Banana

A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry[1][2] –

Banana
produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in
the genus Musa.[3] In some countries, bananas used for cooking
may be called "plantains", distinguishing them from dessert
bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is
usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered
with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown Peeled, whole, and longitudinal
when ripe. The fruits grow upward in clusters near the top of the section
plant. Almost all modern edible seedless (parthenocarp) bananas Source plant(s) Musa
come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Part(s) of plant Fruit
Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa × paradisiaca for Uses Food
the hybrid Musa acuminata × M. balbisiana, depending on their
genomic constitution. The old scientific name for this hybrid, Musa
sapientum, is no longer used.

Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and

are likely to have been first domesticated in New Guinea.[4][5]
They are grown in 135 countries,[6] primarily for their fruit, and to
a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine, and banana beer, and are
sometimes even grown as ornamental plants. The world's largest Fruits of four different cultivars
producers of bananas in 2017 were India and China, which
together accounted for approximately 38% of total production.[7]
As of 2023, India was producing nearly 30.5 million tons of bananas each year, a little less than 20 million
tons more than China.[8]

Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas
and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish
group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. In the US, as of 2019, these bananas,
by poundage, are the most consumed fresh fruit.[9] By contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit
are called "plantains". In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of bananas are grown and
eaten, so the binary distinction is not as useful and is not made in local languages.

The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit.[3] This can extend
to other members of the genus Musa, such as the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), the pink banana (Musa
velutina), and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, such as the snow banana
(Ensete glaucum) and the economically important false banana (Ensete ventricosum). Both genera are in
the banana family, Musaceae.

Description
The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[10] All the
above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a
"corm".[11] Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy with a treelike
appearance, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or
pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is
at least 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) deep, has good drainage and is not
compacted.[12] Banana plants are among the fastest growing of all plants,
with daily surface growth rates recorded from 1.4 square metres (15 sq ft)
to 1.6 square metres (17 sq ft).[13][14]

The leaves of banana plants are composed of a stalk (petiole) and a blade
(lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly
packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the
Young plant
plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it
tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges
are forced apart.[15] Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing
conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m
(10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[16][17] Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres
(8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1] They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond
look.[18] When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower
spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature
inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top.[19] Each pseudostem normally produces a single
inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in
the Philippines produced five.[20]) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have
developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation,
only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing.[21] The inflorescence
contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female
flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the
rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the
tip of the ovary.[22]

The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called
"hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or
commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). Individual banana fruits
(commonly known as a banana or "finger") average 125 grams (41 ⁄2 oz), of which approximately 75% is
water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right).

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[23] There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with
numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible
inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three
sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels by manually deforming the unopened
fruit.[24] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny
black specks in the interior of the fruit.[25]

The end of the fruit opposite the stem contains a small tip distinct in texture, and often darker in color. Often
misunderstood to be some type of seed or excretory vein, it is actually just the remnants from whence the
banana fruit was a banana flower.[26]
 A corm, about 25 cm Young plant Female flowers 'Tree' showing fruit
(10 in) across have petals at the tip and inflorescence
of the ovary

Single row planting Inflorescence, Wild banana with Extracted DNA

partially opened flowers and stem strands
growing in reverse
direction

Banana equivalent radiation dose

As with all living things on earth, potassium-containing bananas emit radioactivity at low levels occurring
naturally from potassium-40 (40 K or K-40),[27] which is one of several isotopes of potassium.[28][29] The
banana equivalent dose of radiation was developed in 1995 as a simple teaching-tool to educate the public
about the natural, small amount of K-40 radiation occurring in every human and in common foods.[30][31]

The K-40 in a banana emits about 15 becquerels or 0.1 microsieverts (units of radioactivity exposure),[32]
an amount that does not add to the total body radiation dose when a banana is consumed.[27][31] By
comparison, the normal radiation exposure of an average person over one day is 10 microsieverts, a
commercial flight across the United States exposes a person to about 40 microsieverts,[33] and the total
yearly radiation exposure from the K-40 sources in a person's body is about 390 microsieverts.[32]

