Lesson 8: SOLUTIONS

The cases of COVID – 19 in the world are still alarming while every country is still hopeful for the
availability of vaccine that would curtail the spread of the disease caused by the virus. One of the ways
that was undertaken by everybody to avoid infection from the contagious COVID – 19 virus is the use of
disinfectant and sanitizers. These chemical substances are formulated in solution form. Even the vaccines
which are about to be marketed worldwide are synthesized in solution form.
Solutions are homogeneous mixture composed of solute and solvent in variable amounts. When solute is
mixed with a solvent, the resulting phase of the solution produced will determine its type. The following
table shows the composition of the different types of solution.
Types of Solution
Component 1 Component 2 Phase of Resulting Examples
Solution
Gas Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Liquid Dissolved Oxygen in
water
Dissolved CO2 in H2O
Soda water
Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in Palladium
Liquid Liquid Liquid 70% ethyl alcohol
(ethanol in water)
Wine (ethanol in water)
Liquid Solid Liquid Saline solution (NaCl in
water)
Solid Solid Solid Alloy
Example:
Brass (Cu/Zn)
Solder (Sn/Pb)
Amalgam
(Hg/Ag/Sn/Cu)
Steel (Fe/C)
Sterling silver (Ag/Cu)

Alloy is the mixture of 2 or more metals which are performed to improve the quality of metals.
There are 2 components of solutions. These are solutes and solvents. Solutes are the substances that exist
in lower amount in the solution while solvents are the constituents that are present in larger amounts. If
the solute mixes well with solvent in all proportions, it is said that the solute is soluble to the solvent but if
it is not, it is said to insoluble. If 2 liquids are soluble with each other in all proportions, it is said to be
miscible, but, if not, it is said to be immiscible. Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that
can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature. The amount of solute in the
solution dictates the concentration of the solution. Concentration of solution refers to the amount of solute
present in a given amount of solvent or solution. There are different types of solutions based on solubility
of the solution. These are:
a. Unsaturated solution – contains solute lesser that the maximum amount that the solution can hold
at a given temperature.
 b. Saturated solution – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be held by the solution at a
given temperature. A dynamic equilibrium is achieved on this type of solution.
c. Supersaturated solution – contains more solute than what the solution can normally hold at a given
temperature. On this type of solution, crystals of solute can be seen in the solution and remains
undissolved even stirring is done continuously with the solution.
However, the concentration of the solution can also be described as:
a. Concentrated – contains relatively large amount of dissolved solute. For acids, its concentration is
said to be concentrated if fumes are observed to be coming out of its bottle when opened.
b. Dilute – contains relatively small amounts of solute. Diluting the concentration of a solution can
be achieved by adding a certain volume of water in a process known as dilution.

Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

A. Percent by mass is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100
percent:
mass of solute
Percent by mass = x 100%
mass of solution
m mass of solute
or % = x 100%
m mass of solution
Example:
1. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the
percent by mass of KCl in the solution?
Given: m KCl = 0.892 g m solution = mass KCl + mass H2O
mH2O = 54.6 g = 0.892 g + 54.6 g
= 55.492 g
m mass of solute 0.892 g
% KCl = x 100 % = x 100%
m mass of solution 55.492
m
% KCl = 1.6074 %
m

2. What is the % by mass of salt solution prepared by dissolving 10 g of salt in enough water to
produce 110 g of salt solution?
Given: m solute = 10 g mass solution = 110 g
m mass of solute 10 g
% salt = x 100 % = x 100%
m mass of solution 110 g
m
% salt = 9.0909 %
m

3. How many grams of sucrose is needed to produce 85 grams of of 2.5% sucrose solution?
Given: mass solution = 85 g % mass solution = 2.5%
m mass of solute
% sucrose = x 100 %
m mass of solution
2.5 g x
=
100 g 85 g
 (x)(100 g) = 2.5 g)(85 g)
(2.5 g)(85 g)
x= = 2.125 g sucrose
100 g

