TQM 16M
TQM 16M
2. Demming’s – 14 points
3. Dimensions of quality
Quality costs refer to the expenses associated with ensuring and maintaining the
quality of products or services within an organization. These costs can be categorized
into four main types: prevention costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, and
external failure costs. Let's explore each type with examples:
1. Prevention Costs:
• Definition: Prevention costs are expenses incurred to prevent defects
or quality problems from occurring in the first place. These costs are
proactive and aim to eliminate the root causes of potential quality
issues.
• Examples:
• Employee Training: Training programs for employees to ensure
they have the necessary skills and knowledge to do their jobs
correctly.
• Quality Planning: The cost of developing and implementing
quality control procedures and quality management systems.
• Product Design Reviews: Evaluating product designs to identify
and eliminate potential flaws before production.
• Supplier Quality Audits: Inspecting and auditing suppliers'
processes to ensure the quality of incoming materials or
components.
2. Appraisal Costs:
• Definition: Appraisal costs are expenses related to inspecting, testing,
and evaluating products or services to ensure they meet quality
standards. These costs are incurred to detect defects.
• Examples:
• Quality Inspections: Conducting quality inspections and tests
on finished products or components.
• Testing Equipment: Purchasing, maintaining, and calibrating
testing equipment and tools.
• Quality Audits: Conducting internal audits to assess the
effectiveness of quality control processes.
• Supplier Audits: Visiting and inspecting suppliers' facilities to
verify product quality.
3. Internal Failure Costs:
• Definition: Internal failure costs are expenses incurred when defects or
quality issues are identified before the product or service reaches the
customer. These costs occur within the organization.
• Examples:
• Rework and Scrap: The cost of fixing defects or discarding
substandard products during the production process.
• Machine Downtime: Loss of productivity and revenue due to
equipment breakdowns caused by poor quality.
• Product Warranty Claims: Expenses related to honoring
warranties or guarantees for faulty products.
• Process Redesign: The cost of redesigning processes or
products to eliminate quality problems.
4. External Failure Costs:
• Definition: External failure costs are expenses incurred when defects or
quality problems are discovered by customers after they have received
the product or service. These costs occur outside the organization and
can harm its reputation.
• Examples:
• Product Returns and Replacements: The cost of replacing or
refunding products returned by dissatisfied customers.
• Customer Complaints: Handling and addressing customer
complaints, which may involve investigation and resolution
efforts.
• Legal Actions: Legal expenses, fines, or settlements resulting
from product liability lawsuits.
• Loss of Reputation: Damage to the organization's reputation
and potential loss of future business due to poor quality.
The PDSA cycle, also known as the Deming Cycle or the Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle, is a
continuous improvement framework used by organizations to systematically
approach problem-solving and make incremental improvements in processes,
products, or services. It consists of four key stages: Plan, Do, Study, and Act. Let's
break down each stage with an example:
1. Plan:
• Definition: In the "Plan" stage, you define the problem, set clear objectives,
and develop a plan for improvement. This includes identifying the goals,
creating a detailed plan, and determining what data will be collected to
measure progress.
• Example: Imagine a manufacturing company that has noticed an increase in
defects in its products. The "Plan" stage would involve:
• Defining the problem: The company identifies that defects are causing
increased customer complaints and higher production costs.
• Setting objectives: The company aims to reduce defects by 50% within
the next three months.
• Developing a plan: The plan might include training for employees,
upgrading equipment, and implementing new quality control
processes.
• Collecting data: The company decides to track the number of defects in
each production batch as a key metric.
2. Do:
• Definition: In the "Do" stage, you execute the plan developed in the first
stage. This involves implementing the changes or improvements and
documenting the process as it unfolds.
• Example: The manufacturing company now puts the plan into action:
• Employees receive training on the new quality control processes.
• New equipment is purchased and installed.
• The upgraded processes are implemented on the production line.
• The company collects data on defect rates as production continues
under the new conditions.
3. Study:
• Definition: In the "Study" stage, you analyze the data collected during the
"Do" stage to assess whether the changes have had the desired effect. This
stage is about evaluating the outcomes and understanding what worked and
what didn't.
• Example: After implementing the changes, the company reviews the data
collected:
• Defect rates have indeed decreased by 50%, meeting the set objective.
• Customer complaints have reduced significantly.
• Production costs have decreased due to fewer defects and rework.
4. Act:
• Definition: In the "Act" stage, you take action based on the insights gained
during the "Study" stage. If the improvements were successful, you
standardize the changes and make them a permanent part of the process. If
they were not successful, you make adjustments and go through the PDSA
cycle again.
• Example: In this case, because the changes resulted in a significant reduction
in defects, the company decides to:
• Standardize the new quality control processes.
• Continue employee training to maintain and improve quality.
