Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae

Journal homepage: pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp

INVITED REVIEW Received: 2012.01.15 Accepted: 2012.08.26 Published electronically: 2012.11.16 Acta Soc Bot Pol 81(4):245–255 DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.030

Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants of Slovakia

Łukasz Łuczaj*
Department of Botany and Biotechnology of Economic Plants, University of Rzeszów, Werynia 502, 36-100 Kolbuszowa, Poland

Abstract
This paper is an ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants gathered for consumption from the 19th century to the present
day, within the present borders of Slovakia. Twenty-four sources (mainly ethnographic) documenting the culinary use of wild
plants were analysed. The use of 106 species (over 3% of the Slovak flora) has been recorded. Nowadays most of them are no
longer used, or used rarely, apart from a few species of wild fruits. The most frequently used plants include the fruits of Rubus
idaeus, Fragaria spp., Rubus subgenus Rubus, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Fagus sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Prunus spinosa,
Pyrus spp., Malus spp., Crataegus spp. and the leaves of Urtica dioica, Rumex acetosa, Chenopodiaceae species, Cardamine amara,
Glechoma spp., Taraxacum spp. and Oxalis acetosella. The most commonly used wild food taxa are nearly identical to those used
in Poland, and the same negative association of wild vegetables with famine exists in Slovakia, resulting in their near complete
disappearance from the present-day diet.

Keywords: historical ethnobotany, ethnobiology, wild green vegetables, wild food plants, wild edible plants

Introduction of rural populations started at the end of the 19th century. Here
we shall first of all mention two of them. One is Poland, where
The growing interest in the use of wild food plant re- local ethnographic monographs, Józef Rostafiński’s study of
sources nowadays stems from efforts to find alternatives to 1883, and the “Polish ethnographic atlas” all contributed to
the industrialization and globalization of agriculture and to a large body of data concerning the use of wild food plants
provide food security in times of agricultural crisis. In the not [26–29]. The other country is Estonia, where a similarly large
so distant past many wild plants, instead of being eliminated number of ethnographic elaborations and queries is available-
from agricultural systems, constituted valuable supplementary and it has been recently synthesized [30].
sources of nutrition [1]. Within the last two decades, detailed Łuczaj and Szymański [26] pointed out that the cross-
ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in European cultural and geographical analysis of the patterns of plant use
countries to preserve the disappearing traditions of wild food in Europe is hindered by the fact that most publications were
plant use. Such studies were performed for instance on the written in national languages, mainly in small ethnographic
Iberian Peninsula (e.g. [2–8]), in Italy [9–13], Greece [13,14], journals and monographs. Thus English-language critical
Turkey [15,16], Bosnia and Herzegovina [17], Albania [18] reviews in widely available journals can constitute “building
and Austria [19]. The phenomenon of foraging in Europe has blocks” for further international analyses. The studies from
been, however, studied from different perspectives for centu- Poland show a gradual disappearance of traditions of wild food
ries. It was present in economic plant encyclopaedias [20–23] gathering, since the 19th century or even earlier [26–29]. A
and later appeared as the subject of ethnographic studies. A similar gradual decrease must have occurred in other European
separate branch of study concerns wild food plants as a means countries as well.
of alleviating food shortages during times of crop failures and Slovakia has extensive published data on wild food plant use
wars [24,25]. Countries where ethnobotanical studies are most in the 19th and 20th century, but lacks a comprehensive review
intensive now are usually places where little ethnobotanically of them, apart from a short entry in a dictionary of folk culture
oriented research has been done before. In contrast, there are a [31] and three short essays with only a few literature references
few European countries in which research on the ethnobotany [32–34]. Hence a review of Slovak publications concerning this
topic became the aim of the study.

* Email: [email protected]
Material and methods
This is an Open Access digital version of the article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
(creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits redistribution, commercial Slovakia – its flora, geography and history
and non-commercial, provided that the article is properly cited. Slovakia covers an area of 49 thousand km2. It has a popula-
tion of 5.4 million inhabitants [35], and lies within the cold
© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society temperate climate zone, in the intermediate zone between
246 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany

