italy. acce, Ptance of the iastical “retreats” or ready In the face of all these ecclesias Adjust issued the Rerum Novarum which defined the modern posige! ones, H poe Leo xr estions. The Rerum called upon all states to help labor an Ur qu 7 e d Feiterata church °N social 'd Marxism, Shure, 5 ion of the welfare of labor but attacke ” 8Ppeal, Support the promotion ot led in the p: or econ 12and social reform, and exhorted its followers to live within the principles of social justice. The church in Europe had become flexible in facing the realities and challenges of the 19th century, Would this be possible in the Philippines? Would the friars promote the welfare of labor, encourage the government to initiate economic and social reforms? Would they follow the principles of social justice? Rizal and other Filipino leaders were exposed to the necessary intellectual background and the conceptual framework to abstract their ideas of reforms for the Philippines, The economic prosperity, the strengthening of. the bourgeoisie, the emerging power of the proletariat, the democratic and nationalistic thoughts of the great thinkers, and the flexibility of the Church sent stimulating undercurrents to the Philippines which the Filipinos welcomed and the Spaniards could no longer ignore. The Philippines was opened to world trade and a new breed of middle class emerged. The once obedient and passive Filipino now became aggressive in his struggle for his rights and the once lethargic and isolated Philippines activated its citizens into revolution of change and economic adjustments. The Philippines is Drawn Within the Orbit of World Trade. The beneficial effects of economic liberalism in Europe and the United States had finally convinced Spain to abandon mercantilism and reluctantly open the Philippines to world trade. Spain opened Philippine ports to foreign trade starting with Manila in 1834, followed by Sual, Iloilo and Zamboanga in 1855, Cebu in 1860, and Legaspi and Tacloban in 1873. These ports became more accessible to European vessels. The presence of foreign traders and their investments in the Philippines stimulated commercial life and agricultural production, ushering in economic progress and material prosperity. The introduction of agricultural machinery and increased banking facilities that extended crop loans encouraged the opening of new farm areas. Improved methods of cultivation and preparation of crops for the market increased the volume of our exports. The construction of better roads, railroads and bridges, enhanced transportation and communication; steam navigation and such facilities for speedy communication as the telegraph, the telephone and the cable gave added impetus to economic Progress. These developments encouraged social mobility and interaction among the peo] ple thus facilitating closer understanding and unity. These pomveniences abetted the people's awareness of the changes that would give them a tter life. The New Breed of Native Middle Class. These 19th century economic and social stimuli effected a marked improvement in the standard of living of a small group of Indios and mestizos who were engaged in commercial agriculture and trade. This group became the nucleus of a growing middle class. With their newly-acquired wealth they were able to send t] their children to schools in Manila or Europe. By this time, Philippine education began to share the liberal currents in Europe with the implementation of the Educational Reform Decree of 1863 and 13ee er they returned in 1859, The 1 school ¢, ic pri schools and @ normal schoo! tq ee public Pris opened ‘a secondary school and a rades. by ‘he government. From then on, the Jesuits oe aeral primary education, improving methods rc higher education. i ing the desired innovations to Although these epochal developments did not bring i et ase benefit the mass of indios, there is no doubt that more Seat a tury modern ideas, the small group of college students was influenced by the : —the professionals, Soon their ranks were strengthened by the new intellectual breed: Pl lawyers, physicians, engineers and priests. i soon aft Jesuit innovations at the Ateneo, established decree ordered the establishi train teachers for the primary gt meteorological observatory subsi had been influential in dissemina of instruction and enriching the curricula for Contacts with the social and political developments in Burope and oe regular flow of iberal thoughts to the country was inevitable after the opening of the Stee Gand Literature on democratic and nationalistic ideals found their way t0 the Philippines through traders, travelers, scholars, and government officials from Spanish American colonies, and politcal refugees from Spain. These liberal ideas included equality before the law freedom of speech, the press, assembly and religion; protection of inalienable rights; representation in the lawmaking body; and sovereignty of the people. Initial Response to Nineteenth Century Challenges. Even before the emergence of an active educated middle class, which directly worked for reforms, Francisco “Balagtas” Baltazar (1788-1862) had already voiced his disgust in the prevailing social order through his literary pieces, particularly Florante at Laura. Inhis numerous literary works, Balagtas subtly portrayed the “social cancer’ of his time and earned the distinction of being the first Filipino artist with a social conscience His now famous awit, Florante at Laura, voiced his censure of the government, his impatience with Spanish abuses, and his love for liberty. His literary verses unmasked a corrupt government, a society ridden with vice where justice had been defiled, virtue betrayed and truth stifled. He envisioned the liberation of the country from the despots and its ultimate unification. Inspired by the prosperous developments in Europe, Filipino members of the educated and affluent middle class, lay as well as religious, began to work for reforms, like their counterparts in Europe. Their spirit and drive for immediate change came