Etymology
The word "banana" is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the Wolof word banaana, and
passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[34][35]

Taxonomy
The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[36] The
name may be derived from Antonius Musa, physician to the
Emperor Augustus, or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word
for banana, mauz.[37] According to Roger Blench, the ultimate
origin of musa is in the Trans–New Guinea languages, whence
they were borrowed into the Austronesian languages and across
Asia, via the Dravidian languages of India, into Arabic as a
Wanderwort.[38]

Musa is the type genus in the family Musaceae. The APG III Musa 'Nendran' cultivar grown widely
system assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales, part of the in the Indian state of Kerala is a
commelinid clade of the monocotyledonous flowering plants. Some member of the AAB cultivar group.
70 species of Musa were recognized by the World Checklist of
Selected Plant Families as of January 2013;[36] several produce
edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[39]

The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a

problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed
bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: Musa
sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains.
More species names were added, but this approach proved to be
inadequate for the number of cultivars in the primary center of
diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were Plants at Mahamaya Lake,
given names that were later discovered to be synonyms.[40] Chittagong, Bangladesh

In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest

Cheesman showed that Linnaeus's Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca were cultivars and descendants
of two wild seed-producing species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi
Aloysius Colla.[41] Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying
bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the
botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa
acuminata, and those with characteristics of both.[40] Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd
proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties
and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated
varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities, leading to
confusion.[41][42]

The accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata Colla and Musa
balbisiana Colla for the ancestral species, and Musa × paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata × M.
balbisiana.[43]

Synonyms of M. × paradisiaca include

many subspecific and varietal names of M. × paradisiaca, including M. p. subsp. sapientum

(L.) Kuntze
Musa × dacca Horan.
Musa × sapidisiaca K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.
Musa × sapientum L., and many of its varietal names, including M. × sapientum var.
paradisiaca (L.) Baker, nom. illeg.
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars
are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived
from. Thus the Latundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from
both M. acuminata (A) and M. balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, see
"List of banana cultivars".

A draft sequence of the genome of M. acuminata was reported in 2012.[44]

Bananas and plantains

In regions such as North America and Europe, Musa fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas"
and "plantains" (cooking banana), based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and
distributor Chiquita produces publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a
banana". The stated differences are that plantains are more starchy and less sweet; they are eaten cooked
rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any
stage of ripeness.[45] Linnaeus made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming
two "species" of Musa.[46] Members of the "plantain subgroup" of banana cultivars, most important as
food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit.
They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.[47] The
cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the East African Highland bananas,[17] so
would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition.

An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and

cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of
cooking bananas.[48] Triploid cultivars derived solely from
M. acuminata are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid
cultivars derived from the hybrid between M. acuminata and
M. balbisiana (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB
Group) are "plantains".[49][50] Small farmers in Colombia grow a
much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A
study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at Cavendish is the most common
least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, dessert banana sold
non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were
overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.[51]

In Southeast Asia—the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated—the distinction between
"bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw
and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of
colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.[46]
Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in
English (and Spanish). Thus both Cavendish cultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas, and Saba
cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are called pisang in Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand and
chuối in Vietnam.[52] Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely
different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but Karat
bananas, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert
bananas, are eaten raw.[53]

In the Spanish market, the distinction is among plátano, applied to the Cavendish cultivars produced in the
Spanish Canary Islands under the protected geographical indication plátano de Canarias, banana, applied
to dessert imports from Africa and the Americas, and plátano macho (literally, "male banana"), applied to
imports that are to be cooked.[54]
In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is
possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In
other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many
more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains
are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas.