the maritime and continental climate. The dominant natural (ii) From Ms Katarína Zlkovanová (Tatra National Park),
vegetation is composed of deciduous and mixed forests, domi- who listed 14 wild food snacks from her childhood in the Tatra
nated, depending on the elevation, by Quercus spp., Carpinus Mounatins. Only 9 species, which were listed at least once by
betulus, Fagus sylvatica, Abies alba and Picea abies [35]. Slovak some other source than this review, were included.
vascular flora is made up of ~3000 native and naturalized spe-
cies of vascular plants [36,37]. Methodology of plant identification
All the available publications containing data on wild food
Publications used in the review plant use were included. Most of them had Latin names pro-
The documentation of traditions of plant use in Slovakia vided along with local names. In a few cases data without Latin
was begun by a distinguished scholar, Jozef Ľudovit Holuby names of plants were also used for plants with widely known,
(1836–1923) in the 19th century. He was a very active re- unambiguous names. Latin names of plants were critically
searcher both in studying Slovak flora and documenting the evaluated in order to avoid the introduction of “ghost data”
ethnographic traditions of western Slovakia [38]. Most of sensu Svanberg [59,60]. Such ghost data is information about
his work concerns the area around the village of Zemianske some use attributed to an incorrectly identified taxon, later
Podhradie near Trenčin (W Slovakia), where he lived for more repeated by other authors. Distribution of species was checked
than half his life [39–44]. The depth of Holuby’s ethnobotani- using standard Slovak floras. A list of taxa from all the publi-
cal observations must be emphasized. He not only carefully cations was created, using a special code for the credibility of
studied the adult world but also devoted a separate article to identification following Łuczaj [61] (Tab. 1). Plant names were
children’s ethnobotany, which is the first of its kind in the his- given according to “Flora Europaea” [62].
tory of ethnobotany [41].
Another important individual in this area of study was
Michal Markuš (1912–2004). He was the leading expert on Results
the ethnography of traditional Slovak food, and devoted parts
of some of his publications to foraging in central and eastern The use of at least 106 species of vascular plants as food,
Slovakia [45–49] (Fig. 1). seasoning or beverages has been recorded in Slovakia since the
19th century (Tab. 1, Tab. 2). They belong to 79 genera from 36
plant families. The list includes 14 species of trees, 24 species
of shrubs (including 2 species of dwarf shrubs), 54 species of
perennials, 6 species of biennials and 8 species of annuals.
The two largest categories are nearly of equal size: “ripe fruits”
(both fleshy and dry fruit and seeds) – 41 species, and “green
vegetables” – 39 species. Also the underground parts of 12
species, and flowers of 7 species were consumed. Various parts
of 8 species were used as seasoning, and 4 taxa were used as
bread ingredients. Eighteen species were collected for making
beverages – 8 for liqueurs, 7 for herbal infusions used on an
Fig. 1 Localities of the regional studies on Slovak wild food plants: everyday basis, and three taxa were sources of tree sap.
B – Bardejov [47]; BG – south of Mount Babia Góra [52]; H – Horeh-
ronie region [46,48]; HC – Horna Cirocha [49,57]; HT – the High Fruits and seeds
Tatra Mountains [54–56] (and K. Zlkovanová’s letter); P – Pezinok Out of 41 species whose use was recorded in the category
[42]; R – Rusyn minority areas in general [51]; S – Z. Melečková’s let- of fruits and seeds (excluding species used only as seasoning),
ter from Šturovo; T – Trenčin area [39–41,44]; U – Uhrovska Dolina nearly half, i.e. 19 species, belonged to the Rosaceae family.
[58]; Z – Žakarovce [45]. The other best represented families are Caprifoliaceae and
Grossulariaceae, with 4 species.
The fruits most commonly collected from the wild include
Rubus idaeus, Vaccinium vitis idaea, Rubus subgenus Rubus
A few other ethnographers also devoted parts of their eth- spp. and Fragaria spp. (Tab. 2). Fruits are the most appreciated
nographic publications to wild food provision, which leaves us category of wild plants collected in Slovakia – they are both
with 24 publications altogether, usually containing both Latin eaten raw and made into preserves (jams, juices, sauces). In
and/or local plant names of wild edible plants used in Slovakia Communist Slovakia large amounts of them were bought by
[31–34,39–58] (Fig. 1). From Stoličná’s essays [32,33], only special collection points, but even now they are sometimes
information not quoted from other sources analysed in the collected for personal use. In the past rosehips, mainly from
review was taken into account. Rosa spp. were also widely used, mainly to make a type of jam.
The review also includes two letters received in response In the past most fruits were eaten fresh or dried. In the latter
to a query about wild food plants which I sent to 170 Slovak half of the 20th century the preserving of soft fruits in the form
botanists: of jams, wines and pasteurized compotes became popular (due
(i) From Ms Zuzana Melečková, a PhD student from to the decreasing prices of sugar). However over the last few
Bratislava, who listed 25 wild food snacks from her childhood years it has been in decline due to growing affluence.
in the vicinity of Šturovo (formerly Parkan, Párkány), and
provided local Hungarian names (the area is predominantly Green vegetables
Hungarian-speaking). Only 18 species, which were listed Green vegetables, including plants whose green parts such
at least once by some other source than this review, were as leaves, stalks or unripe fruits are eaten raw or after special
included. preparation (cooking, frying, etc.), and excluding plants used

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany 247

Tab. 1 List of wild food plants used in Slovakia since the 19th century.

Family Latin name Cr. Local names Parts used Mode of use Reference No.

Aceraceae Acer campestre L. (only this A klen BEVsap sap drunk fresh or frozen by children; [40,41]
species is mentioned with
a Latin name but probably
Acer pseudoplatanus and A.
platanoides were used as well)
L javor VEG immature fruits sucked as a snack [46]
Acer sp. O javor BEVsap sap made into sugar in the early 19th [32,33]
century
Apiaceae Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) L mačia madra VEG SUB whole plants as an ingredient of soup or [46,48]
Hoffm. other boiled dishes
Angelica archangelica L. N (archangelika)** VEGfam famine food [55]
Carum carvi L. L rasca VEG aerial parts added to boiled dishes [49]
SEA seeds as spice for bread, soups and vodka [46], KZ
Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. A repa, repka, krkoška SUB raw tubers eaten in spring “until the first [39,40,46]
thunder” mainly by children
(?) Daucus carota L. L? poľna mrkva, SUB eaten in the fields after ploughing; this [46]
knahenka information may, at least partly, refer to
Stachys palustris whose rhizomes were
on the Polish side of the Carpathians
(at the feet of the Tatras) gathered from
fields after ploughing and called dzika
marchew, i.e. wild carrot [26].
(?) Pastinaca sativa L. A? paštrnák SUB? first year root, not clear if the reference [40], KZ?
reports actual use
Pimpinella saxifraga L. L bedrenčok BEVliq roots formerly added to vodka [46]
Asteraceae Arctium lappa L. L lopuch, lopúch VEGfam boiled as famine food [46,55]
BEVliq roots added to vodka [46]
Carlina acaulis L. L repka VEG inner part of inflorescences raw [46,48]
Cichorium intybus L. A čakanka, tuhovňik VEG young leaves raw [40,46], KZ
(?) probably Cirsium oleraceum N? štrbak (as Cichorium VEG potherb [46,55]
(L.) Scop. or/and C. rivulare endivia), bodiak
(Jacq.) All
Inula helenium L. L maškuľin, mačkuľin BEVliq spice for vodka [46]
Chamomilla recutita (L.) N rum’janok BEVher infusion drunk until the mid-20th c. [51]
Rauschert
Petasites sp. L ďeviasel, ďiviasel SUBfam rhizomes as famine food [46]
Tanacetum sp. (probably L boľačkovo žilja, SEA chopped as spice mainly for scrambled [49,57]
Tanacetum offcinale L.) boľačkovo ziľa, eggs
boľačkovoj ziľa
Taraxacum sp. (as T. officinale) A pupava, popovňak, VEG raw or fried – for a snack, salads and [40,45,46],
HU: pitypang potherb; often the use was a new ZM, KZ
tradition introduced at the end of the
19th century by returning emigrants
Tragopogon orientalis L. A koria brada VEG stalks sucked by children [40,41]
Tussilago farfara L. L podbeľ, podmačka, VEG commonly made into soup until 1920s, [46,48]
podlieu, podbieľ, veľki VEG were chopped, spiced with flour, pig
podbeľ, žltie pierka fat and vinegar, it was a popular food in
Horehronie
SUB raw, eaten by children, supposedly tasted [46]
like cabbage head cores
Berberidaceae Berberis vulgaris L. A nd, HU: sóskaborbolya VEG young shoots eaten raw in spring or [40]
added to sauces
FRU nd [40], ZM
Betulaceae Betula pendula Roth. A breza BEVsap sap drunk fresh or frozen by children [40,41,45]
Brassicaceae Armoracia rusticana P. L chren VEG boiled, sometimes also after [46,55]
Gaertn., B. Mey & Scherb. lactofermentation, mainly famine use
SEA roots as meat condiment, also added to [46], KZ
vodka

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

248 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany

Tab. 1 (continued)

Family Latin name Cr. Local names Parts used Mode of use Reference No.

