#51 Production of Carbon Dioxide

Reagents
sodium bicarbonate [NaHCO3] 0.68 g/pair
0.5 M acetic acid [CH3COOH] 42 mL/pair
0.5 M hydrochloric acid [HCl] 14 mL/pair

Common Materials
Alka-Seltzer® 0.34 g/pair
Rolaids® 0.34 g/pair
baking powder 0.34 g/pair
baking soda 0.34 g/pair

Special Equipment
rubber tubing (at least 24 in.) that 1/pair
will fit snugly on glass tubing

Laboratory Equipment
1000-mL beaker ring stand, ring, and wire gauze
600-mL beaker utility or buret clamp
100-mL graduated cylinder 1-hole stopper to fit 100-mL graduated
10-mL graduated cylinder cylinder
15-cm test tube glass tube for stopper
hot plate

Notes
Be sure tubing assembly in test tube is tightly sealed. Tums® or another carbonate antacid
should also work well for this investigation.

Disposal
Flush the solutions down the drain with plenty of water as they are not toxic.

PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. If a recipe calls for lemon juice, would you expect it to require baking soda or baking powder?
It is probably baking soda because baking powder contains its own acid and requires no
additional acid in the recipe.

2. If a recipe calls for both baking soda and baking powder, what is a likely reason?
The baking soda will cause the recipe to rise some before it is baked, and then it will rise
again during the baking process when the heat activates the baking powder.

3. Even after combining the ingredients, a certain recipe for bran muffins will keep for a week
when refrigerated. As soon as the batter is placed in the oven, it rises. What ingredient
provides the carbon dioxide gas?
Baking powder provides the carbon dioxide gas because it waits until it is heated to react and
rise.
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4. Carbon dioxide gas is soluble in water. How will this affect the measurement of gas produced
by each reaction during the investigation?
If the water is not saturated with carbon dioxide gas before the experiment begins, some of the
gas produced will be retained in the water and not become a part of the measured volume of
gas collected.

5. Baking is a chemical synthesis. How well does baking a cake follow the principles of green
chemistry: atom economy and less hazardous chemical syntheses as listed in Hill’s textbook?
Baking is green in that the product is not hazardous, but the CO2 escapes so it does not have
total atom economy.

PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

* NOTE: All procedures will produce between 30 and 65 mL of CO2.

I. SODIUM BICARBONATE (NaHCO3) #1 #2

Sodium bicarbonate g g

Final water level mL mL

Minus initial water level − mL mL

Volume of CO2 produced mL mL

mL CO 2
Larger value = _____________ mL/g
g NaHCO 3

II. BAKING SODA

Baking soda g

Final water level mL

Minus initial water level − mL

Volume of CO2 produced mL

mL CO 2
= _____________ mL/g
g baking soda

In the following calculations, use the largest of the three values from above for the mL of CO2
produced by NaHCO3. Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).

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III. BAKING POWDER

Baking powder g
Hot-water level mL Cold-water level mL

Minus initial water level − mL Cold-water temperature C

Volume of CO2 produced mL Hot-water temperature C

mL CO 2
= _____________ mL/g
g baking powder
mL/g baking powder
× 100% = % NaHCO3 in baking powder
mL/g NaHCO 3

IV. ALKA-SELTZER
Alka-Seltzer g

Final water level mL

Minus initial water level − mL

Volume of CO2 produced = mL

mL CO 2
= _____________ mL/g
g Alka - Seltzer ®
mL/g Alka - Seltzer ®
× 100% = % NaHCO3 in Alka-Seltzer®
mL/g NaHCO 3

V. ROLAIDS®
Rolaids® g

Final water level mL

Minus initial water level − mL

Volume of CO2 produced = mL

mL CO 2
= _____________ mL/g
g Rolaids ®
mL/g Rolaids ® 100 g CaCO 3
× 100% × = % CaCO3 in Rolaids®
mL/g NaHCO 3 84 g NaHCO 3

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VI. QUESTIONS
1. What would happen if you swallowed a whole Alka-Seltzer tablet?
There would be a large production of CO2 gas.

2. What occurs if dough is left overnight at room temperature before it is baked?

The dough would rise, then fall as the bubbles burst. There would be little reaction left to
allow it to rise again while cooking.

3. What is the difference between sodium bicarbonate from the laboratory and baking soda from
the kitchen?
Essentially they are the same and would produce the same amount of CO2.

4. Would you ever use calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to substitute for sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3) in cooking? Why or why not?
No, more CaCO3 would need to be used, and it would leave a bad taste because it is like
adding lime to your food. Lime is bitter.