Historical cultivation

Early cultivation

The earliest domestication of bananas (Musa spp.) was from

naturally occurring parthenocarpic (seedless) individuals of Musa
banksii in New Guinea. These were cultivated by Papuans before
the arrival of Austronesian-speakers. Numerous phytoliths of
bananas have been recovered from the Kuk Swamp archaeological
site and dated to around 10,000 to 6,500 BP.[56][57][58] Foraging
humans in this area began domestication in the late Pleistocene
using transplantation and early cultivation methods.[59][60] Various
investigations[60][59] – including Denham et al., 2003 – determine Original native ranges of the
that by the early to middle of the Holocene the process was ancestors of modern edible bananas.
complete. [59] From New Guinea, cultivated bananas spread Musa acuminata is shown in green
westward into Island Southeast Asia through proximity (not and Musa balbisiana in orange.[55]
migrations). They hybridized with other (possibly independently
domesticated) subspecies of Musa acuminata as well as M.
balbisiana in the Philippines, northern New Guinea, and possibly Halmahera. These hybridization events
produced the triploid cultivars of bananas commonly grown today. From Island Southeast Asia, they
became part of the staple domesticated crops of Austronesian peoples and were spread during their voyages
and ancient maritime trading routes into Oceania, East Africa, South Asia, and Indochina.[56][57][58]

These ancient introductions resulted in the banana subgroup now

known as the "true" plantains, which include the East African
Highland bananas and the Pacific plantains (the Iholena and Maoli-
Popo'ulu subgroups). East African Highland bananas originated
from banana populations introduced to Madagascar probably from
the region between Java, Borneo, and New Guinea; while Pacific
plantains were introduced to the Pacific Islands from either eastern
New Guinea or the Bismarck Archipelago.[56][57]

Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium

Fruits of wild-type bananas have
BCE[62] triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of numerous large, hard seeds.
first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas
were known in Madagascar around that time.[63] The earliest prior
evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than the late 6th century CE.[64] It is likely, however,
that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of
Malagasy colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.[65]

Glucanase and two other proteins specific to bananas were found in dental calculus from the early Iron Age
(12th century BCE) Philistines in Tel Erani in the southern Levant.[66]
Another wave of introductions later spread bananas to other parts
of tropical Asia, particularly Indochina and the Indian
subcontinent.[56][57] However, there is evidence that bananas were
known to the Indus Valley civilisation from phytoliths recovered
from the Kot Diji archaeological site in Pakistan (although they are
absent in other contemporary sites in South Asia). This may be a
Chronological dispersal of
possible indication of very early dispersal of bananas by
Austronesian peoples across the
Austronesian traders by sea from as early as 2000 BCE. But this is
Indo-Pacific[61]
still putative, as they may have come from local wild Musa species
used for fiber or as ornamentals, not food.[58]

Southeast Asia remains the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are
found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in these regions.[67]

The banana may also have been present in isolated locations

elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of Islam. The spread of
Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous
references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths)
beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana
appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused
into North Africa and Muslim Iberia. An article on banana tree
cultivation is included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural Actual and probable diffusion of
work, Book on Agriculture.[69] During the medieval ages, bananas bananas during the Caliphates (700–
from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab 1500 CE)[68]
world.[68] In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to
Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in
Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.[70]

Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdom of Cyprus by the late medieval period. Writing in
1458, the Italian traveller and writer Gabriele Capodilista wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce
of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day Limassol, including the region's banana plantations.[71]

Bananas (as well as coconuts) were encountered by European

explorers during the Magellan expedition in 1521, in both Guam
and the Philippines. Lacking a name for the fruit, the ship's
historian Antonio Pigafetta described them as "figs more than one
palm long."[72][73]: 130, 132 Bananas were introduced to South
America by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West
Africa in the 16th century.[74] Southeast Asian banana cultivars, as
well as abaca grown for fibers, were also introduced to New Spain
(North and Central America) by the Spanish from the Philippines,
via the Manila galleons.[75]

Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary

diversity in India, China, and Southeast Asia.