4. What mass of 12.50% by mass of AgCl solution contains 15.90 g of AgCl?

Given: % by mass AgCl = 12.50% mass LiCl = 15.90 g
mass of solute
% mass AgCl = x 100 %
mass of solution
12.50 g AgCl 15.90 g AgCl
100 g AgCl sol ' n
= x
(x)(12.50 g AgCl) = (15.90 g AgCl)(100 g AgCl sol’n)
'
(15.90 g AgCl)(100 g AgCl sol n)
x=
12.50 g AgCl
= 127.2 g AgCl sol’n

B. Percent by volume is the ratio of the volume of a solute to the volume of the solution, multiplied
by 100 percent:
volume of solute
Percent by volume = x 100%
volume of solution
v volume of solute
or % = x 100%
v volume of solution

Example:
v
1. What is the % of a solution formed from mixing 25 mL of ethanol and 125 mL of distilled
v
water? What is the proof number of resulting solution?
Given: v C2H5OH = 25 mL v H2O = 125 mL v solution = 150 mL
v 25 mL
% = x 100%
v 150 mL
v
a. % = 16.67 %
v
v
b. Proof = 2(% )
v
= 2(16.67)
Proof = 33.34
Alcohol proof is a measure of the content of ethanol in an alcoholic beverage. Proof” is straight up two
times alcohol by volume. So, a vodka, say, that is 40 percent alcohol by volume (ABV) is 80 proof and
one that is 45 percent ABV is 90 proof. A “proof spirit” is 100 proof (50 percent ABV) or higher.
C. Percent by density is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the volume of the solution, multiplied by
100 percent:
mass of solute
Percent by density = x 100%
volume of solution
m mass of solute
or % = x 100%
v volume of solution
 m
Example: What is the % of the solution resulting from dissolving 25 grams of CaCO 3 in 150 mL of
v
acetic acid?
Given: mass solute = 25 g mass solution = 175 mL
m 25 g
% = x 100%
v 175 mL
m
% = 14.29%
v

D. Pats per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are frequently used for expressing the
concentrations of trace amounts of impurities in air or water. Thus, you might express the
maximum allowable concentration of lead in drinking water as 15 ppb, or about 1 g per 67,000 L.
mass of component
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
total mass of solution
mass of component
ppb = x 1.0 x 10 9
total mass of solution

In weight/volume (w/v) terms:

1 ppm = 1 g/m3 = 1 mg/L = 1 µg/mL

In weight/weight (w/w) terms:

1 ppm = 1 mg/kg = 1 µg/g

Simple interpretation of ppm and ppb

a. 1 ppm of O2 gas – This means that the solution contains 1 part O2 gas for every 1 million parts of
the solution. Example, 1 L of O2 gas in 1,000,000 L of the solution or 1 gallon of O2 gas in every
1,000,000 gallons of the solution.
b. The maximum allowable concentration of lead in drinking water as 15 ppb. This concentration
means that there are 15 L of Pb in every 1,000,000,000 L of drinking water or 15 mL of Pb in
every 1B mL of drinking water etc.

Example:

1. What is the concentration in ppm of a solution that has a concentration of 1.25 g/L?
Note: Conversion factor is 1 ppm = 1 mg/L
g 1,000 mg 1,250 mg mg
1.25
L
x 1g
= L
= 1,250
L
or
= 1,250 ppm
2. A solution has a concentration of 3.75 mg/mL. What is this concentration in ppm?
Conversion factor is 1 ppm = 1 mg/L
mg 1, ooo mL mg
3.75
mL
x 1L
= 3,750 L
or
= 3,750 ppm
3. The maximum allowable concentration of Pb in drinking water is 1 g per 67,000 L. What is the
concentration in ppm?
mass of component
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
total mass of solution
1g 1,000 mg
= x x 1.0 x 10 6
67,000 L 1g
 mg
= 14,925.53 = 14,925.53 ppm
L
4. What is the concentration in ppm of a solution that contains 0.0025 g of NaOH in 825 mL of H2O?
0.0025 g
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
0.0025 g +825 mL
0.0025 g
= x 1.0 x 10 6
825.0025 mL
g 1,000 mg 1,000 mL mg
= 3.0303 mL x 1 g x 1 L = 3.0303 x 10 6 L or
= 3.0303 x 10 6 ppm
5. How much chlorine should be added to a 6,000 gallon pool in order to obtain 2.4 ppm of chlorine?
2.4 gallon Cl x gallonCl
6 =
1.0 x 10 gallon sol' n 6,000 gallon solution
( x gallon Cl ) ( 1.0 x 10 gallon so l ' n )=(2.4 gallon Cl)(6,000 gallon sol ' n)
6