in varying degrees but altogether they agitated against racial discrimination. The first united move against racial discrimination was made by the native clergy with their demand for the right to administer parishes (the question of secularization) The problem started as a religious question involving the right of either the regular 0" the secular priests to administer parishes. The question became a racial controvels) between the friars and the Filipino secular clergy ae ifi with the fo iming that they were the better qualified to administer the pari mer claiming th shes. The first to champion the cause of the native clergy was a Spanish mestiZe 14Father Pedro Pelaez, the ecclesiastical governor of the Philippines in 1862, who was influential in Madrid and in Manila. He was respected by both Spaniards and Filipinos. His abroad idealism had convinced him that the fight for justice was not a matter of blood and position but of sound values and principles. A brilliant educator journalist and orator, Father Pelaez used the pulpit and the press to expose and criticize the rampant racial discrimination against the native clergy. He denounced the Spanish ecclesiastical authorities for denying the Filipino clergy the right to administer Philippine parishes and for depriving them of the opportunity to hold positions in the hierarchy. He appealed to Queen Isabela I of Spain for clerical equality while he dispatched articles expounding his crusade to newspapers here and in Madrid. Asa member of the commission to study and draft reforms on education in the Philippines, Father Pelaez submitted recommendations that were later to be embodied in the Educational Reform Decree of 1863. Unfortunately, his fight for justice and racial equality ended abruptly with his death at a disastrous earthquake that rocked the Philippines in 1863. However, one of his brilliant students at the University of Santo Tomas, Father Jose A. Burgos, continued Father Pelaez’s unfinished mission. Father Burgos, a Spanish mestizo, openly and eagerly worked for clerical equality and for the secularization of parishes. Being the curate of the Manila Cathedral and synodal examiner of the clergy, he examined and certified to the qualifications of all the applicants for vacant parochial assignments, rendering judgment on Spaniards and Filipinos alike. During the heated controversy over the secularization of the parishes, consistent attacks were levied against the late Father Pelaez, against the policies of the Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez, and against the qualifications of the Filipino clergy. These charges were published in La Verdad, a newspaper in Madrid. The accusations ranged from the ignorance and unreliability of the native clergy that made them unfit to administer the parishes, the injustices committed against the Spanish friars by the Archbishop Martinez, to questions on the loyalty of the late Father Pelaez. When Father Burgos could no longer contain his peace he published anonymously a manifesto addressed to the noble Spanish nation on 27 June 1864. His brilliant but pointed arguments denied that the friars alone had been responsible for the conquest and development of the archipelago. He believed that the friars were responsible for the backwardness of the country and the fanaticism of the indio. He accused the friars for having opposed the teaching of Spanish and for having kept the indio ignorant so that they could be kept in perpetual subjugation. Burgos’ intense nationalism was expressed in his defense of the much-maligned Filipino clergy. He argued that despite the discriminatory attitude and policies of the friars, several Filipinos had done well and he cited how each had succeeded. They were never given the proper incentives. When they showed their ability, they were ignored and their achievements belittled. 16- Martinez that. attempteq i Licies of Archbishop training. Since Fathe, ive the Filipino defen ae opportunity for eality of his education, he to give the Filipino seculat Pi rity of man depends 0 Sa ener eri Burgos believed that the a Spain to give the Filipino Ceres iciee ca saul ie sie fe He accused the friars ol eee clerey. Achbish \ ition archbishop Martinez which advocated the educat . saceubt ae of identity - that of being a native he parishes in their own country. The unification of the Filipino clergy by strengthened withthe development oftheir sense Filipino clergy fighting for the right to administer sti . Sensing the prevalent Futile Spanish Attempts to Initiate Resear Grants feelings in the social discontent, political insecurity and the growing an' Ma de la Torre (1869- Islands, Governors General Manuel Pavia (1854) and as reforms, Governor 1871) warned the Spanish government and suggested cei Se a ereineeaias Rafael de Izquierdo (1871-1873), on the other hand, blamed the Eg conan the motivating factor of all these agitations. He suggested the substit ut ieee instruction for university studies. He was convinced that the university mere yy ais to train priests and lawyers whom he considered the greatest threats tot a as rule in the Islands. In vain, he sought to prohibit any further ordination of Filip priests. He suggested that all native troops be replaced by Spanish soldiers. Fortunately for the Philippines, the Spanish government could bia policies to counteract the surging rise of nationalistic sentiments. The politic: 1 instability in Spain had caused frequent changes of Spanish officials in the Philippines which caused further confusion and increased social as well as political discontent in the country. In 1868 the mutiny of the Spanish fleet in Cadiz against the monarchy mounted into a revolution which deposed Queen Isabela II. A provisional government was set up by the victorious liberals. The new government extended to the colonies the reforms they adopted in Spain. Some of these reforms were the grant of universal suffrage and recognition of freedom of conscience, the press, association and public assembly, The Provisional government