Brassica nigra (L.) W. D. J. L čierná kapusta, VEG soups and sauces [46,58]
Koch podlubki
Cardamine amara L. A žerucha, režucha, VEG eaten mainly before St George’s Day (24 [39,40,43,44,
žerušnica, horká, Apr), raw with vinegar or oil, also added 46,54,56], KZ
šalvija, krasch, to soups and meat dishes
kreschbrunn,
kressbrunnen
(?) Lepidium latifolium L. L? žerucha VEG raw [46]
(?) Nasturtium officinale R. Br. L? žerucha VEG raw [46,48]
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. L konope FRU seeds raw, crushed and sucked [46,48]
Caprifoliaceae Sambucus ebulus L. A podzemní bez; FRU fried into jam, used mainly as medicine [39,40]
podzemný bez against respiratory infections
Sambucus nigra L. A bez, čierna baza, FRU as above [39,40,45,49],
čierny bez, kozičky, KZ
chabs
Viburnum lantana L. A nd FRU raw (by chidren) [40]
(?) Viburnum opulus L. NO? kalina FRU nd [55]
Chenopodiaceae Atriplex hortensis L. and L loboda, ľebeda, natina, VEG boiled and/or fried as potherb, soup or [46–48,53,
(recently Chenopodium bonus-henricus zeľina, gracka, mastná with potatoes and flatbread 55,58]
moved to L. mentioned but probably zelina
Amaranthaceae) more species from these
genera were used
Cornaceae Cornus mas L. N drienky FRU formerly mainly raw, in the 20th c. also [40]
made into vodka (mistakenly as
C. sanguinea
L.) [45,46]
Corylaceae Corylus avellana L. AO lieska, fruits as oriešky FRU raw, or added to bread or cakes [40,41,46,48,
49,58]
catkins called brost, FLOfam dried catkins ground into flour at the [46,55,58]
riasa beginning of the 19th
Cupressaceae Juniperus communis L. AO jadlovec, jalovec, FRU spice for vodka and sauerkraut [40,45,46]
borovka, borovňice
Equisetaceae Equisetum sp. (probably E. N (praslička)** VEGfam famine food [55]
arvense L.)
Ericaceae Vaccinium myrtillus L. AO čučoriedky, jafury, FRU raw, jams, wines, dried for infusions [40,45,46,48,
borovňice, borovki, 49,55,56,58],
HU: áfonya ZM
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. AO brusnica, brušnica FRU preserves [40,45,46,55,
56]
Fabaceae Lathyrus tuberosus L. A repnica, repňica, SUB tubers raw or baked in ashes, eaten by [39–41,46,48]
orešíc, orešina, červené shepherds and children
orešie, oresie
Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. (as L slaninka FLO eaten raw by children [46]
Onobrychis)
Robinia pseudoacacia L. A biely agát, HU: akác VEG fried in oil (coated in batter) [39], ZM
FLO flowers as children snack ZM
Trifolium pratense L. L červeni chľebik FLO nectar from flowers sucked by children [46]
Trifolium sp. L lóhere VEG leaves as children snack ZM
Vicia lathyroides L. L ľadňik, ďivi hrach FLO VEG flowers and green pods raw (by children) [46]
Fagaceae Fagus sylvatica L. AO buk, fruit called FRU raw or dried, or pressed into oil [39,40,49,58]
bukvica
OTHfam wood shavings added to food during the [52]
1847 famine
buková voda BEVsap raw, also as medicine [45]
Quercus petraea Matt. (Liebl.) L žalude FRUfam famine food [46,58]
(as Q. sessilis Ehrh.) and
probably Q. robur L. as well
Quercus sp. L HU: tölgy FRU raw, children’s snack ZM

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany 249

Tab. 1 (continued)

Family Latin name Cr. Local names Parts used Mode of use Reference No.

Gentianaceae Gentiana cruciata L. L terlie, trlie, terleč BEVher roots gathered until recently as spice for [57]
tea
Gentiana punctata L. L horec BEVliq highly prized addition to vodka [46]
Gentiana sp. (?; as Gentianella) LD goročka, gorička BEVliq “roots like fingers” used as an addition to [46]
vodka or as infusion
Grossulariaceae Ribes uva-crispa L. (as Ribes L egreš, gigadze, FRU raw, eagerly sought after by children [40,46]
grossularia* and Grossularia) muchinki, muchiňak
Ribes nigrum L. A čierný rýbiz, FRU raw [40]
smrdlenka
Ribes rubrum L. (maybe a L kvasňice FRU raw [46]
related R. spicatum Robson)?
Ribes petraeum Wulfen L kvasňice FRU raw [46]
Lamiaceae Glechoma hederacea L. and A nádešník, nádešníček, VEG leaves as spice for soups, sauces and [39,40,43,44,
Glechoma hirsuta Waldst. & oponka, kocurovo potatoes; widely used until the 1940s 46,48,49,52,
Kit. vajca/vajcia, kocurovo 57]
jajca, kocurovo jajička
Lamium album L. L hlucha pokriva VEG potherb [45]
(?) Origanum vulgare (as N? lebitka SEA flowering shoots as a spice [49]
Melissa)
Mentha sp. N mjata kruta SEA spice [49]
Symphytum officinale L. A madunica, medunica FLO nectar from flowers sucked by children [39,41]
Thymus sp. L materina duška SEA flowering shoots [49,51]
BEVher
(?) Lamiaceae unidentified (as Nepeta sp.) ? madra SEA seasoning [49]
Liliaceae Allium scorodoprasum L. A divý česnek SEA used as a garlic surrogate [40]
(recently
moved to
Amaryllidaceae)
Allium ursinum L. A remža VEG potherb [42]
L HU: medvehagyma FRU fruits as children’s snack ZM
Lythraceae Trapa natans L. L nd FRU eaten boiled in S Slovakia until the end of [32,33]
the 19th century
Malvaceae Malva pusilla Sm. (as M. A pánbožkové koláčky, VEG unripe (green) fruit eaten raw by children [39–41,43]
rotundifolia L. and M. borealis pánbozkové kolácky,
Wallr.) pagačica, pánbíčkové
koláčky, peniažková
zelina
Malva sp. L sliz VEG added to cooked dishes [49]
Malva sylvestris L. A rindziki, sirjeňak, VEG soup [46]
sirjenčak
VEG unripe (green) fruit eaten raw by children [46]
Orchidaceae Orchis morio L. L žaludkovi koreň, vlaski BEVliq tubers added to vodka and formerly used [46]
orech SUB as food
Oxalidacaceae Oxalis acetosella L. A zajačía ďetalinka, VEG mainly raw as children’s snack, also [40,46], ZM,
zajačková kapusta added to sauces KZ
Pinaceae Abies alba Mill. L jedľina VEGfam raw as famine snack [46]
Larix decidua Mill. L červeni smrek OTH resin chewed mainly by children [46,48]
Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. A babka, kolocier, VEG mainly as potherb [40,43,46,49]
kološija
Plantago media L. volovo ucho VEG potherb [43]
Poaceae Elymus repens (L.) Gould (as L SUBfam rhizomes, in 1847 (famine), dried, [39]
Triticum repens L.) ground for bread
Polygonaceae Rumex acetosa L. A štiav, kvasinka, šťava, VEG soups and sauces [40,41,46,49,
štaveľ, šťovik, kozina, 55,58]
mokri križ
Rumex sp. (some large- LNR konský šťav VEGfam boiled – only famine food [46]
leaves species, given
probably mistakenly as R.
hydrolapathum Huds.)