5. If the percent NaHCO3 determined in this investigation is greater than 100%, which of the
following is a logical explanation?
a. There is more than 100% NaHCO3 in the material.
b. Some of the CO2 gas in the sodium bicarbonate determination was not captured.
c. Extra gas was produced by a second reaction.

6. What happens if you are slow when inserting the stopper in the test tube or if the stopper does
not make a good seal?
This would result in inaccurate readings because much of the gas produced would escape.

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#52 Paper Chromatography of Food Colors

Reagents
butanol [CH2(CH3)3OH] 60 mL/pair
ethanol [CH3CH2OH] 20 mL/pair
2 M ammonia [NH3] 20 mL/pair
concentrated acetic acid [CH3COOH] 1 mL/pair
1% ammonia solution [NH3] 5 mL/pair
pH test paper 1 strip/pair for each
color of candy
Common Materials
FD&C food colors: B1, B2, Y5, Y6, 10 mL/lab
R3, R40, G
grocery store food colors (R, G, B, Y) 1 bottle each/lab
colored candies (M&M’s® or Skittles®) 8 pieces of one or two
colors/pair
paper clips 2/pair
1 2-in. square/pair
undyed wool fabric or yarn 2 cm × 5 cm/pair/color
(or 100% cotton yarn) (13 cm/pair/color)
stapler and staples 1/lab

Special Equipment
chromatography paper 3/pair

Laboratory Equipment
10-mL graduated cylinder 2 watch glasses
150-mL beaker hot plate

Notes
Cut chromatography paper to a size that will fit the beakers with a watch glass on top. Be sure
the yarn or fabric is a natural fiber—wool works best. Synthetics do not work well. “Undye” the yarn
by boiling in ammonium hydroxide for 10 minutes.
The FD&C dyes must be purchased by name, not by FD&C number. Double check the CI
number to be sure you are getting the correct dye. The company names are abbreviated. See below
for full names and see the list of Equipment Suppliers at the beginning of this manual for addresses
and numbers. The following is a partial list.

FD&C Name CI # AL ATO FIS HLD NCI SPE TCI VWR WAK WAR
B #1 Erioglaucine 42090 x x x x x x
B #2 Indigo Carmine 73015 x x x x x x
G #3 Fast Green 42053 x x x x x
R #3 Erythrosine 45430 x x x x x x
R #40 Allura Red AC 16035 x x x x x
Y #5 Tartrazine 19140 x x x x x x x x
Y #6 Sunset Yellow 15985 x x
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AL Aldrich Chemical Company, Inc. SPE Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp.

ATO Atomeric Chemetals Corp. TCI TCI America, Inc.
FIS Fischer Scientific VWR VWR Scientific
HLD Hilton Davis Company WAK Wako Chemicals USA, Inc..
NCI NCI Chemical Carc. Ref. Stand. Rep. WAR Warner Jenkinson Company
Disposal
The solids and yarn can be thrown into the trash. The color cannot be completely removed from
the yarn. The solutions can be flushed down the drain with plenty of water.

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF FOOD COLORS

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. Why do you suppose the numbers of the FD&C approved food dyes are not consecutive?
The numbers refer to all the dyes that have been isolated in nature or produced in
laboratories that have been presented to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Commission
for approval. Most are not approved.

2. Would you expect stain removers to be acidic or basic?

Basic environments remove dyes, and extremely basic environments can denature them
completely. A high pH also raises the outer layer of natural, animal fibers such as wool and
allows the dyes to wash out.

3. Most synthetic fibers must be dyed during their production process. Why do natural fibers
accept a dye, and synthetic fibers do not?
Synthetic fibers are solid and do not have the open or porous structure to hold the dye
molecules.

4. After cloth is dyed at home, it is often boiled in a vinegar solution. Why?

A low pH, or acidic environment, helps to “set” the dye.

5. Several years ago, an orange dye in Halloween candy made several children sick. The dye
was banned from use by the United States government. Does this action correlate with the
principle of green chemistry, designing safer chemicals?
Yes, the government does not allow additives that will make people sick, so products will not
be hazardous.

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF FOOD COLORS

SAMPLE REPORT SHEET
Distance dye traveled
I. DYES Distance traveled * Rƒ =
Distance solvent traveled
(cm)
SOLVENT _________
B1 _________ 0.474
B2 _________ 0.400
Y5 _________ 0.346
Y6 _________ 0.753
R3 _________ 0.827
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R40 _________ 0.548

G _________ (blue & yellow)
*Distances will vary. Rf values for the pure dyes are generally larger than for dyes isolated from the
candies.