There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum

pink; green-and-white striped bananas with pulp the
color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked,
taste like strawberries. The Double Mahoi plant can Illustration of fruit and plant from
Acta Eruditorum, 1734
produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of
 the aromatic Go San Heong banana means 'You can smell
fingers on one banana plant grow fused; another produces bu
only an inch long.

— Mike Peed, The New Yorker[76]

Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands,
Brazil, and western Africa.[77] North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high
prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more
widespread.[78] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they
were available.[77] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in Around the
World in Eighty Days (1872).

The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related Western Caribbean Zone, including
most of Central America. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and
railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening.
North American shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit
Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like Minor C. Keith also participated,
eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International
and Dole.[78] These companies were monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing,
processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclave economies
(economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very
little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term banana republic for states
such as Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics
or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War, to keep the
political climate favorable to their interests.[79]

Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean

The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local
markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries
where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell
at least some of their crop.[80]

Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The Windward
Islands are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in
Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of
cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional
money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of
relatives living overseas.

Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or cyclones.[81]

Modern cultivation
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some
being hybrids) with tiny seeds or triploid hybrids without seeds are preferred for human raw fruit
consumption,[82] as banana seeds are large and hard and spiky and liable to crack teeth. These are
propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for
immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months.

As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.[83]

Cavendish

In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars

belonged to the triploid AAA group of Musa acuminata,
commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They
accounted for the majority of banana exports,[82] despite only
coming into existence in 1836.[84] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish
and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s
after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an
AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Cavendish bananas are the main
Panama disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum which commercial cultivars sold in the
attacks the roots of the banana plant.[82] Cavendish cultivars are world market.
resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that
the black sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas
unviable.[85]

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in
areas where Panama disease is not found.[86] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger
of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global
market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and
genetic engineering programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[82] One
such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.[87]

Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon
arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and
filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color
consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact,
caused by the artificial ripening process.[88] Flavor and texture are
also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to
between 13.5 and 15 °C (56.3 and 59.0 °F) during transport. At Ralstonia solanacearum on an
lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas overripe banana
turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas
quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic
refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected.

Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (i.e. not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the
supermarket fully green. Green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming
rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.[89]
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of
chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in
the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is
stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also
fluoresce in the same way. Green (under-ripe) bananas do not Ripened bananas (left, under
fluoresce.[90] That paper suggested that this fluorescence could be sunlight) fluoresce when exposed to
put to use "for optical in vivo monitoring of ripening and over- UV light.
ripening of bananas and other fruit".

Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.[91] To obtain maximum
shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to
ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural
ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On
arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a
few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days
at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight
to speed up the ripening process.[92]

Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high
temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an
ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or
string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for
refrigeration.[93][94][95]

Sustainability

The excessive use of fertilizers often left in abandoned plantations contributes greatly to eutrophication in
local streams and lakes, and harms aquatic life after algal blooms deprive fish of oxygen. It has been
theorized that destruction of 60% of coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica is partially from sediments
from banana plantations. Another issue is the deforestation associated with expanding banana production.
As monocultures rapidly deplete soil nutrients plantations expand to areas with rich soils and cut down
forests, which also affects soil erosion and degradation, and increases frequency of flooding. The World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) stated that banana production produced more waste than any other agricultural
sector, mostly from discarded banana plants, bags used to cover the bananas, strings to tie them, and
containers for transport.[96]

Voluntary sustainability standards such as Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade are increasingly being used to
address some of these issues. Bananas production certified by such sustainability standards experienced a
43% compound annual growth rate from 2008 to 2016, to represent 36% of banana exports.[97]

Breeding
Mutation breeding can be used in this crop.[98] Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides lab
protocols from cutting knife to sequencer to computer code for screening mutants.[98]
Aneuploidy is a source of significant variation in allotriploid varieties (the ABBs and AABs).[98]: 142 For
one example, it can be a source of TR4 resistance.[98]: 142 Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides
lab protocols to screen for such aberrations and for possible resulting disease resistances.[98]: 142 Wild Musa
spp. provide useful resistance genetics, and are vital to breeding for TR4 resistance, as shown in
introgressed resistance from wild relatives.[99] (See § TR4 resistance.)

