9.10.

2023

Orbital Mechanics

Dr. Demet Cilden-Guler

Lecture 2: Two-Body Problem

Department of Astronautical Engineering

Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Istanbul Technical University

Last Week
• Vectors
• Kinematics
• Newton’s law of gravitation
• Relative motion
• Angular momentum
• Inertial frame
Angular momentum about O : 𝐇! = 𝐫×𝑚𝐯
The absolute velocity of P : 𝐯 = 𝐯! + 𝛀×𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐥 + 𝐯𝐫𝐞𝐥
The absolute acceleration of P : 𝐚 = 𝐚! + 𝛀×𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐥 + 𝛀× 𝛀×𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐥 + 𝟐𝛀×𝐯𝐫𝐞𝐥 + 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐥
Coriolis acceleration due to the rotation of the planet

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What to Learn

• Basic parameters
• Vector-based approach to the classical problem of
determining the motion of two bodies due to
gravitational attraction
• Orbit shapes
• Conservation of angular momentum and energy

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Basic Parameters

Slicing a cone with a plane forms a conic section

• Plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution:
• Circle
• Planes parallel to the axis of revolution:
• Hyperbolas
• Planes parallel to the outer surface:
• Parabolas
• All other sections:
• Ellipses

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Basic Parameters

• The gravitational center of attraction:

primary focus.
• The sum of the distance from both foci to
any point on the orbit is constant.
• The ratio of the distance from a focus to
the orbit and the distance from that
point to the directrix is constant called
• 𝑟𝐹 ! + 𝑟𝐹 = constant = 2𝑎
the eccentricity, e (orbit’s shape—its
“roundness” or “flatness.”).
• 𝑟𝐹 ! − 𝑟𝐹 = constant = 2𝑐
• The closest point to the primary focus, F:
radius of periapsis, rp.

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Basic Parameters
• Semimajor axis (a), semiminor
axis (b), and half the distance
between the foci (c)
• Radius of apoapsis, ra, and
periapsis, rp: extreme points of
the ellipse
• Semiparameter, p, locates the
orbit distance normal from the
semimajor axis at the focus
(sometimes called the semilatus
rectum or simply parameter)

𝑐 𝑎! − 𝑏!
𝑒= =
𝑎 𝑎

𝑏!
𝑝= = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒!
𝑎

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Basic Parameters
• True anomaly is not defined for circular orbits (no periapsis)
• Overcome this limitation by selecting a direction in the orbit to replace
periapsis as the location for the initial measurement

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Basic Parameters

• Parabolic Orbits • Hyperbolic Orbits

• Open because they don’t repeat • Open
• Semimajor axis: infinite • Semimajor axis: negative
• Second focus: at infinity • Eccentricity: larger than unity
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Basic Parameters
• The semimajor axis:
• positive for both the circle and the
ellipse
• infinite for a parabola
• negative for a hyperbola
• A particular planet or central body
attracting the satellite, ra and rp are
called,
• Sun: aphelion and perihelion
• Earth: apogee and perigee
• Moon: aposelenium and periselenium
• General: apoapsis and periapsis

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Classical Orbital Elements

The six classical orbital elements

• Semimajor axis, a
• Eccentricity, e
• Inclination, i
• Right ascension (longitude) of the ascending node (RAAN),
Ω - often referred to as simply the node
• Argument of perigee, 𝜔
• True anomaly, 𝜃

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Classical Orbital Elements

(Continues in “Orbits in Three Dimensions”)

Prograde: Body travels in the same direction as the planet's rotation. Retrograde: opposite direction

We will mostly use

the symbol “𝜃” for
true anomaly.
𝜃

If there is no perturbation, orbital elements would be constant except the true anomaly.
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Basic Parameters
• The flight-path angle measured from the local horizontal to the velocity vector.
• Always positive while the satellite travels from periapsis to apoapsis and
negative for travel from apoapsis to periapsis.