• Regularly monitor defect rates to ensure they stay low.
1. Customer Focus:
• TQM places the customer at the center of all activities. Understanding
and meeting customer needs and expectations is the primary focus.
• Organizations collect and analyze customer feedback to drive
improvements and ensure customer satisfaction.
2. Continuous Improvement (Kaizen):
• TQM emphasizes the ongoing quest for improvement in all aspects of
the organization. This includes processes, products, services, and
employee skills.
• The principle of Kaizen encourages small, incremental improvements
over time, fostering a culture of continuous learning and enhancement.
3. Employee Involvement and Empowerment:
• TQM recognizes that employees are a valuable source of knowledge
and creativity. Engaged and empowered employees are more likely to
contribute to quality improvements.
• Employees are encouraged to actively participate in problem-solving,
decision-making, and quality initiatives.
4. Process-Oriented Approach:
• TQM promotes a systematic approach to quality through the careful
management and improvement of processes.
• Organizations analyze and optimize processes to reduce errors,
increase efficiency, and enhance product or service quality.
5. Data-Driven Decision Making:
• TQM relies on accurate data and facts to make informed decisions.
Data is used to identify problems, set benchmarks, and measure
progress.
• Statistical tools and methodologies are often employed to analyze data
and drive improvement efforts.
6. Supplier Relationships:
• TQM extends the focus on quality to suppliers and partners. Strong
relationships with suppliers are crucial for ensuring the quality of
incoming materials and components.
• Collaborative partnerships with suppliers can lead to shared quality
goals and mutual benefits.
7. Leadership Commitment:
• TQM requires active and visible leadership commitment to quality. Top
management plays a critical role in setting the quality culture and
direction of the organization.
• Leaders lead by example, emphasizing the importance of quality in all
aspects of the business.
8. Strategic Alignment:
• TQM principles align quality efforts with the organization's overall
strategic goals and objectives.
• Quality is integrated into the organization's long-term vision and
becomes a fundamental part of its strategic planning.
9. Training and Education:
• TQM invests in the training and education of employees to enhance
their skills and knowledge.
• Continuous learning ensures that employees are well-equipped to
contribute to quality improvement efforts.
10. Elimination of Waste and Variation:
• TQM seeks to reduce waste, inefficiencies, and variations in processes
and products.
• Methods like Lean and Six Sigma are often employed to identify and
eliminate non-value-added activities and defects.
11. Benchmarking:
• Organizations compare their performance to industry benchmarks and
best practices.
• Benchmarking helps identify areas where the organization can improve
and learn from successful competitors or peers.
12. Total Involvement:
• TQM encourages every member of the organization, from top
management to frontline employees, to be involved in quality
improvement efforts.
• Quality becomes everyone's responsibility.
Components of FMEA:
1. Failure Mode: This is the specific way in which a process, system, or product
can fail. It's a description of what could go wrong.
2. Effect: The effect describes the consequence or impact of the failure mode on
the overall system, process, or product. Effects can range from minor
inconveniences to serious safety hazards.
3. Severity: Severity is a rating that quantifies how serious or critical the
potential effect of a failure mode is. It typically uses a numerical scale (e.g., 1
to 10), with higher numbers indicating more severe consequences.
4. Probability of Occurrence: This rating assesses the likelihood or probability
that the failure mode will occur. It's also typically rated on a numerical scale,
with higher numbers indicating a higher likelihood.
5. Detection: Detection evaluates how likely it is that the failure mode will be
detected before it reaches the customer or causes harm. Again, it's rated on a
numerical scale, with higher numbers indicating a lower likelihood of
detection.
6. Risk Priority Number (RPN): The RPN is calculated by multiplying the
severity, probability of occurrence, and detection ratings. It is used to prioritize
failure modes. Higher RPN values suggest higher-priority issues that need
attention.
Applications of FMEA:
1. Product Design: FMEA is used during the product design phase to identify
potential failure modes and their effects, allowing engineers to make design
changes to enhance reliability and safety. For example, in the automotive
industry, FMEA can help identify potential design flaws in a car's braking
system.
2. Process Improvement: FMEA can be applied to manufacturing and business
processes to identify weaknesses, bottlenecks, and potential failure points. By
addressing these issues, organizations can improve efficiency and quality. For
instance, in a food manufacturing plant, FMEA can help pinpoint
contamination risks in the production process.
3. Healthcare: FMEA is used in healthcare settings to identify and mitigate
potential risks in medical procedures, patient care, and equipment use. For
instance, in a hospital, FMEA can be employed to evaluate the risks associated
with administering medications.
4. Software Development: In software development, FMEA helps identify
potential software defects and their impacts on the user experience. It guides
the development team in making improvements. For example, when
developing a banking application, FMEA can identify potential security
vulnerabilities.