Production and export

2021 production (in millions of tonnes)
In 2021, world production of bananas and plantains
combined was 170 million tonnes, led by India and Bananas Plantains Total
China with a combined total of 25% of global India 33.1 30.5
production.[100] Other major producers were Uganda,
the Philippines, Indonesia, Ecuador, and Brazil. China 12.1 12.1

Uganda 0.0 9.2 9.2

As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20
million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of Philippines 5.9 3.1 9.0
plantains.[101] Ecuador and the Philippines were the Indonesia 8.7 8.7
leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes,
Ecuador 6.7 0.8 7.5
respectively, and the Dominican Republic was the
leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 Brazil 6.8 6.8
tonnes.[101] Cameroon 1.1 5.0 6.1

Democratic
Developing countries Republic of the 0.8 4.9 5.7
Congo

Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food Ghana 0.1 4.7 4.8
crop for millions of people in developing countries. In
Colombia 2.4 2.3 4.7
many tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used
for cooking represent the main cultivars. Most Guatemala 4.3 0.2 4.5
producers are small-scale farmers either for home Angola 4.3 4.3
consumption or local markets. Because bananas and
plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a Tanzania 3.6 0.6 4.2
valuable food source during the hunger season (when Nigeria 3.1 3.1
the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has
Costa Rica 2.6 0.1 2.7
been consumed, and the next is still to come).
Bananas and plantains are important for global food Peru 2.4 0.0 2.4
security.[44] Mexico 2.4 2.4

Dominican
Pests, diseases, and natural Republic
1.3 1.1 2.4

disasters Vietnam 2.3 2.3

World 125.0 45.3 170.3

Although in no danger of outright extinction, the most
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[100] Note: Some
common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely countries distinguish between bananas and plantains, but four
popular in Europe and the Americas) could become of the top six producers do not, thus necessitating
unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 comparisons using the total for bananas and plantains
years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the combined.
1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas,
Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial
cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[102][103] Within the data gathered from the genes of
hundreds of bananas, Botanist, Julie Sardos, of the Bioversity International
research group, along with her colleagues found proof that at least several
wild banana ancestors exist that are currently unknown to scientists, which
could provide a means of defense against banana crop diseases.[104]

Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what
much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most
people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the
banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial
motives.[79] Overall, fungal diseases are disproportionately important to
small island developing states.[105]

Deep learning can be used in disease classification.[106][107]

Bunches are sometimes

Panama disease encased in plastic bags for
protection. The bags may be
Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus, which enters the plants coated with pesticides.
through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves,
producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients,
causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960,
almost all commercial banana production centered on 'Gros Michel', which was highly susceptible.[108]
Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces
the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish,[109] and its quality
compared to Gros Michel is debated.[110]

According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting 'Cavendish'. All plants are
genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds
of wild varieties for resistance.[108]

Tropical race 4

Tropical Race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent
form of fusarium wilt destroyed Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and spread to Australia and
India.[111] As the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools, the wilt spread to the
Americas despite years of preventive efforts.[111] Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time,
Cavendish is endangered for commercial production by this disease.[112] The only known defense to TR4
is genetic resistance.[111] This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid
banana, or by the nematode-derived Ced9.[113][114] This may be achieved by genetic
modification.[113][114][115] Experts state the need to enrich banana biodiversity by producing diverse new
banana varieties, not just having a focus on the Cavendish.[111]

Black sigatoka

Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also
known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana
leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including
the Cavendish cultivars[85]), impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing
the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow
ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to
treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding US$1,000 per year. In
addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally
justified.