𝜃
𝜃

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Basic Parameters

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

𝑚&𝐑̇ & + 𝑚'𝐑̇ '

𝐯% = 𝐑̇ % =
𝑚& + 𝑚'
𝑚&𝐑̈ & + 𝑚'𝐑̈ '
𝐚% = 𝐑̈ % =
𝑚& + 𝑚'
𝐫 = 𝐑 ' − 𝐑&

𝐫 = 𝑋' − 𝑋& 𝐈ˆ + 𝑌' − 𝑌& 𝐉ˆ + 𝑍' − 𝑍& 𝐊

ˆ
𝐫
𝐮ˆ ( = (
𝑟= 𝑋' − 𝑋& ' + 𝑌' − 𝑌& ' + 𝑍' − 𝑍& '

Fig. 1 (a) Two masses located in an inertial frame. (b) Free-body diagrams.

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

The body 𝑚# is acted upon only by the
force of gravitational attraction toward
𝑚!. The force exerted on 𝑚# by 𝑚! is,
𝐺𝑚#𝑚!
𝐅#! = 𝐮ˆ $
𝑟!
where 𝐮ˆ $ accounts for the fact that the
force vector 𝐅#! is directed from 𝑚#
toward 𝑚!. By Newton's third law (the
action-reaction principle), the force 𝐅!#
exerted on 𝑚! by 𝑚# is −𝐅#!, so that
𝐺𝑚#𝑚!
𝐅!# = − 𝐮ˆ $
𝑟!
Fig. 1 (a) Two masses located in an inertial frame. (b) Free-body Newton's second law of motion as
diagrams. applied to a body 𝑚# is 𝐅#! = 𝑚#𝐑¨ # ,
where 𝐑¨ # is the absolute acceleration of
𝑚#.

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

%&! &" %&! &"
𝑚#𝐑¨ # = $"
𝐮ˆ $ , 𝑚!𝐑¨ ! = − $"
𝐮ˆ $

𝑚#𝐑¨ # + 𝑚!𝐑¨ ! = 𝟎
G moves in a straight line. Why?
The position vector relative to 𝑋𝑌𝑍 is
given by
𝐑 % = 𝐑 % )' + 𝐯% 𝑡
where 𝐑 % )' is the position of 𝐺 at time
𝑡 = 0.
Origin of an inertial frame:
Nonaccelerating center of mass
Fig. 1 (a) Two masses located in an inertial frame. (b) Free-body
diagrams. 𝑚#𝐑̈ # + 𝑚!𝐑̈ !
𝐚% = 𝐑̈ % = =0
𝑚# + 𝑚!
No external forces acting!

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Barycenter
Navigation and Ancillary Information Facility (NAIF) by NASA JPL
(https://naif.jpl.nasa.gov/naif/)
Ancillary Data

A large planet and a star orbit their barycenter

Credit: N ASA

A schem atic diagram of the Earth-M oon system (not to scale), highlighting
the position of the barycenter and the orbits of the Earth and M oon about
N ew H orizons im ages of Pluto and its largest m oon, Charon this point
Credit: N ASA/Johns H opkins U niversity Applied Physics Credit: ESA
Barycenter: shared center of mass Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

#$($)
• The potential energy, 𝑉 = −
%

• A conservative force, like gravity, can be obtained from its potential energy function 𝑉
by means of the gradient operator, 𝐅 = −∇𝑉

& & & ˆ

where, in Cartesian coordinates, ∇= 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
&' &( &)

#$($)
• For the two-body system, 𝑉 = −
*)+*( ), -)+-( ), .)+.( )

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐅/0 = − 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + ˆ , 𝐅0/ = −
𝐤 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + ˆ
𝐤
𝜕𝑋0 𝜕𝑌0 𝜕𝑍0 𝜕𝑋/ 𝜕𝑌/ 𝜕𝑍/
𝐫 𝐫
𝐑¨ / = 𝐺𝑚0 1
, 𝐑¨ 0 = 𝐺𝑚/ 1
𝑟 𝑟

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

• In terms of the components of the position and acceleration vectors in the inertial 𝑋𝑌𝑍
frame:
𝑋0 − 𝑋/ 𝑌0 − 𝑌/ 𝑍0 − 𝑍/
𝑋¨/ = 𝐺𝑚0 𝑌¨/ = 𝐺𝑚0 𝑍¨/ = 𝐺𝑚0
𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟1
𝑋/ − 𝑋0 𝑌/ − 𝑌0 𝑍/ − 𝑍0
𝑋¨ 0 = 𝐺𝑚/ 𝑌¨0 = 𝐺𝑚/ 𝑍¨0 = 𝐺𝑚/
𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟1

where 𝑟= 𝑋0 − 𝑋/ 0 + 𝑌0 − 𝑌/ 0 + 𝑍0 − 𝑍/ 0 .