(2.4 gallon Cl)(6,000 gallon sol ' n)

x=
1.0 x 106 gallon so l' n
x = 0.0144 gallon Cl

E. Mole Fraction (X)

The mole fraction (X) of any component in a solution is given by the number of moles of
the component divided by the total number of moles making up the solution (including
solvent):

Moles of component
Mole fraction (X) = or
Total moles making up the solution
mole of solute mole of solute
= = or
mole of solute+ mole of solvent mole solution
n solute
=
n solution
Note: 1. Mole fraction is ALWAYS unitless or dimensionless.
2. Xsolute + Xsolvent is always equal to 1.

Example:
1. What is the mole fraction of solute and solvent in a solution that contains 23 grams of glucose,
C6H12O6, in 150 g of water, H2O?
Given: mass C6H12O6 = 23 g m H2O = 150 g
formula mass C6H12O6 = 180 g/mol formula mass H2O = 18 g/mol

a. Determine mole (n) solute and solvent

mass 23 g
n C6H12O6 = = = 0.1278 mol C6H12O6
formula mass 180 g /mol
mass 150 g
n H2O = = = 8.3333 mol H2O
formula mass 18 g /mol
n solute 0.1278 mol 0.1278 mol
X C6H12O6 = = = = 0.0151
n solute +n solvent 0.1278 mol+8.3333 mol 8.4611mol
n solute 8.3333 mol 8.3333 mol
X H2O = = = = 0.9849
n solute +n solvent 0.1278 mol+8.3333 mol 8.4611mol
Note: Xsolute + Xsolvent is always equal to 1
Checking: X C6H12O6 + X H2O = 1
 0.0151 + 0.9849 = 1

2. What is the mole fraction (X) of solute and solvent in a solution labelled as 12% KNO3 solution?
Note: 12 % KNO3 sol’n contains 12 g KNO3 (solute) and 88 g H2O (solvent)
mass 12 g
n KNO3 = = = 0.1188 mol
formula mass 101 g /mol
mass 88 g
n H2O = = = 4.8889 mol
formula mass 18 g /mol
n solute 0.1188 mol 0.1189 mol
X KNO3 = = = = 0.0237
n solute +n solvent 0.1188 mol+ 4.8889 mol 5.0078 mol
n solute 4.8889 mol 4.8889 mol
X H2O = = = = 0.9763
n solute +n solvent 0.1188 mol+ 4.8889 mol 5.0078 mol

F. Molarity (M) –number of moles of solute per liter of solution. This the most common way of
expressing concentration in a chemistry laboratory.
mole of solute n solute
M= =
1 L of solution L solution
mol mmol
Units of Molarity = or
L mL
Example:
1. What is the molar concentration of a solution that contains 34 g of AgNO3 dissolved in 350 mL of
water?
Given: m AgNO3 = 34 g
Formula mass AGNO3 = 170 g/mol
V solution = 34 g + 350 mL = 384 mL = 0.384 L
34 g
N AgNO3 = = 0.2 mol
170 g /mol
n solute 0.2 mol mol
M= = = 0.5208 or 0.5208 molar
L solution 0.384 L L

2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 20 g of NaOH in enough water to produce 850 mL solution.