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

250 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany

Tab. 1 (continued)

Family Latin name Cr. Local names Parts used Mode of use Reference No.

Polypodiaceae Polypodium vulgare L. A sladič, slaďička, SUB sucked by children, also used as [40,46], ZM,
slaďica, soldečka, HU: sweetener Dr. N. Varchol
páfrány – pers. comm.
Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. (as P. A nd VEG salad [40]
sativa L.)
Myrsinaceae Cyclamen purpurascens Mill. ND cyclaminy SUBfam tubers as famine food at the beginning of [45]
(recently moved the 19th century
to Primulaceae)
Ranunculaceae Ranunculus ficaria L. (Ficaria A blyskáč, blýštek, VEG salad [39,40,42–44,
verna Huds.) blyšček, liži kvet 46]
SUBfam bulbils as famine food, especially in 1844 [42,43,46]
BEVher formerly drunk as infusion, also added to [46]
SEA dishes as spice
Rosaceae Aruncus dioicus (Walter) N parilo BEVher infusion as beverage [51]
Fernald
Crataegus spp. (C. monogyna L hloh, HU: galagonya FRU mainly as children’s snack [40] (as C.
Jacq., C. laevigata (Poir.) DC. oxyacantha
and other species) L. and C.
monogyna
Jacq.),
[46] (as C.
oxyacantha*),
ZM
Fragaria spp. (mainly the AO lesné jahody, jahoda, FRU raw, very commonly eaten [40,46,49,51,
commonest Fragaria vesca L.) vtáčenička, sunyca, 55,58], ZM
HU: eper
Fragaria moschata Duchesne A smokva FRU raw [40]
(as Fragaria elatior Ehrh.)
Fragaria viridis Duchesne (as A truskavec, druzgavec FRU raw [40]
Fragaria collina Ehrh.)
Geum urbanum L. L prestriť, pristriť BEVliq until the 1950s used as spice for wine [57]
Malus sp. (partly as M. AO plánky, planki, HU: FRU raw or added to sauerkraut; also as [40,46,49,56,
silvestris*, Pirus malus L.) vadalma famine food 58], ZM
Potentilla erecta L. L červienkovi koreň BEVliq roots added to vodka [46]
Sanguisorba minor Scop. (as A žabacia zelinka VEG soups [39,40]
Poterium sanguisorba L.)
Prunus avium L. A nd FRU raw [40]
(?) Prunus fruticosa DR? nd FRU raw, eaten by shepherds [40]
Pall. (mistakenly as P.
chamaecerasus Jcq.)
Prunus spinosa L. A tereň, tŕnky, tarňik, psí FRU eaten raw after frosts (esp. by children) or [39,40,45,46,
trn, trnka, HU: kökény used to make plum brandy 49,55,56], ZM
Pulmonaria officinalis L. L čmeľik, pľúcna zelina, FLO nectar from flowers sucked by children [46]
medunica, včelka,
cicalka
Pyrus spp. (as P. communis L., A planki FRU added to sauerkraut, eaten raw [40,45,46,58]
P. piraster*)
Rosa spp. (mainly R. canina L., A śverboritki, FRU mainly made into fried jam (lekvar), [39] (as R.
R. rubiginosa L.) šverboritky, šip, šipová also made into wine (since 20th century) canina L.and
ruža, šipki, sviboritki, and extensively used as famine food R. rubiginosa
HU: csipkebogyó (unsweetened jam) L.), [40,45] (as
R. canina*),
[46] (as R.
canina*), [47],
ZM

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany 251

Tab. 1 (continued)

Family Latin name Cr. Local names Parts used Mode of use Reference No.

Rubus subgenus Rubus AO čornica, černica, FRU mainly raw, also made into jam, or [39] (as Rubus
čierna malina, brandy and drunk as infusion candicans
ostružina, užyna, HU: Whe, R.
rina (for R. caesius), corylifolius
szeder (for the other Sm., R.
species from the hybridus Vill.
subgenus) R. fruticosus
L.), [45,46]
and ZM
(both as R.
fruticosus* and
R. caesius*),
[49,58,51]
Rubus idaeus L. AO malina, malyna, FRU raw or jam [40,49,51,55,
červená malína, HU: 58] ZM
málna
VEG infusion [49,51]
Sorbus aucuparia L. A skorucha, skoruša, FRU eaten mainly as famine food, dried for [40,46]
karušniak winter for food, also added to vodka (mistakenly as
S. domestica*),
[55]
Sorbus aria L. A skorucha, skoruša, FRU dried for winter for food, also added to [40,46]
karušniak BEVliq vodka
Scrophulariaceae Veronica beccabunga L. A bobovník VEG soup [40]
(recently
moved to
Plantaginaceae)
Tiliaceae Tilia sp. (Tilia cordata Mill. O lipa BEVher infusion from flowers, until the mid-20th [51]
and Tilia platyphyllos Scop.) century
Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. AO žichľava, pokriva, VEG young shoots in soups, potherb, sauces, [39,45,46,48,
kopriva, veliká žihlava, used mainly until World War I 49,50,51,55,
veľká žihľava, pŕhl’ava, 58], KZ
pŕhlava
Valerianaceae Valeriana sp. (probably LD čortove zilja VEG shoots added to cooked dishes [49]
Valerianella sp.?)
Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr. A nd VEG young plants in salads with vinegar [40]
(as Valeriana olitoria Poll.)