In our lecture, state vector is formed by position vector 𝐑 and velocity vector 𝐕 of a
particle.

Find the state vectors of both particles of the two-body system at a given time, given the
state vectors at an initial time.
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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

The motion of two identical bodies acted on only by their mutual gravitational attraction, as viewed from the inertial frame of reference.

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

Fig. 2a The motion of two identical bodies acted on only by their mutual Fig. 2b The motion : (a) as viewed relative to m1
gravitational attraction, as viewed from the inertial frame of (or m2); (b) as viewed from the center of mass.
reference.
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If More Than Two Body

• If there are more than two bodies moving only under the influence
of their mutual gravitational attraction. The n-body problem with
n > 2 has no closed form solution, which is complex and chaotic
in nature.
• Expectation:
• No periodic behavior as in the two-body motion
• The chaos is more obvious if the motion is viewed from the
center of mass of the three-body system

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

The motion of three identical masses as seen from the inertial frame in which m1 and m3 are initially at rest, while m2 has an initial velocity v0
directed upward and to the right, as shown.

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Equations of Motion in an Inertial Frame

Fig. 3a The motion of three identical masses as seen from the Fig. 3b The same motion, as viewed from
inertial frame in which m1 and m3 are initially at rest, while the inertial frame attached to the center of
m2 has an initial velocity v0 directed upward and to the right, mass G.
as shown.

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Equations of Relative Motion

The relative acceleration vector,

𝐺 𝑚/ + 𝑚0
𝐫¨ = 𝐑¨ 0 − 𝐑¨ / = − 𝐮ˆ %
𝑟0
The gravitational parameter: 𝜇 = 𝐺 𝑚/ + 𝑚0 [cubic
kilometers per square second]
𝜇
𝐫¨ = − 1 𝐫
𝑟
Nonlinear second-order differential equation governs
the motion of 𝑚0 relative to 𝑚/ .
Two vector constants of integration, each having three
scalar components: Six constants of integration

Fig. 4 Moving reference frame xyz attached to

D. Cilden-Guler thecenter of mass of m1.
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Equations of Relative Motion

𝐫 in a frame of reference attached to and moving with

ˆ
𝑚/ : 𝐫 = 𝑥 𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ + 𝑧𝐤
The relative velocity 𝐫˙ rel and acceleration 𝐫¨ rel in the
ˆ 𝐫¨ 234 = 𝑥¨ 𝐢ˆ + 𝑦¨ 𝐣ˆ + 𝑧¨ 𝐤
comoving frame, 𝐫˙ 234 = 𝑥 𝐢ˆ + 𝑦˙ 𝐣ˆ + 𝑧˙ 𝐤, ˆ
˙
𝐫¨ = 𝐫¨ 234 + 𝛀×𝐫 + 𝛀×(𝛀×𝐫) + 2𝛀×𝐫˙ rel
where 𝛀 and 𝛀 ˙ are the absolute angular velocity and
angular acceleration of the moving frame of reference.
˙ = 𝟎. That is to say, the relative
𝐫¨ = 𝐫¨ rel only if 𝛀 = 𝛀
acceleration
5 5 5 5
𝐫¨ = − 𝐫 components: 𝑥¨ = − 𝑥, 𝑦¨ = − 𝑦, 𝑧¨ = − 𝑧
%* %* %* %*