Banana bunchy top virus

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus

Babuvirus, family Nanonviridae affecting Musa spp. (including
banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and Ensete spp.
in the family Musaceae.[116] Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD)
symptoms include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf
veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the
disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant.
Infected plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge
from the pseudostem.[117] The virus is transmitted by the banana Infected Banana Plant
aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no
cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of
virus-free planting material.[118] No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in
susceptibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely
affected.[117]

Banana bacterial wilt

Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv.
musacearum.[119] After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, Ensete ventricosum, in
Ethiopia in the 1960s,[120] BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then
BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.[121]

Conservation
Given the narrow range of genetic diversity present in bananas and the many threats via biotic (pests and
diseases) and abiotic (such as drought) stress, conservation of the full spectrum of banana genetic resources
is ongoing.[122] Banana germplasm is conserved in many national and regional gene banks, and at the
world's largest banana collection, the International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre, managed by
Bioversity International and hosted at KU Leuven in Belgium.[123] Musa cultivars are usually seedless, and
options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant's reproductive
system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: in vivo (planted in field collections), in
vitro (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by cryopreservation (meristems
conserved in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C).[122] At the Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research there
were attempts to exploit the rare cases of seed production to create disease-resistant varieties; 30,000
commercial banana plants were hand-pollinated with pollen from wild fertile Asian fruit, producing 400
tonnes, which contained about fifteen seeds, of which four or five germinated." Further breeding with wild
bananas yielded a new seedless variety resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease.[124]

Genes from wild banana species are conserved as DNA and as cryopreserved pollen[122] and banana seeds
from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In
addition, bananas and their crop wild relatives are conserved in situ (in wild natural habitats where they
evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where continuous cultivation,
adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local
cultivars.[125]

Nutrition
Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23%
carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat. A 100-gram
reference serving supplies 89 Calories, 31% of the US
recommended Daily Value (DV) of vitamin B6 , and moderate
amounts of vitamin C, manganese and dietary fiber, with no other
micronutrients in significant content (see table).
The cold storage room for the
banana collection at Bioversity
Potassium International's Musa Germplasm
Transit Centre
Although bananas are commonly thought to contain exceptional
potassium content,[31][126] their
actual potassium content is not Bananas, raw (Daily Value)
high per typical food serving, Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
having only 8% of the US
Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)
recommended Daily Value for
potassium (considered a low level Carbohydrates 22.84 g
of the DV, see nutrition table), Sugars 12.23 g
and their potassium-content Dietary fiber 2.6 g
ranking among fruits, vegetables, Fat 0.33 g
legumes, and many other foods is
Protein 1.09 g
relatively moderate.[127][128]
Foods with higher potassium Vitamins Quantity %DV†
content than raw dessert bananas Thiamine (B1) 0.031 mg 3%
(326 mg per 100 g) include Riboflavin (B2) 0.073 mg 6%
ground flaxseed (793 mg per Niacin (B3) 0.665 mg 4%
100 g), dry-roasted almonds Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg 7%
(684 mg per 100 g), peanut butter Vitamin B6 0.4 mg 31%
(654 mg per 100 g), raw baby
Folate (B9) 20 μg 5%
spinach (582 mg per 100 g),
Choline 9.8 mg 2%
white button mushrooms (393 mg
Vitamin C 8.7 mg 10%
per 100 g), and whole grain oats
(350 mg per 100 g). Raw yellow Minerals Quantity %DV†
plantains contain 487 mg Iron 0.26 mg 2%
potassium per 100 g. Dehydrated Magnesium 27 mg 8%
dessert bananas (banana powder) Manganese 0.27 mg 13%
contain 1490 mg potassium per Phosphorus 22 mg 3%
100 g.[127] Potassium 358 mg 8%
Sodium 1 mg 0%
Allergen Zinc 0.15 mg 2%
Other constituents Quantity
Water 74.91 g
Individuals with a latex allergy Link to USDA Database entry (https://web.archive.org/web/2016010
may experience a reaction to 1232525/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09040&f
bananas.[129] ormat=Full) values are for edible portion