Cr. – credibility of identification: ? and (?) – identification uncertain; A – Latin names identified by a botanical expert; L – Latin name given by
other researchers. Botanical name identified using: D – species description; N – local name; R – analysis of the range of related species. Local
names: HU – a local Hungarian name; KZ – Zlkovanová’s letter; nd – no data on local Slovakian names; ZM – Melečková’s letter. Parts used:
BEVher – herbal infusions; BEVliq – alcoholic beverages; BEVsap – tree sap; fam – used only in times of famine; FLO – flowers (their nectar
eaten raw or flowers added in larger quantities to dishes); FRU – fruits (raw or in preserves); OTH – other; SEA – only small amounts added
to dishes as seasoning; SUB – subterranean parts (rhizomes, roots, bulbs, tubers) – raw as a snack or added to boiled dishes; VEG – green
vegetables: aerial parts (leaves and shoots), raw, boiled or fried.

in small quantities only as seasoning, constitute the second added to boiled dishes (Tab. 1). Up until the beginning of the
largest use category, with 39 species recorded. The most rep- 20th century the shoots of Urtica dioica and Chenopodiaceae
resented families are Asteraceae (7 species), Brassicaceae (5 species were often used with a variety of cooked and fried
species) and Apiaceae (3 species). Most of the recorded green dishes, particularly in the years of bad harvest. As these plants
vegetables are plants, which were eaten in times of scarcity, were associated with poverty, their use is practically extinct
usually as mixed potherb or soup, often with an admixture of nowadays (Tab. 1).
potatoes, cereals, butter, milk or cream. The only widely used
green vegetable, which is still commonly used in nutrition is Underground parts
Rumex acetosa (leaves used to make soup). In some parts of The use of underground parts of plants (roots, rhizomes,
Slovakia Cardamine amara leaves were also used relatively bulbs) was recorded only for 12 species. The sweet rhizomes
frequently, in a similar fashion to cultivated cress – raw or of Polypodium vulgare were particularly widely used. Other

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

252 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany

species were used less frequently, as children’s snacks (e.g. Discussion

Chaerophyllum bulbosum, Lathyrus tuberosus) or famine food
(Elymus repens, Ranunculus ficaria).
Comparison with other countries
Seasoning and preservatives The pattern of species use in Slovakia is very similar to that
Out of the ten species used as seasoning, only four have Polish, Ukraine and Hungary [26–28,63,64]. In these areas,
been used commonly: Glechoma hederacea and G. hirsuta usually only a few species of fruits and wild vegetables were
(leaves of both as spice for soups and sauces), Carum carvi used within one village or small region, and a larger number
(seeds) and Armoracia rusticana (grated roots, as spice for was used only in times of famine. The use of fruits in both
meat). The use of Glechoma species gradually decreased in countries is nearly identical – nearly the same species (mainly
the 20th century and by the 1970s was only practiced by the various Rosaceae and Vaccinium spp.) have been collected and
older generation. eaten raw or turned into jams, juices and alcoholic beverages.
Both in Poland and Slovakia the larger scale processing and
Beverages preserving of fruits with the addition of sugar is a relatively
A few species of mainly medicinal plants were drunk lo- new phenomenon, which was originally restricted to the aris-
cally on an everyday basis (e.g. Tilia spp., Chamomilla recu- tocracy, but throughout the 19th and 20th century it became
tita). In spring fresh tree sap was drunk, mainly by children a part of everyday cuisine [29]. This similarity to plant use in
(Betula pendula and Acer spp.). Making juices, wine and the Polish and Ukrainian parts of the Carpathians is caused
liqueurs out of wild fruits seems to be mainly a 20th cen- by the linguistic and habitat similarities between these areas:
tury fashion, rarer in earlier times (due to the high price all of them inhabited by people speaking related languages
of sugar), which became an extremely widespread activity and dialects with very similar vegetation and rural economies.
in the countryside in the second half of the 20th century Nowadays Slovaks use relatively few species of wild food
in the Communist period, then diminished due to the increas- plants, however in the olden times people knew many species
ing affluence of society. On the other hand adding wild plants of wild green vegetables, which could be used to supplement
to liqueurs as flavouring was commonly practiced both in the nutrition during spring food shortages. Markuš [48] wrote that
19th and 20th century. up to 50 species of wild greens may have been gathered in times
of poverty (without specifying all of them). However due to
Bread ingredients the negative reputation of wild greens they have not been pre-
The reviewed article contains surprisingly few references served the in modern diet, apart from the use of sorrel (Rumex
to wild food bread ingredients, even in times of famine. Alto- acetosa). Similarly to Poland, the most commonly used wild
gether only 4 such taxa are mentioned (Fagus sylvatica, Elymus greens were Rumex acetosa, Urtica dioica and Chenopodiaceae
repens, Rosa spp. and Crataegus spp.). species. There are actually more parallels with the use of plants
in the Polish Carpathians: using the leaves of Glechoma spp.
Children’s snacks as soup seasoning and the use of the rhizomes of Polypodium
A large proportion of the presented species list is made up vulgare as a children snacks and sweeteners [29].
by children’s snacks. The use of some wild snacks, such as the A specific feature of some parts of Slovakia is the use of
unripe seeds of Malva spp. or Polypodium vulgare rhizomes Cardamine amara, not reported from other surrounding coun-
may be a relic of use of food plants by adults, whereas using the tries. Another particular feature of Slovakia is the widespread
nectar sucked from flowers is a part of pan-European children’s use of medicinal herbs as seasoning for liqueurs. These species
ethnobotanical folklore [2,28]. are relatively frequently mentioned in the literature on wild
food plants, which suggests that they were culturally salient
[40,46,57].
Tab. 2 Wild food species reported by at least three authors. On the whole, Slovak culinary culture could positioned on
the herbophobous side of the “herbophilia – herbophobia”
Latin name No. of authors spectrum. These terms, introduced by the author of this
article in 2008, distinguish cultures where large amounts of
Urtica dioica L. 7 wild greens are consumed directly as food or medicine (her-
Rubus idaeus L. 6 bophilous cultures) from those which are “herbophobous”, in
Fragaria spp., Malus sp., Rubus subgenus Rubus, 5 which wild greens are used almost exclusively as famine food,
Vaccinium myrtillus L., Rumex acetosa L. and even in herbal medicine are not consumed directly but
Atriplex and Chenopodium spp., Cardamine amara L., 4 in the form of infusions, decoctions or liqueurs [26,27]. The
Glechoma spp., Oxalis acetosella L., Polypodium vulgare lack of interest in eating wild greens in contrast to calorie-rich
L., Prunus spinosa L., Pyrus sp., Taraxacum spp. dairy and cereal products was summed up by Holuby in 1872
Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn., B. Mey & Scherb., 3 with a popular saying: “Nemcom zelina, Ma’arom slanina, a
Cichorium intybus L., Corylus avellana L., Crataegus spp., Slovákom kaša s mliekom” which can be translated as “greens
Fagus sylvatica L., Quercus spp., Rosa spp., Sambucus for Germans, lard for Hungarians and kasha and milk for
nigra L., Sorbus spp., Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. Slovaks” [39].
It is more difficult to compare the use of wild food plants
in Slovakia, with that of other neighbouring countries (Czech
Republic, Austria and Romania) as they lack detailed ethno-
botanical reviews. However in all of them wild fruits seem
to be more appreciated and used than wild green vegetables
[19,65,66]. It is only in the Hungarian ethnographic literature