appointed General Carios Ma de la Torre as Governor General of the Philippines. _As the official representative of the liberal government in Spain, De la Torre apolished the censorship of the press, fostered free political discuses and supported the secularization of the parishes. His “liberal” attitude encouraged the edveated Filipinos to form organizations that discussed and campaigned for patean reforms and fa secularization of the parishes, Among the most active Organizers were priests and 'ymen such as Fathers Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez and Jaci stO Mendoza, Jose Ma Basa, Antonio Ma Re; qhin Pardo deers Aue ‘gidor and Joaquin Pardo de Tavera. TI stu ee The comerauec aed ae Upsurge of nationalistic fervor. Darilé Liberal (Liberal Young Students) led by Fel; > 1™S Organized Juventud Escoe! lipe Buencamino, Among its well know 16members were Paciano Rizal, Mariano Alejandrino, Gregorio Sancianco, Basilio Teodoro and others who would be actively involved in the Propaganda Movement of the 1880's and 1890's, Through anonymous leaflets scattered within the campus, the students asked for the appointment of better professors, and the expansion of education as in Spain, and the secularization of higher education. The demands were legitimate but the Spanish government branded them as subversive and ordered the arrest of Buencamino and others who were not even involved. The charges were not proven and all of those arrested were freed after nine or eleven months. Governor de la Torre tried to curtail the abuses of alcaldes mayores and provincial military governors. He conducted hearings for aggrieved parties, ordered prompt investigation of complaints, and punished the guilty. Realizing the urgent need forreforms, Dela Torre formed ajuntato study measures for the welfare of the colony. Before he could fully implement the suggested reforms, however, the liberal regime in Spain was deposed by the conservatives. Governor De la Torre was replaced by Governor Izquierdo who echoed the conservatism of the Spanish government. De la Torre exposed the issues and their exponents for Izquierdo to later identify and prosecute. Izquierdo restored strict censorship of the press, prohibited political discussions, and put a stop to the secularization of parishes. The political atmosphere was charged with grave unrest. Dissatisfaction among the people was aggravated by some resident Spaniards who had liberal and progressive views. One example of unrest that erupted into violence was the Cavite Mutiny, On 20 January 1872, 40 men of the marine infantry and 22 men of the artillery attack Fort San Felipe in Cavite. Some 150 native soldiers and workers at the arsenal later joined the mutineers. They resented the governor's policy of curtailing some of their Privileges of exemption from forced labor or paying heavy tribute to the government. Led by Sergeant La Madrid, the mutineers futilely waited for reinforcements from the Seventh Infantry guarding Cavite and sympathizers from Manila. Early the next morning, the Governor General sent troops to Cavite. The struggle was one-sided but in the exchange of fire the mutifieers admirably showed their fighting spirit. Without food and support, however, the mutineers had to hoist the white flag of surrender from the fort. Filipino Sentiment of Nationality Aroused. This local incident was magnified by the Spanish authorities into a “national rebellion” to justify reprisals. When the news of the Cavite Mutiny reached Manila, the arrest of liberal intellectuals Was immediately ordered, Among those arrested were mestizos and natives who were ‘most vocal in suggesting reforms during De la Torre's regime, They were Fathers Gomes, Burgos, Zamora, Agustin Mendoza, Mariano Lopez, and Feliciano Lopez. Among the civilians arrested were Dr. Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Ma Regidor, Jose Ma Basa, and Enrique Parayso. Seventy-one prisoners were brought to Manila by the troops returning from Cavite, . 1710 iers - were thrown j , oldiers - Wé into a F businessmen, So!}" tablish: ‘s - priests, laymen, “wanting to established here eon trial. They were accused of “want hé i y . in Spain.” All were given hurtieg republic in conspiracy with the republican Peal out to all groups, Tht trials, and summary convictions and punishment the strangulation machine calleq the military court sentenced the three priests to die by Martinez to save them proveq gorrote, The efforts of Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martin? (© S00® S proved futile. The rest of the accused were either exiled to the imprisonment and hard labor for eight to ten years. Fathers Burgos and Zamora’s claimed to innocence was eee year old Father Gomez, the oldest of the three priests, said nothing jl ed them even knew it would be useless to change the minds of those who had condemn rane before the trial. He saw no reason to employ a lawyer for he was not even allowed to confront his accuser. He met his death calmly. Father Zamora, daze with shock quietly awaited his end. Father Burgos, young and excited, cried out in protest; ‘But — crime have 1 committed? Shall I die in this manner? Is there no justice on this earth? When he calmed down and forgave his executioner, the vast multitude that witnessed the event knelt and prayed. This spontaneous show of respect and sympathy for the victims was interpreted by Spanish members of the crowd as a signal for rebellion. Panic-stricken, they sought refuge in Intramuros. The authorities declared the Cavite affair a closed incident. They did not realize that the oppressive mass reprisal would trigger a series of militant expressions of nationalist sentiment. The vindictive fiasco made no distinction of social class or status - indios, priests, lawyers, and workers - were all imprisoned, humiliated and sentenced asa group. These social groups finally realized that to save their lives and fortune, they had to seek one commot n objective; they needed to unite, or there would be no end to their miseries. mestizos,