Example:
1. Basic Idea: FTA begins with a specific undesired event or failure, often
referred to as the "top event." The goal is to break down this top event into its
underlying causes, which are represented as logical gates in a fault tree
diagram.
2. Logical Gates: Fault tree diagrams use logical gates (AND, OR, NOT) to
represent relationships between events and conditions that lead to the top
event.
• AND Gate: Requires all input events or conditions to occur for the
output event to happen. It represents a logical "and" relationship.
• OR Gate: Requires at least one of the input events or conditions to
occur for the output event to happen. It represents a logical "or"
relationship.
• NOT Gate: Represents negation, indicating that a specific event or
condition should not occur for the output event to happen.
3. Analysis Process: The process involves systematically analyzing the
relationships and dependencies between events and conditions using the
logical gates. This helps identify the critical factors that contribute to the top
event.
4. Quantitative or Qualitative Analysis: Depending on the complexity and
availability of data, FTA can be used for both quantitative (probabilistic) and
qualitative (non-probabilistic) analysis. In quantitative analysis, probabilities
are assigned to events and conditions, allowing for risk assessment.
10. Characteristics of successful leader
Successful leaders possess a diverse range of qualities and characteristics that enable
them to effectively guide and inspire their teams. Here are some key characteristics
often associated with successful leaders:
1. Vision: Successful leaders have a clear and compelling vision of the future.
They can articulate this vision to their team and inspire them to work toward
common goals.
2. Effective Communication: Leaders communicate clearly and actively listen to
their team members. They convey information, provide feedback, and ensure
that everyone understands their role and responsibilities.
3. Empathy: Successful leaders understand and relate to the emotions and
perspectives of their team members. They show empathy and support to build
strong relationships.
4. Decisiveness: Leaders are capable of making tough decisions, often under
pressure. They weigh available information and act decisively, taking
responsibility for the outcomes.
5. Adaptability: In a rapidly changing world, successful leaders are adaptable.
They can pivot and adjust their strategies in response to changing
circumstances and market dynamics.
6. Integrity: Integrity and ethical behavior are fundamental. Successful leaders
act with honesty and maintain high ethical standards, earning the trust of their
teams.
7. Resilience: Leaders face challenges and setbacks but remain resilient. They
bounce back from failures, learn from mistakes, and maintain a positive
outlook.
8. Accountability: Successful leaders take responsibility for their actions and the
outcomes of their decisions. They hold themselves accountable and set a
strong example for their team.
9. Empowerment: Leaders empower their team members by delegating
responsibilities and providing opportunities for growth and development.
They trust their team's capabilities.
10. Innovation: Effective leaders encourage innovation and creativity. They are
open to new ideas and create an environment where team members feel
comfortable sharing their insights.
11. Team Building: Leaders understand the importance of building a cohesive
and high-performing team. They foster collaboration, celebrate successes, and
address conflicts constructively.
12. Strategic Thinking: Successful leaders have a strategic mindset. They can
analyze complex situations, make informed decisions, and develop long-term
plans to achieve organizational
11. Steps involved in quality planning with example
1. Management Commitment:
• Top management must be committed to quality and actively involved
in promoting a culture of quality throughout the organization.
2. Quality Improvement Team:
• Establish a cross-functional team responsible for planning,
implementing, and sustaining quality improvement efforts.
3. Quality Measurement:
• Define clear quality standards and establish a system for measuring and
evaluating performance against those standards.
4. Cost of Quality Evaluation:
• Determine the cost of poor quality (e.g., defects, rework, customer
complaints) and use this information to drive quality improvement
initiatives.
5. Quality Awareness:
• Foster a sense of quality awareness and responsibility among all
employees, emphasizing that quality is everyone's job.
6. Corrective Action:
• Implement corrective actions promptly when quality issues arise.
Identify the root causes of problems and address them to prevent
recurrence.
7. Zero Defects:
• Set the goal of achieving zero defects in products or processes. Strive
for perfection in quality.
8. Quality Training:
• Provide training and education to employees to enhance their skills and
knowledge related to quality and their specific job functions.
9. Zero Defects Day:
• Designate a specific day to emphasize and celebrate the commitment
to zero defects, with activities focused on quality awareness and
improvement.
10. Goal Setting:
• Establish clear quality improvement goals and targets that are
communicated throughout the organization.
11. Error Cause Removal:
• Identify and eliminate the root causes of errors and defects, rather than
just addressing their symptoms.
12. Recognition:
• Recognize and reward employees for their contributions to quality
improvement and achieving zero defects.
13. Quality Councils:
• Establish quality councils or committees that meet regularly to review
progress, share best practices, and make decisions related to quality
improvement.
14. Do It Over Again (DIOA):
• Encourage the organization to continuously strive for quality
improvement by recognizing that quality is an ongoing process, not a
one-time effort.