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany 253

[64], e.g. in the works of Bella Gunda [67], about the eastern publications are still gathered. Actually their use increased
part of the Pannonian Plain (eastern Hungary), that we get a in the 20th century, due to the use of sugar as a preservative.
description of the use of water and aquatic plants in nutrition, Slovak use of wild food plants is very similar to that of
e.g. Glyceria and Typha sp. This category of plants (apart from southern Poland and can be characterized by a high ap-
Cardamine amara) is hardly present among Slovak food plants, preciation of wild fruits and low appreciation of wild green
mainly due to the natural conditions of Slovakia, which is a vegetables, which are regarded mainly as famine plants. There
country composed mainly of hills, mountains and, to a lesser is still scope for local ethnobotanical studies in Slovakia, par-
extent, fertile flatlands taken up by intense agriculture, with ticularly as Slovakia is a country with well-preserved natural
little area covered by marshy habitats. vegetation and a few large ethnic minorities.
The proportion of families in the wild plants consumed
in Slovakia is similar to that of Poland [28,29], as in both
countries Rosaceae dominate among fruits, Lamiaceae in the Acknowledgments
category of seasoning and Asteraceae among wild vegetables.
Also, similarly to Poland and in contrast to the Mediterranean Many thanks to Dr. Nadia Varchol (Museum of Rusyn-
countries [1], hardly any wild Liliaceae were used in nutrition. Ukrainian Culture in Svidnìk), Prof. Rastislava Stoličná (Slovak
Academy of Sciences, Institute of Ethnology, Bratislava) and
Credibility of presented material Paweł Kamiński (Vienna) for their help in the literature search,
The reviewed material was critically evaluated in search of Dr. Ingvar Svanberg (Uppsala) for his helpful comments and to
possible identification mistakes. As shown by Łuczaj [61], rul- Ms Zuzana Melečková and Ms Katarína Zlkovanová for their
ing out identification mistakes is not possible without voucher data on wild food plant use in Slovakia.
specimens. On the other hand the credibility of identification
can be assessed indirectly, for example by the profession and
expertise of the author of the publication, and by analysing References
the data from other publications, particularly those concern-
ing local plant names and distribution maps of the analysed 1. Turner NJ, Łuczaj ŁJ, Migliorini P, Pieroni A, Dreon AL, Sacchetti LE, et
taxa. Expert botanists tend to report a much lower number of al. Edible and tended wild plants, traditional ecological knowledge and
incorrect ethnobotanical taxa [61]. It seems that the publica- agroecology. Cr Rev Plant Sci. 2011;30(1–2):198–225. http://dx.doi.org/
tions of Holuby, the leading 19th century Slovak botanist, are 10.1080/07352689.2011.554492
highly credible (although even he confused the Latin names 2. Tardio J, Pardo-De-Santayana M, Morales R. Ethnobotanical review of
of the edible Cornus mas and inedible Cornus sanguinea). The wild edible plants in Spain. Bot J Linn Soc. 2006;152(1):27–71. http://
works of Markuš, an ethnographer by profession, can however dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00549.x
contain a few erroneous identifications (marked in Tab. 1). 3. Bonet MÀ, Vallès J. Use of non-crop food vascular plants in Montseny
There is no problem with the identifications of other authors biosphere reserve (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula). Int J Food Sci Nutr.
as they reported only common, widely known species. 2002;53(3):225–248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09637480220132841
4. Tardío J, Pascual H, Morales R. Wild food plants traditionally used in the
Scope for future studies province of Madrid, central Spain. Econ Bot. 2005;59(2):122–136. http://
Slovakia is a modern country which underwent intense dx.doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0122:WFPTUI]2.0.CO;2
industrialization processes in the Communist period. The 5. Rivera D, Obon C, Inocencio C, Heinrich M, Verde A, Fajardo J, et al. The
loss of ethnobotanical knowledge and local tradition was ethnobotanical study of local Mediterranean food plants as medicinal re-
enhanced by the collectivization and destruction of private sources in Southern Spain. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2005;56(1 suppl):97–114.
farming, causing the abandonment of “old ways”. However 6. Parada M, Carrió E, Vallès J. Ethnobotany of food plants in the Alt
there is still much scope for local studies on traditional plant Emporda region (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula). J Appl Bot Food Qual.
uses in some parts of the country, including the large ethnic 2011;84(1):11–25.
minority groups of Hungarians, Roma and Carpatho-Rusyns. 7. Menendez-Baceta G, Aceituno-Mata L, Tardío J, Reyes-García V, Pardo-
How much of the knowledge is still preserved can be seen de-Santayana M. Wild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea
from Varchol’s study on the beliefs about plants among the (Biscay, Basque Country). Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2011;59(7):1329–
Carpatho-Rusyns of the Prešov area [68]. A study of the use 1347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10722-011-9760-z
and traditional knowledge of wild food plants by Roma com- 8. Pardo-de-Santayana M, Tardío J, Blanco E, Carvalho A, Lastra J, San
munities in Slovakia could be a particularly interesting issue, Miguel E, et al. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used in
as only scraps of their ethnobotanical knowledge are recorded the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal): a com-
[69]. Return studies to the areas where Holuby and Markuš parative study. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3(1):27. http://dx.doi.
researched wild food plant use could also be of great interest, org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-27
as well as a survey of wild food snacks among children parallel 9. Pieroni A, Nebel S, Quave C, Münz H, Heinrich M. Ethnopharmacology
to the one carried out in Poland [70]. of liakra: traditional weedy vegetables of the Arbëreshë of the Vulture area
in southern Italy. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81(2):165–185. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00052-1
Conclusions 10. Guarrera PM. Food medicine and minor nourishment in the folk tra-
ditions of Central Italy (Marche, Abruzzo and Latium). Fitoterapia.
It must be stressed that the analysed literature documents 2003;74(6):515–544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(03)00122-9
an absolutely dramatic decrease in the use of wild plants as 11. Pieroni A, Nebel S, Santoro RF, Heinrich M. Food for two seasons: culi-
food. Most species formerly used as green vegetables are not nary uses of non-cultivated local vegetables and mushrooms in a south
used any more. Less of the traditional heritage has been lost in Italian village. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2005;56(4):245–272. http://dx.doi.
the case of fruits. The majority of the fruits reported in most org/10.1080/09637480500146564