II. STORE FOOD COLORS

Distance Identity
traveled Rƒ B1, B2, Y5, Y6, R3, R40, G
Solvent _________
Components of:
red _________ 0.556 R40
_________ 0.722 R3
yellow _________ 0.329 Y5
_________ 0.575 R40
green _________ 0.329 Y5
_________ 0.301 B1
blue _________ 0.575 R40
_________ 0.301 B1

III. CANDY DYES DISTANCE IDENTITY

Skittles TRAVELED Rƒ B1, B2, etc.
Solvent _________
Candy Color 0.322
#1 _________ 0.508 R40 & Y5
#2 _________ 0.339 Y5
#3 _________ 0.525 Y6
0.322
#4 _________ 0.373 B1 & Y5
0.458
#5 _________ 0.508 R40 & B2

IV. QUESTIONS
1. What is the shade difference between blue #1 and blue #2?
B1 is not as bright as B2
between red #3 and red #40?
R3 is pink in comparison to R40
between yellow #5 and yellow #6?
Y6 is orange in comparison to Y5

2. Are the food colors pure? - That is, are they made of one dye?
No, some are combinations of the FD&C dyes.

3. Are any of the candy dyes made of one dye?

Yes, two of the candy dyes are pure—#2 and #3. Answers will vary depending on the candy used.

4. Why does a colored acidic food make a worse stain on wool than a colored basic food?
Basic solution cannot hold dye, so the dye will not stain.
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#53 Testing for Opiates

Reagents
methanol [CH3OH] 15 mL/pair
Marquis reagent (concentrated sulfuric acid and 40% formaldehyde) 6 mL/pair

Common Materials
poppy seeds 3 g/pair
anise seeds 3 g/pair
Vicks® Vapoinhaler®. 1/ 15 pair of students

Laboratory Equipment
mortar and pestle 1/pair
100-mL beaker 1/pair
medium test tubes 3/pair

Notes
When the inhaler pad was placed in 5 mL of methanol, the Marquis test produced brown particles
that made the color of the solution difficult to see. When 30 mL of methanol was used, no particles
were formed. The test would probably work with 50 mL of methanol.

Disposal
The Marquis reagent can be diluted and flushed down the drain with lots of water. The seeds and
inhaler parts can be put into the trash. The used methanol should be placed in an organic waste
container.

TESTING FOR OPIATES PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Opium use is ancient. Even Thomas Jefferson grew poppies for their therapeutic uses. Today
opiates are highly controlled. Explain the difference.
In modern times, man knows the danger of addiction to opiates. We have also learned to
make more potent and potentially destructive substances from the natural compounds found in
the poppy plant.

2. Before surgery, patients are thoroughly questioned about prior illnesses that required treatment
with long-term use of painkillers, antidepressants, and other medications. Explain why this
might be important.
Because opiates do produce cross-tolerance, a person having used something before might
not get the medical benefits of taking a opiate after surgery.

3. Random drug testing can turn up false-positive results based on foods that a person has
ingested within 24 hours of the test. Can you explain this?
There can be chemicals in foods that have compounds similar enough to opiates to cause a
positive test but will not have the same effect on a person. Opiates come from a type of poppy
plant. Poppy seeds have a compound that is similar to the compound in opiates.

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4. One of the principles of green chemistry is safer products. Why would knowing which
substances contain opiates be important?
Products that can cause euphoria or addiction are not safe, especially if the person does not
know that the products can cause those effects.

TESTING FOR OPIATES SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

PART A: DATA
Initial color of the poppy seed liquid: colorless

Color after testing with Marquis reagent: rose

Initial color of the anise seed liquid: colorless

Color after testing with Marquis reagent: green

Initial color of the Vicks® Vapoinhaler® liquid: colorless

Color after testing with Marquis reagent: orange

PART B: QUESTIONS
1. A part of the structure that is common in the molecules of all opiates reacts with the Marquis
reagent. What might account for the variation in color for a positive test?
Although one part of the molecule is the same, the rest of the molecule is different and other
molecules are present.

2. Why would the use of opiates not be desirable in positions such as pilots, bus drivers, airplane
control personnel, and other transportation positions?
It would not be safe for transportation personnel to be euphoric.

3. Which of the tested substances showed a positive test?

Poppy seeds and Vicks® Vapoinhaler®

4. Which of the tested substances showed a negative test?

Anise seeds.