What is the molar concentration of the solution?
Given: m NaOH = 20 g
fm NaOH = 40 g/mol
V solution = 850 mL = 0.85 L
mass m 20 g
mol
M = n solute formula mass = fm = 40 g /mol = 0.5882 =¿ 0.5882 molar
=M = L
L solution L solution L sol' n 0.85 L
3. Hydrochloric acid is sold commercially as a 12.0 M aqueous solution. How many moles of HCl
are in 300.0 mL of 12.0 M solution?
Given: M = 12 M V sol’n = 300 mL = 0.3 L n solute = ?
n solute
M=
L solution
Therefore, n = (M)(V sol’n)
mol
= (12 )(0.3 L)
L
n = 3.6 mol HCl

4. How many grams of H2SO4 are contained in 1.25 L of 3. 5 M H2SO4 solution?

Given: M H2SO4 sol’n = 3.5 M unknown = mass of H2SO4
 V sol’n = 1.25 L
fm H2SO4 = 98 g/mol

mass
formula mass
M=
V solution

x
(M) (V soln) =
formula mass

Therefore x = (M) (V sol’n) (fm)

mol g
= (3.5 ) (1.25 L) (98 ¿¿
L mol ¿
x = 428.75 g H2SO4

5. How will you prepare 500 mL of 0.5 M glucose, C6H12O6, solution?

Given: V sol’n = 500 mL = 0.5 L
M sol’n = 0.5 M
fm glucose = 180 g/mol
x = (M) (V sol’n) (fm)
mol g
= (0.5 ) (0.5 L) (180 ¿¿
L mol ¿
= 45 g C6 H12O6
Therefore, dissolve 45 g of glucose with enough water until the final volume of the solution is 500
mL.
or Dissolve 45 g of glucose with 455 mL of water.

6. What is the molar concentration of a solution labelled as 15 % CaCO3 solution?

Note: 15 % CaCO3 contains 15 g CaCO3 in 100 mL solution
Given: m CaCO3 = 15 g
fm CaCO3 = 100 g/mol
V solution = 100 mL = 0.1 L
mass 15 g
mol
formula mass = 100 g/mol = 1.5 or 1.5 molar
M= L
V solution 0.1 L

7. The density of a 25.0 % by mass solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water is 1.1783 g/mL at 25.0
°C. What is the molarity of the solution?
Note: 25 % H2SO4 sol’n contains 25 g H2SO4 in 100 g sol’n
Given: m H2SO4 = 25 g
fm H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
Density sol’n 1.1783 g/mL
a. Compute n H2SO4
mass 25 g
=
n = formula mass g = 0.2551 mol
98
mol

b. Compute for V solution

mass
Density =
Volume
 100 g
mass sol ' n 1L
V sol’n = = g = 84.87 mL x = 0.08487 L
Density sol ' n 1.1783 1,000 mL
mL
c. Compute for Molarity
n solute 0.2551 mol mol
M= = = 3.0 M or 3.0 or 3.0 molar
L solution 0.08487 L L

G. Molality (m) – number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

mass
mole solute n solute
Molality = = = formulamass
kilogram solvent kg solvent ¿
kg solvent
Example:
1. A solution is obtained by dissolving 18 g of sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4 in 250 g of H2O. What is the
molal concentration of the solution?
Given: m Na2C2O4 = 18 g
fm Na2C2O4 = 134 g/mol
m H2O = 250 g = 0.250 kg
18 g
mass
g mol
m = formulamass = 134 = 0.5373 or 0.5373 molal or 0.5373 m
mol kg
kg solvent
02.50 kg

2. Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of H2SO4 in 198 g of water.
mol
Answer: m = 1.26 or 1.26 m
kg
3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol (CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is the
molality of the solution?
Given: M = 2.45 M
n CH3OH = 2.45 mol
fm CH3OH = 32 g/mol
V sol’n = 1L = 1,000 mL = 1,000 g
density sol’n = 0.976 g/mL
a. Compute for mass of solute
mass
From n =
formula mass
Therefore: m = (n)( fm)
= (2.45 mol)(32 g/mol)
= 78.4 g
b. Compute for mass solution
mass sol ' n
From d =
Volume sol ' n
Therefore: m = (d sol’n)(V sol’n)
g
= (0.976 )(1,000 mL)
mL
m = 976 g solution
c. Compute for mass solvent
Mass solution = mass solute + mass solvent
Therefore: m solvent = m sol’n – mass solute
= 976 g – 78.4 g
 1 kg
= 897.6 g x = 0.8976 kg
1,000 g
d. Compute for molality
n solute 2.45 mol mol
n= = = 2.7295 or 2.7295 molal or 2.7295 m
kg solvent 0.8976 kg kg
4. Calculate the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL
mol
Answer: m = 8.9134 or 8.9134 m
kg
H. Normality (N) – the number of equivalence of solute per liter of solution. For an acid–base
reaction, the equivalent is the mass of acid or base that can furnish or accept exactly 1 mole of
protons (H+ ions).
¿ of equivalence of slute ¿ of eq
N= =
1 L solution L solution
mss of solute mass
# of equivalence = =
equivalent weight eq . wt
formula mass fm
eq. wt = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿
¿ of replaceable H ¿ ¿ of replaceable H ¿