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

254 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany

12. Guarrera PM, Salerno G, Caneva G. ood, flavouring and feed plant tradi- Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy for Swedish Folk Culture; 2000. p.
tions in the Tyrrhenian sector of Basilicata, Italy. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 204–208. (Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi LXXI).
2006;2:37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-37 35. Počet obyvateľov SR k 30. septembru 2011 [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2012 Nov
13. Leonti M, Nebel S, Rivera D, Heinrich M. Wild gathered 5]; Available from: http://portal.statistics.sk/showdoc.do?docid=40930
food plants in the European Mediterranean: a compara- 36. Dostál J, editor. Flóra Slovenska. Bratislava: Slovenská Akadémia Vied; 1966.
tive analysis. Econ Bot. 2006;60(2):130–142. http://dx.doi. 37. Čeřovský J, Feráková V, Holub J, Maglocký Š, Prochazká F. Červena
org/10.1663/0013-0001(2006)60[130:WGFPIT]2.0.CO;2 kniha ohrozených a vzácnych druhov rastlín a živocíchov SR a ČR. Vyššie
14. Della A, Paraskeva-Hadjichambi D, Hadjichambis AC. An ethno- rastliny. Bratislava: Príroda; 1999. (vol 5).
botanical survey of wild edible plants of Paphos and Larnaca coun- 38. Mjartan J, editor. Jozef Ľudovít Holuby. Národopisné práce. Bratislava:
tryside of Cyprus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:34. http://dx.doi. Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej Akadémie Vied; 1958.
org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-34 39. Holuby JL. Domáce lieky ľudu slovenského. Letopis Matice Slovenskej.
15. Dogan Y, Baslar S, Ay G, Mert HH. The use of wild edible plants in 1872;9–10:41–55.
western and central Anatolia (Turkey). Econ Bot. 2004;58(4):684–690. 40. Holuby JL. Die gewöhnlichsten wildwachsenden Genusspflanzen des
http://dx.doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0684:TUOWEP]2.0.CO;2 Trencsiner Comitates. Verhandlungen des Vereins für Natur-und
16. Ertuğ F. Wild edible plants of the Bodrum area (Mugla, Turkey). Turk J Heilkunde zu Pressburg, Neue Folge. 1891;7:91–105.
Bot. 2004;28(1–2):161–174. 41. Holuby JL. Aus des Botanik slowakischer Kinder des Trentschiner Komita-
17. Pieroni A. Local plant resources in the ethnobotany of Theth, a village in tes in Ungarn. Deutsche Botanische Monatsschrift. 1896;19(8–9):126–131.
the Northern Albanian Alps. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2008;55(8):1197– 42. Holuby JL. Z vojnových čias v Pezinku. Kalendár Slov týždenníka na rok
1214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10722-008-9320-3 1918. Budapest: 1917.
18. Redzic S. Wild edible plants and their traditional use in the human nutri- 43. Holuby JL. Rastlinné domáce lieky a poviery slovenské. Národopisný
tion in Bosnia‐Herzegovina. Ecol Food Nutr. 2006;45(3):189–232. http:// Všetnìk Československi. 1921;15:68–96.
dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670240600648963 44. Holuby JL. Lubosti a mrzutosti botanikove. Slovenské pohľady. 1923.
19. Schunko C, Vogl CR. Organic farmers use of wild food plants and fungi 45. Markuš M. Ľudová stravá. In: Mjartan J, editor. Banícka Dedina Žakaro.
in a hilly area in Styria (Austria). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):17. Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej Akadémie Ved; 1956. p. 283–324.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-17 46. Markuš M. Zberné hospodárstvo na Horehroní. Slovenský Národopis.
20. Couplan F. Le régal végétal: plantes sauvages comestibles. Flers: Equilibres; 1961;9(2):190–243.
1989. (vol 1). 47. Markuš M. Interetnické vzťahy v ľudovej strave na okoli Bardejova. Nové
21. Hedrick UP, editor. Sturtevant’s notes on edible plants. New York: Dover Obzory. 1973;15:393–439.
Publications; 1919. 48. Markuš M. Stravá. In: Mjartan J, editor. Horenhronie. Bratislava: Veda;
22. Tanaka C. Tanaka’s cyclopedia of edible plants of the world. Tokyo: 1974. p. 119–158.
Keigaku Publishing; 1976. 49. Markuš M. Ľudová stravá. In: Podolák J, editor. Horna Cirochá: vlas-
23. Kunkel G. Plants for human consumption: an annotated checklist of the tivedná monografia zátopovej oblasti. Košice: Východoslovenské
edible phanerogams and ferns. Koenigstein: Koeltz Scientific Books; 1984. vydateľstvo; 1985. p. 351–374.
24. Maurizio A. Pożywienie roślinne i rolnictwo w rozwoju dziejowym. 50. Babylon J. Prvá kuchárska kniha w Slovenskej reči. 1870.
Warsaw: Kasa Mianowskiego; 1926. 51. Dillnberger S. Roslynni produkty v stravi shidnoslovac’kogo naselennâ.
25. Redzić S. Use of wild and semi-wild edible plants in nutrition and survival Annales Musei Culturae Ukrainiensis Svidnik. 1988;15:125–133.
of people in 1430 days of siege of Sarajevo during the war in Bosnia and 52. Kurjaková E. Czym żywili się mieszkańcy wsi na południe od Babiej Góry.
Herzegovina (1992–1995). Coll Antropol. 2010;34(2):551–570. In: Kociołek J, editor. Kalendarz 2004 – z informacjami co się dawniej