Fig. 4 Moving reference frame xyz attached to

D. Cilden-Guler thecenter of mass of m1.
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𝑚# -
𝜇, = 𝜇
Equations of Relative Motion 𝑚# + 𝑚!
𝑚! -
𝜇,, = 𝜇
𝑚# + 𝑚!
The state vector: 𝐲 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ 𝑧̇
𝐫#
The state vector rates: 𝐲̇ = 𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ 𝑧̇ 𝑥̈ 𝑦̈ 𝑧̈
Center of mass 𝐺 zero acceleration (use as inertial reference 𝐫!
frame)
The equation of motion of 𝑚0 relative to the center of mass is,
𝑚/ 𝑚0
−𝐺 𝐮ˆ % = 𝑚0 𝐫¨0 𝐫 = 𝐫0 − 𝐫/
𝑟0
$)
𝑚/ 𝐫/ + 𝑚0 𝐫0 = 𝑚/ + 𝑚0 𝐑 # = 0, 𝐫/ = − 𝐫
$( 0

$(,$) $( * $) $( 1 5
𝐫= 𝐫0 , −𝐺 𝐫 = 𝑚0 𝐫¨0 , − 𝐫 = 𝐫¨0
$( $(,$) )%) * 0 $(,$) %) * 0

5+ 5++
𝐫¨0 = − 𝐫, 𝐫¨/ = − 𝐫
%) * 0 %( * /

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Angular Momentum and Orbit Formulas

The angular momentum of body 𝑚! relative to 𝑚# is the moment of 𝑚!,s relative linear momentum 𝑚!𝐫,
˙
𝐇!/# = 𝐫×𝑚!𝐫˙
where 𝐫˙ = 𝐯 is the velocity of 𝑚! relative to 𝑚#. Let 𝐡 = 𝐇!/#/𝑚!, so that 𝐡 = 𝐫×𝐫˙ where 𝐡 is the relative
angular momentum of 𝑚! per unit mass (i.e., the specific relative angular momentum). The units of 𝐡 are
square kilometers per second.
/𝐡
Taking the time derivative of 𝐡 yields ˙ 𝐫˙ + 𝐫×𝐫¨ = 0
= 𝐫×
/1
2 2
˙ 𝐫˙ = 𝟎) and (𝐫¨ = − 𝜇/𝑟 - 𝐫, 𝐫×𝐫¨ = 𝐫× −
(𝐫× 𝐫 =− (𝐫×𝐫) = 𝟎) → Angular momentum is conserved
$# $#
(𝐫×𝐫˙ = constant)
• If the position vector 𝐫 and the velocity vector 𝐫˙ are parallel, angular momentum is zero and remains zero
at all points of the trajectory.
• Zero angular momentum characterizes rectilinear trajectories (𝑚! moves toward or away from 𝑚# in a
straight line).

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Angular Momentum and

Orbit Formulas
• At any point of a curvilinear trajectory, the
position vector 𝐫 and the velocity vector 𝐫˙
ˆ =𝐡
lie in the same plane. 𝐫×𝐫˙ = 𝐡, 𝐡
7

• By the conservation of angular momentum,

Fig. 5 The path of m2 around m1 lies in a plane whose
the unit vector is constant. Thus, the path normal is defined by h.

of 𝑚0 around 𝑚/ lies in a single plane.

• Relative velocity vector 𝐫˙ components
𝐯% = 𝑣% 𝐮ˆ % along the outward radial from 𝑚/
𝐯8 = 𝑣8 𝐮ˆ 8 perpendicular (azimuthal)
ˆ
𝐡 = 𝐫×𝐯 = 𝒓𝐮ˆ % × 𝑣% 𝐮ˆ % + 𝑣8 𝐮ˆ 8 = 𝑟𝑣8 𝐡
ℎ = 𝑟𝑣8
Fig. 6 Components of the velocity of m2, viewed above the
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Angular Momentum and Orbit Formulas

1 1
d𝐴 = × base × altitude = ×𝑣 d𝑡×𝑟sin 𝜙
Orbit Equation
2 2 ℎ! 1
1 1 𝑟=
= 𝑟(𝑣sin 𝜙)d𝑡 = 𝑟𝑣3 d𝑡 𝜇 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃
2 2
/4 5
= (areal velocity: constant) Constant parameters?
/1 !