Determination of Replaceable H+

Note: For acid, the subscript of H in the formula of the acid compound gives the number of
replaceable H+ ion.

Example:
1. For H2SO4, the subscript of H in H2SO4 is 2. Therefore, the number of replaceable H+ ion = 2.

2. For HCl, the number of replaceable H+ ion = 1

3. For H3PO4, the number of replaceable H+ ion = 3
4. H2CO3, the number of replaceable H+ ion = 2

Note: For base, the subscript of OH in the formula of the basic compound gives the number of
replaceable OH- ion.

Example:
1. NaOH has number of replaceable OH- ion = 1
2. Ba(OH)2 has number of replaceable OH- ion = 2
3. Al(OH)3 has number of replaceable OH- ion = 3

Note: For salt, the product of the ionic charges of the salt gives the number of replaceable ions in the
salt compound.

Example:
1. For AlCl3, the number of replaceable ions = 3
AlCl3 → Al3+ + 3Cl- The charge of Al is 3+ and Cl is -1. Therefore, 3 x1 = 3.
 2. For AgNO3, the number of replaceable ion = 1. The charge of Ag is + and NO 3 is -. Therefore, 1x1
= 1.
3. For Na2SO4, the number of replaceable ion = 2. The charge of Na is + and SO 4 is 2-. Therefore,
1x2 = 2.
4. For Fe2O3, the number of replaceable ion = 6. The charge of Fe is 3+ and O is 2-. Therefore, 2x3 =
6.
5. For Zn3(PO4)2, the number of replaceable ion = 6. The charge of Zn is 2+ and PO 4 is 3-. Therefore,
2x3 = 6.

Determination of Equivalent Weight

Example:
1. What is the equivalent weight of the following compounds?
a. AlCl3
b. AgNO3
c. Na2SO4
d. Fe2O3
e. Zn3(PO4)2
Solution:
a. Equivalent weight of AlCl3
Formula mass of AlCl3
Al = 1 x 27 g/mol = 27 g/mol
Cl = 3 x 35.5 g/mol = 106.5 g/mol
= 133.5 g/mol - formula mass
fm 133.5 g /mol g
eq. wt. = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = = 44.5
¿ of replaceable H ¿ 3 eq /m ol ¿

b. Equivalent weight of AgNO3

Formula mass of AgNO3
Ag = 1 x 108 g/mol = 108 g/mol
N = 1 x 14 g/mol = 14 g/mol
O = 3 x 16 g/mol = 48 g/mol
= 170 g/mol - formula mass
170 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 170
1 eq /mol ¿

c. Na2SO4
Na = 2 x 23 g/mol = 46 g/mol
S = 1 x 32 g/mol = 32 g/mol
O = 4 x 16 g/mol = 64 g/mol
= 142 g/mol - formula mass
142 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 71
2 eq /mol ¿

d. Fe2O3
Fe = 2 x 56 g/mol = 112 g/mol
O = 3 x 16 g/mol = 48 g/mol
= 160 g/mol – formula mass
160 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 26.67
6 eq /mol ¿
 e. Zn3(PO4)2
Zn = 3 x 65 g/mol = 195 g/mol
P = 2 x 31 g/mol = 62 g/mol
O = 4 x 2 x 16 g/mol = 128 g/mol
= 385 g/mol
385 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 64.17
6 eq /mol ¿