Units
Uses μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†
Culinary Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations
for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)
Fruit

Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh
can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be
eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate (also known
as banana oil), which, along with several other compounds such as butyl acetate and isobutyl acetate, is a
significant contributor to banana flavor.[130][131][132]

During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and
indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme
that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain
higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste
sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an
enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it
ripens.[133][134]

In addition to being eaten raw, bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or
steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into fruit preserves. Banana
pancakes are popular among travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression
Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to these travelers. Banana chips are a snack
produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color and an intense
banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice is difficult, because
when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in Philippine cuisine,
being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turón, and halo-halo or saba con yelo. Most of
these dishes use the Saba banana or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine
in the South-Indian state of Kerala, where they are steamed (puzhungiyathu), made into curries, fried into
chips, (upperi)[135] or fried in batter (pazhampori). Pisang goreng, bananas fried with batter similar to the
Filipino maruya or Kerala pazhampori, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A
similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana fritters.

Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as
potatoes, such as the pazham pachadi dish prepared in Kerala.
 Banana with Kilawin na pusô ng Nicaraguan Kaeng yuak is a
Lemon curry saging, a Filipino Nacatamales, in northern Thai
made in a house dish using banana banana leaves, ready curry made with
in Vijayawada, flowers to be steamed the core of the
Andhra Pradesh, banana plant.
India

Pisang goreng fried Banana in sweet

banana coated in gravy, known as
batter, popular snack pengat pisang in
in Indonesia Malaysia

Flower

Banana flowers (also called "banana hearts" or "banana blossoms")

are used as a vegetable[136] in South Asian and Southeast Asian
cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries
and fried foods.[137][138] The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As
with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are
edible.[139]

Blossom used for culinary purpose

Leaves

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. While generally too tough to actually be eaten, they are
often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several
Southeast Asian countries.[140] In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf is employed in cooking methods like
pepes and botok; banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in
boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. Certain types of tamales are wrapped in banana leaves instead of
corn husks.[141][142][143]
When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the
food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor.[1] In
South India, it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana
leaf. In Tamil Nadu (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack
food and to make cups to hold liquid food items.

Trunk

The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South
Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Examples include the Burmese
dish mohinga, and the Filipino dishes inubaran and kadyos,
manok, kag ubad.[144]

Fiber

Textiles
Leaf

The packaging of Manila Weaving

hemp (Musa textilis) into looms
bales at Kali Telepak, processing
Besoeki, East Java Manila hemp
fabric

An example of a
modern Manila
hemp bag produced
by the fashion
company
QWSTION
Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for textiles in Asia since
at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used.[145] In
the Japanese system Kijōka-bashōfu, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure
softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots
produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific
uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while
the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making
process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[146]

In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local
banana harvests and extracts strands of the fiber.[147]

Paper

Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the
bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable
fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process.[148]

Cultural roles

Arts
The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by
Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in
1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet
music in history. Since then the song has been
rerecorded several times and has been particularly
popular during banana shortages.[149][150] Coconut, banana and banana leaves
A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple used while worshiping River Kaveri at
of physical comedy for generations. An American Tiruchirappalli, India
comedy recording from 1910 features a popular
character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe
his own such incident:[151]

Now I don't think much of the man that

throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk,
and I don't think much of the banana peel
that throws a man on the sidewalk neither Banana flowers and leaves for sale
... my foot hit the bananer peelin' and I in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai,
went up in the air, and I come down ker- Thailand
plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little
boy come runnin' across the street ... he
says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that
agin? My little brother didn't see you do it."

The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted
in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a
symbol of his life and home.[152]
 The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground features a banana made
by Andy Warhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel"
this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.[153]
Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan created a concept art piece titled Comedian[154] involving
taping a banana to a wall using silver duct tape. The piece was exhibited briefly at the Art
Basel in Miami before being removed from the exhibition and eaten sans permission in
another artistic stunt titled Hungry Artist[155] by New York artist David Datuna.