Fig. 7 Differential area dA swept out by the relative Fig. 8 The true anomaly θ is the angle between the eccentricity
position vector r during time interval dt. vector e and the position vector r.

German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Kepler's second law: Orbital

D. Cilden-Guler equal areas are swept out in equal times.
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Angular Momentum and Orbit Formulas

Fig. 9 Position and velocity of m2 in polar coordinates Fig. 10 Illustration of latus rectum, semilatus rectum p, and the
centered at m1, with the eccentricity vector being the chord between any two points on an orbit.
reference for true anomaly (polar angle) θ. γ is the
flight path angle.
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relative kinetic potential energy

Energy Law energy per
unit mass
per unit mass

By taking the dot product of 𝐫¨ = − 𝜇/𝑟 - 𝐫 with the relative linear momentum per unit mass. The relative
&" 𝐫˙
linear momentum per unit mass is just the relative velocity, = 𝐫˙
&"
𝐫⋅˙𝐫
𝐫¨ ⋅ 𝐫˙ = −𝜇
$#
#/ #/ # / /1 / 9" 𝐫⋅˙𝐫 $$̇ $̇
𝐫¨ ⋅ 𝐫˙ = ! /1 (𝐫˙ ⋅ 𝐫)
˙ =
! /1
(𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯) = !
𝑣 ! = /1 !
˙ d(1/𝑟)/d𝑡 = −1/𝑟 ! d𝑟/d𝑡, 𝜇 $# = 𝜇 $# = 𝜇 $" =
, 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫˙ = 𝑟𝑟,
/ 2 / 9" 2
− , − =0
/1 $ /1 ! $
𝑣' 𝜇
− = 𝜀 (constant) Vis Viva Equation
2 𝑟
The total mechanical energy per unit mass 𝜀 is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies per unit mass.
Conservation of energy (namely, that the specific mechanical energy is the same at all points of the
trajectory).
Also known as the vis viva ("living force") equation. It is valid for any trajectory, including rectilinear ones.

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Circular Orbits (e=0)

• Gravitational constant for Earth: 𝜇 = 𝐺𝑀Q
• For circular orbits only: 𝑎 = 𝑟
R 'TS
• Velocity: 𝑉= =
S U
S*/)
• Period: 𝑇 = 2𝜋 R
⟹ 𝑇 '~𝑟 V (Kepler’s third law)
R 'T
• Angular Speed: 𝜔 = =
S* U
where
• Radius of Earth: RE = 6.3781366×10W m
• Universal Gravitational Constant: 𝐺= 6.6742867×10X&& N X m'⁄kg '
• Mass of Earth: 𝑀𝐸 = 5.9721426×10'Y kg

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Example

Fig. 11 Satellite in GEO. Fig. 12 Surface area A visible from GEO.

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Two-Line Element (TLE)

ITUPSAT 1

Line 1 Line 2
Column Description Column Description
01 Line Number of Element Data 01 Line Number of Element Data
03-07 Satellite Number 03-07 Satellite Number
08 Classification (U=Unclassified) 09-16 Inclination [Degrees]
10-11 International Designator (Last two digits of launch year) 18-25 Right Ascension of the Ascending Node [Degrees]
12-14 International Designator (Launch number of the year) 27-33 Eccentricity (Leading decimal point assumed)
15-17 International Designator (Piece of the launch) 35-42 Argument of Perigee [Degrees]
19-20 Epoch Year (Last two digits of year) 44-51 Mean Anomaly [Degrees]
21-32 Epoch (Day of the year and fractional portion of the day) 53-63 Mean Motion [Revs per day]

34-43 First Time Derivative of the Mean Motion 64-68 Revolution number at epoch [Revs]
69 Checksum (Modulo 10)
45-52 Second Time Derivative of Mean Motion (Leading decimal point assumed)

54-61 BSTAR drag term (Leading decimal point assumed)

63 Ephemeris type
65-68 Element number
Checksum (Modulo 10)
69
(Letters, blanks, periods, plus signs = 0; minus signs = 1)

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