26. Łuczaj Ł. Archival data on wild food plants used in Poland in 1948. J Eth- jadło i piło i z czego się pod Babią Górą strawę robiło oraz z przepisami
nobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4(1):4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-4 kulinarnymi dawnymi i nowszymi. Zawoja: Stowarzyszenie Gmin Ba-
27. Łuczaj Ł. Changes in the utilization of wild green vegetables in Poland biogórskich; 2004. p. 14–26.
since the 19th century: a comparison of four ethnobotanical surveys. 53. Mišík S. Dačo z ludového herbára na Hnilci. Časopis Museálnej Sloven-
J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128(2):395–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. skiej Spoločnosti. 1905;8:90–92.
jep.2010.01.038 54. Olejník J. O niektorých liečivých rastlinách v oblasti Vysokých Tatier.
28. Łuczaj Ł, Szymański WM. Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption Nové Obzory. 1968;10:365–385.
in the Polish countryside: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3(1):17. 55. Olejník J. Ľud pod Tatrami. Martin: Vydateľstvo Osveta; 1978.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17 56. Olejník J. Strava lesných robotníkov v podmienkach Vysokých Tatier
29. Łuczaj Ł. Dziko rosnące rośliny jadalne użytkowane w Polsce od połowy v minulosti a v podmienkach správy Tatranského Národného Parku v
XIX w. do czasów współczesnych. Etnobiologia Polska. 2011;1:57–125. súčasnosti. Nové Obzory. 1991;32:149–161.
30. Kalle R, Sõukand R. Historical ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants 57. Šipka M. Liečivé rastliny Hornej Cirochy. Annales Musei Culturae
of Estonia (1770s–1960s). Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81(4):271–281. http:// Ukrainiensis Svidnik. 1985;12:457–488.
dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.2012.033 58. Urbancová V, Burlasová S, editors. Zo života a bojov ľudu Uhrovskej
31. Slavkovský P. Zberné a koristné hospodárstvo. In: Botík J, Slavkovský P, doliny. Bratislava: Slovenská Akadémia Vied; 1977.
editors. Encyklopédia ľudovej kultúry Slovenska. Bratislava: Veda; 1995. 59. Svanberg I. Fabulat, plagiat och spökuppgifter: att använda berättande
p. 342–343. källor inom etnobiologi. In: Tunón H, Dahlström A, editors. Nycklar till
32. Stoličná R. Alternatìvne zdroje rastlinnej stravy v strednej Európe. Slov- kunskap: om människans bruk av nature. Stockholm: Kungl. Skogs- och
enský Národopis. 1997;45(3):285–294. Lantbruksakademien; 2010. p. 121–136.
33. Stoličná R. Alternative sources of food in Central Europe. In: Lysaght 60. Svanberg I. The use of lichens for dyeing candles: ethnobotanical docu-
P, editor. Food from nature. Uppsala: The Royal Gustavus Adolphus mentation of a local Swedish practice? Svenska Landsmål och Svenskt
Academy for Swedish Folk Culture; 2000. p. 195–203. (Acta Academiae Folkliv. 1998;324:133–139.
Regiae Gustavi Adolphi LXXI). 61. Łuczaj ŁJ. Plant identification credibility in ethnobotany: a closer look at
34. Dillnbergerová S. Domestic and commercial uses of the products of wild Polish ethnographic studies. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):36. http://
nature in Slovakia. In: Lysaght P, editor. Food from nature. Uppsala: The dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-36

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society

 Łuczaj / Slovak wild food plant ethnobotany 255

62. Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică; 1979.
SM, et al., editors. Flora Europaea. Cambridge: Cambridge University 66. Péntek J, Szabó A. Ember és növényvilág. Kalotaszeg növényzete és népi
Press; 1964. (vol 1–5). növényismerete. Bukarest: Kriterion Könyvkiadó; 1985.
63. Łuczaj Ł. Dzikie rośliny jadalne używane w okresach niedoboru żywności 67. Gunda B. Plant gathering in the economic life of Eurasia. Southwestern
we wschodniej części Karpat (powiaty Krosno, Sanok, Lesko, Nadwórna, Journal of Anthropology. 1949;5(4):369–378.
Kosów i Kołomyja) według ankiety szkolnej z 1934 roku. In: Łuczaj Ł, 68. Varhol N. Roslini v narodnih povir’âh Rusinìv-Ukraïncìv Prâšìvščini.
editor. Dzikie rośliny jadalne – zapomniany potencjał przyrody. Bolestras- Prešov: Excol; 2002.
zyce: Arboretum i Zakład Fizjografii w Bolestraszycach; 2008. p. 161–181. 69. Čajánková E. Život a kultúra rožkovianskych Cigáňov. Slovenský
64. Denes A, Papp N, Babai D, Czúcz B, Molnár Z. Wild plants used for food Národopis. 1954;2(3–4):285–308.
by Hungarian ethnic groups living in the Carpathian Basin. Acta Soc Bot 70. Łuczaj Ł, Kujawska M. Botanists and their childhood memories: an
Pol. 2012;81(4):381–396. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.2012.040 underutilized expert source in ethnobotanical research. Bot J Linn Soc.
65. Butură V. Enciclopedie de etnobotanică românescă. Bukareszt: Editura 2012;168(3):334–343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01205.x

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society