Determination of Number of Equivalence

Example:
1. What is the number of equivalence in 84 g of AlCl3?
84 g
mss of solute mass
eq = = = g = 1.89 eq.
equivalent weight eq . wt 44.5
eq
2. What is the number of equivalence in 48 g of AgNO3 ?
48 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.28 eq.
eq . wt 170
eq
3. What is the number of equivalence in 100 g of Na2SO4?
100 g
mass
eq = = = g = 1.41 eq.
eq . wt 71
eq
4. What is the number of equivalence in 125 g of Fe2O3?
125 g
mass
eq = = = g = 4.69 eq.
eq . wt 26.67
eq
5. What is the number of equivalence in 55 g of Zn3(PO4)2?
55 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.86 eq.
eq . wt 64.17
eq

Sample Problems on Normality

1. What is the normal concentration of a solution prepared by dissolving 64 g of H 2C2O4 in enough

water to produce 500 mL of H2C2O4 solution?
Given: m H2C2O4 = 64 g
fm H2C2O4 = 90 g/mol
V sol’n = 500 mL = 0.5L
a. Determine eq. wt.
fm 90 g /mol g
eq. wt. = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = = 45
¿ of replaceable H ¿ 2 eq /mol ¿
b. Determine # of eq.
64 g
mass
eq = = = g = 1.42 eq.
eq . wt 45
eq
c. Solve for Normality
 ¿ of equivalence of solute 1.42eq eq
N= = = 2.84 or 2.84 N
L solution 0.5 L L

2. The density of a 25.0 % by mass solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water is 1.1783 g/mL at 25.0
°C. What is the normality of the solution?
Note: 25 % H2SO4 sol’n contains 25 g H2SO4 in 100 g sol’n
Given: m H2SO4 = 25 g
Mass sol’n = 100 g
fm H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
Density sol’n 1.1783 g/mL
a. Determine V solution
mass
From the D =
Volume
mass 100 g 1L
V= = = 84.87 mL x = 0.08487 L
Density 1.1783 g /mL 1,000 mL
b. Determine eq. wt.
fm 98 g /mol g
eq. wt. = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = = 49
¿ of replaceable H ¿ 2 eq /mol ¿
d. Determine # of eq.
25 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.51 eq.
eq . wt 49
eq
e. Solve for Normality
¿ of equivalence of solute 0.51 eq eq
N= = = 6.01 or 6.01 N
L solution 0.08487 L L

Comparing a Molar Concentration with Normal Concentration

Example:
1. A solution is produced from mixing 74 g of Al2(SO4)3 with enough water forming 1.25 L solution.
What is the molar and normal concentrations of the solution?
Given: m Al2(SO4)3 = 74 g
fm Al2(SO4)3 = 2(27) + 3(32) + 12(16)
= 342 g/mol
V sol’n = 1.25 L
a. Determine Molarity
mass 74 g
mol
M = formulamass = 342 g/mol = 0.1731 or 0.1731 M
L
V solutio n 1.25 L
b. Determine Normality
mass 74 g
¿
¿ of equivalence of solute fm 342 g /mol
N = = N = −¿
+¿∨OH = = =
L solution ¿ of replaceable H 6 eq/mol
¿
L solution 1.25 L
eq
( 74 g ) (6 )
mol eq
= 1.04
342 g /mol L
1.25 L
= 1.04 N
Relationship:
N = xM where x stands for the number of replaceable H+, OH-

Example:
1. If the concentration of Al2(SO4)3 solution is 0.1731 M, its normal concentration is 1.04 N. Its
normal concentration is 6 times its molar concentration.
2. 2.0 M Ba(OH)2 solution = 4 N Ba(OH)2
Solution: N = xM x = 2 in Ba(OH)2 because the number of replaceable OH- ion is 2.
= 2(2)
N =4N
3. 1 M HCl = 1 N HCl

Solution Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry deals with the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. It
can be used to find the quantities of reactants and the products from based on balanced chemical
reaction.