Religion and popular beliefs

In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions of

Hindus. In South Indian weddings, particularly Tamil weddings, banana
trees are tied in pairs to form an arch as a blessing to the couple for a long-
lasting, useful life.[156][157]

In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plant may be

inhabited by a spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar
plants that manifests itself as a young woman.[158] Often people tie a length
of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.[159]

In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana

plants (pokok pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the
day.[160] Nang Tani, the female ghost
of Thai folklore that haunts
Racist symbol banana plants

There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as

being more like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that monkeys like
bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of hate speech.[161][162]

Particularly in Europe, bananas have long been commonly thrown at black footballers by racist
spectators.[163] In April 2014, during a match at Villarreal's stadium, El Madrigal, Dani Alves was targeted
by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him.[164] Alves picked up the banana,
peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him.[165] Racist taunts are
an ongoing problem in football.[166][167] Bananas were hung from nooses around the campus of American
University in May 2017 after the student body elected its first black woman student government
president.[168]

"Banana" is also a slur aimed at some Asian people, that are said to be "yellow on the outside, white on the
inside".[169] Used primarily by East or Southeast Asians for other East/Southeast Asians or Asian
Americans who are perceived as assimilated into mainstream American culture.[170]

Unicode

🍌
The Unicode standard includes the emoji character U+1F34C 🍌 BANANA.[171]

Other uses
In internet culture, bananas are sometimes included in
images as a reference for the size of other objects in the
image. This use, often accompanied with the text
"banana for scale", became an internet meme.[172]
The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.[1]
Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal
contamination from river water, similar to other
purification materials.[173][174] In 2007, banana peel
powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy
metals and radionuclides occurring in water produced by
the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium
contaminant is naturally present in phosphates ores).
A tear gas canister with a banana for
When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the
scale. This method of size
powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and
comparison is an internet meme.
this can be repeated.
Waste bananas can be used to feed livestock.[175]

See also
Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia
List of banana dishes
United Brands Company v Commission of the European Communities
Corporación Bananera Nacional

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Overview with Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars" (http://agroforestry.net/tti/Banana-planta
in-overview.pdf) (PDF). In Elevitch, C.R (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry.
Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20160101232525/http://agroforestry.net/images/pdfs/Banana-plantain-overview.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2013.
Stover, R.H. & Simmonds, N.W. (1987). Bananas (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman.
ISBN 978-0-582-46357-8.
Valmayor, Ramón V.; Jamaluddin, S.H.; Silayoi, B.; Kusumo, S.; Danh, L.D.; Pascua, O.C. &
Espino, R.R.C. (2000). Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia (https://web.
archive.org/web/20130530235053/http://kukr.lib.ku.ac.th/Fulltext_kukr/KU0222075c.pdf)
(PDF). Los Baños, Philippines: International Network for Improvement of Banana and
Plantain – Asia and the Pacific Office. ISBN 978-971-91751-2-4. Archived from the original
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January 8, 2013.

Further reading
Harriet Lamb, Fighting the Banana Wars and Other Fairtrade Battles, ISBN 978-1-84604-
083-2
 Plant Breeding Abstracts. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1949. p. 162.
Denham, T.P.; Haberle, S.G.; Lentfer, C.; Fullagar, R.; Field, J.; Therin, M.; Porch, N. &
Winsborough, B. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New
Guinea" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10699305). Science. 301 (5630): 189–
193. doi:10.1126/science.1085255 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1085255).
PMID 12817084 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12817084). S2CID 10644185 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10644185).

External links
Kew plant profile: Musa acuminata (banana) (http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.
org:names:797527-1)
"Commodity Market for Bananas" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210111195526/http://www.
fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/bananas/en/). Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations. Archived from the original (http://www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodi
ties/bananas/en/) on January 11, 2021. Retrieved February 11, 2021.

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