Example:

1. Given the following reaction:

2Na3PO4 + 3H2SO4 → 3Na2SO4 + 2H3PO4
How many grams of Na3PO4 solution is required to completely react with 23 mL of 3.5 M H 2SO4
solution?
Given: M H2SO4 = 3.5 M V H2SO4 = 23 mL = 0.023 L
mol H 2 S O4 2mol Na3 P O4 164 g Na3 PO 4
3.5 x 0.023 L H 2 S O 4 so l ' n x x = 8.801 g Na3PO4
1 L H 2 S O4 sol' n 3 mol H 2 S O4 1 mol Na3 P O4

2. How many mL of 6.5 M Al2(SO4)3 is necessary to react with 25 mL of 1.8 M NaOH according to
the following equation:
Al2(SO4)3 + 6NaOH → 2Al(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4
Given: M Al2(SO4)3 = 6.5 M V Al2(SO4)3 = ?
M NaOH = 1.8 M V NaOH = 25 mL = 0.025 L
mol NaOH
1.8 x 0.025 L NaOH sol’n x 1 mol Al2 ¿ ¿ x 1 L Al 2 ¿ ¿ x 1,000 mL Al 2 ¿ ¿
1 L NaOH sol ' n
= 1.154 mL Al2 ¿

3. If 35 mL of 3.5 M Na2SO4 solution is reacted with 35 mL of 3.5 M H 3PO4, how many grams of
Na3PO4 will be theoretically produced in the reaction. The reaction is:
3Na2SO4 + 2H3PO4 → 2Na3PO4 + 3H2SO4
Given: M Na2SO4 = 3.5 M V Na2SO4 = 35 mL
M H3PO4 = 3.5 M V H3PO4 = 35 mL
mol Na2 S O 4 2mol Na3 P O4 164 g Na3 PO 4
3.5 x 0.035 L Na2 S O4 sol’n x x =13.39 g Na3PO4
1 L Na2 S O4 sol ' n 3 mol Na2 S O4 1 mol Na3 P O4
mol H 3 P O4 2mol Na3 P O4 164 g Na3 PO 4
3.5 x 0.035 L H 3 P O4 sol ' nx x = 20.09 g Na3PO4
1 L H 3 P O4 sol' n 2 mol H 3 P O4 1 mol Na3 P O4
 Therefore, 13.39 g of Na3PO4 will be theoretically produced because this is the amount produced
by the limiting reagent, which is Na2SO4.

Neutralization reaction – reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water. Solution
stoichiometry method can also be used to determine the quantities of the acid and base which are involved
in the reaction and the quantities of the products they produced after the reaction.

Example:

1. Stomach acid, a dilute solution of HCl in water, can be neutralized by reaction with sodium
bicarbonate, NaHCO3, according to the equation:
HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2O + CO2
How many milliliters of 0.125 M NaHCO 3 solution are needed to neutralize 18.0 mL of 0.100 M
HCl?
Given: M NaHCO3 = 1.25 M V NaHCO3 = 18 mL
M HCl = 0.100 M V HCl = ?
Solution:
mol NaHC O3 1 mol HCl 1 L HCl
1.25 x 0.018 L NaHCO3 sol’n x
1mol NaH C O
x x
1 L NaHC O3 sol ' n 3 0.100 mol HCl
1,000 mL HCl
1 L HCl
= 225 mL HCl
Note: Quantities of acid and base substances involved in the neutralization reaction can also be
determined using the formula:

Using this formula to answer problem 1:

MA x VA = MB x VB
M B x V B (1.25 M )(18 m L)
VA = = = 225 mL
MA 0.100 M

Note: This equation is applicable if the number of replaceable H+ and OH– are the same. But for cases
where the number of replaceable H+ and OH- are not the same, there is a slight modification of the
formula.

If the neutralization reaction involves NaOH and H2SO4, the number of replaceable OH- = 1 while the
number of replaceable H+ = 2. Therefore, the formula becomes:
2 x MA x VB = MB x VB
Example:
1. How many mL of 6 M NaOH is required to neutralized 30 mL of 3.5 M H2SO4?
Given: M H2SO4 = 3.5 M V H2SO4 = 30 mL no. of replaceable H+ = 2
M NaOH = 6 M V NaOH = ? no. of replaceable OH- = 1
Therefore, the formula is:
2 x MA x VB = MB x VB
 2 x M A x V A (2)(3.5 M )(30 mL )
VB = = = 35 mL NaOH
MB 6M
Another solution:
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

mol H 2 S O 4 2 mol NaOH 1 L NaOH sol ' n 1,000 mL NaOH sol ' n
3.5 x 0.030 L H2SO4 sol’n x
1mol H 2 S O4
x x
1 L H 2 S O4 sol' n 6 mol NaOH 1 L NaOH sol' n
= 35 mL NaOH sol’n

2. A certain laboratory procedure is conducted to neutralize 45 mL of 5 M Al(OH)3 solution with 25

mL of an unknown molar concentration of acetic acid, CH3COOH. What is the molar
concentration of the acid used in the process?
Given: M Al(OH)3 = 5 M V Al(OH)3 = 45 mL no. of replaceable OH- = 3
M CH3COOH = ? V CH3COOH = 25 mL no. of replaceable H+ = 1
MA x VB = 3 x MB x VB
3 x M B x V B (3)(5 M )(45 mL)
MA = = = 27 M CH3COOH
VB 25 mL
Another solution:
Al(OH)3 + 3CH3COOH → Al(CH3COO)3 + 3H2O

mol Al(OH )3 3 mol C H 3 COOH

5.00 x 0.045 L Al(OH)3 sol’n x = 0.675 mol CH3COOH
1 L Al (OH )3 sol' n 1 mol Al (OH )3
n solute 0.675 mol
M= = = 27 M CH3COOH
V solution 0.025 L

Dilution – A procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution by
adding water. The formula of dilution is:

Example:

1. How many mL of 12 N HCl should be added with enough water to produce 40 mL of 3.5 N HCl
solution?
Given: N1 = 12 N V1 = ?
N2 = 3.5 N V2 = 40 mL
N 2 V 2 (3.5 N )(40 mL )
V1 = = = 11.67 mL HCl
N1 12 N
 2. How many mL of 18 M Ba(OH)2 solution should be added with enough water to produce 100 mL
of 10 M Ba(OH)2 solution?
3. Given: M1 = 18 M V1 = ?
M2 = 10 M V2 = 100 mL
M 2 V 2 (10 M )(100 mL)
V1 = = = 55.56 mL Ba(OH)2
M1 18 M

Drill Problems: Answer the following questions by showing your complete solution.

1. How many grams of potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) are required to prepare a 250-mL

solution whose concentration is 2.16 M ?
Answer: 159 g K2Cr2O7
2. What is the molarity of an 85.0-mL ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH) solution containing 1.77 g of ethanol?
Anwser: 0.4527 M
3. In a biochemical assay, a chemist needs to add 3.81 g of glucose to a reaction mixture. Calculate
the volume in milliliters of a 2.53 M glucose solution she should use for the addition.
Answer: 8.36 mL sol’n

4. Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must be added to 5.00 g of urea (NH 2)2CO in the
preparation of a 16.2 percent by mass solution.
Answer: 25.9 g

5. The concentrated sulfuric acid we use in the laboratory is 98.0 percent H 2SO4 by mass. Calculate
the molality and molarity of the acid solution. The density of the solution is 1.83 g/mL.
Answer: a. 500 m b. 18.3 M

6. The density of an aqueous solution containing 10.0 percent of ethanol (C 2H5OH) by mass is 0.984
g/mL. Calculate its molarity.
Answer: 2.13 M

7. If there is 0.551 mg of As in 348 g of solution, what is the As concentration in ppm?

Answer: 1.58 ppm

8. The concentration of Cl– ion in a sample of H2O is 15.0 ppm. What mass of Cl– ion is present in
240.0 mL of H2O, which has a density of 1.00 g/mL?
Answer: 0.0036 g or 3.6 mg

9. How many mL of a 5.0 M CuSO4 solution are needed to prepare 0.350 L of 0.500 M CuSO4?
Answer: 35 mL

References:
Chang, R. Chemistry.(2010). 5th ed. Mc Graw Hill Book Co.. N.Y.

Manahan, Stanley E. (1993) Fundamentals of Chemistry. London: Lewis.

Masterton and Hurley. (2004). Chemistry: Principles and Reactions. 5th ed. Thomson Learning, Inc.

Mc Murry and Fay. (2012). 6th ed. Chemistry. Pearson Prentice Hall Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458

Purdue University. (2002). Special Edition of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Primis Custom
Publishing.

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