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#54 Testing for Caffeine

Reagents
eluting fluid (98% ethyl acetate and 2% v/v methanol) 25 mL/pair
fluorescent silica gel TLC plates 2” × 4”/pair
distilled water 100 mL/pair

Common Materials
Vivarin® or NoDoz® tablets 1 tablet/pair
Extra Strength Excedrin® tablets 1 tablet/pair
millimeter ruler 1/pair
pencil 1/pair
hair dryer 1/pair
instant coffee granules 1 g/pair
tea bags (standard dark tea) 1/pair

Laboratory Equipment
mortar and pestle 1/pair
medium test tubes, with stoppers 5/pair
glass stirring rod 1/pair
centigram balance 1/pair
ultraviolet light 1/pair
large paper clips 5/pair
250-mL beaker 1/pair
100-mL beaker 1/pair
50-mL beaker 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair
watch glass 2/pair
Notes: Consider asking students to bring their own hair dryers,

TESTING FOR CAFFEINE PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Caffeine is naturally present in tea leaves, coffee beans, and cocoa beans. It is also an
ingredient added to many beverages. Name a few. Why would the presence of caffeine tend
to increase the purchase and consumption of a particular beverage?
Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Dr. Pepper, and energy drinks all contain caffeine. Caffeine is slightly
addictive, and in addition it gives a person a slight boost.

2. “Energy drinks” fall into one of two categories based on whether or not they contain caffeine.
From the discussion on the physiological effects of caffeine, name a likely ingredient in drinks
that do not contain caffeine but still raise energy levels.
These “caffeine-free” drinks probably contain a large amount of sugar.

3. Some people develop headaches in response to changing caffeine levels in their bodies. Can
you account for this effect with the information learned from this investigation?
Caffeine is slightly addictive.

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4. Caffeine intoxication results in vomiting and frequent urination, thereby reducing the level of
caffeine in the body. A person would need to consume a large amount of caffeine in a
relatively short period of time in order to overdose. With what type of caffeine product might
this be possible?
Vivarin® or NoDoz®, or energy drinks contain enough caffeine to conceivably allow overdose.

5. One of the principles of green chemistry is designing safer chemicals: Chemical products
should be designed to affect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity. Does
increasing the amount of caffeine in a product meet this principle?
No, that increases the bad effects of the product.

TESTING FOR CAFFEINE SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

Distance traveled by eluting fluid ___________mm

Distance traveled by caffeine spot in NoDoz® or Vivarin® ___________mm
Rf value for caffeine = distance traveled by caffeine ___________
distance traveled by eluting fluid

Distance traveled by caffeine spot in coffee ___________mm

Rf value for caffeine = distance traveled by caffeine ___________
distance traveled by eluting fluid

Distance traveled by caffeine spot in tea ___________mm

Rf value for caffeine = distance traveled by caffeine ___________
distance traveled by eluting fluid

Distance traveled by caffeine spot in Excedrin® ___________mm

Rf value for caffeine = distance traveled by caffeine ___________
distance traveled by eluting fluid
Student results will vary.

QUESTIONS
1. NoDoz® or Vivarin® is used as a standard of caffeine for this experiment. Although there are
fillers and coatings on the tablet, only the caffeine appears in a TLC procedure. Why was it
important to get the Rf value for a sample of caffeine standard in this investigation?
There must be a standard Rf value to be able to determine if a sample actually contains caffeine.

2. Why is it important to keep the level of the eluting solution in the developing container well
below the spots on the TLC plate?
The eluting solution could dissolve the materials on the spots instead of carrying them up the
plate.
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3. As the spots migrate up the plate during development, they separate into individual components.
How many distinct components could you identify in the four substances tested?
Excedrin has two distinct components. The aspirin and acetaminophen do not completely
separate with this eluting solution.

4. Did you find it easy to determine which component was the caffeine in each test spot? Explain
how you made the determination.
Yes. All of the caffeine spots rose to the same height.

5. How might the results of the chromatogram be affected by the presence of oils or other substances
from fingers that are inadvertently deposited onto the TLC plate?
Oils could prevent the eluting solution from traveling past the oil.

6. Why do the spots show up brown under a fluorescent light, but are not readily visible otherwise?
Caffeine absorbs light in the ultraviolet range but not in the visible range; therefore, the
fluorescence of the coating on the plate is “covered up.” In regular light the caffeine is a white
powder and is difficult to distinguish from the matte finish of the coating on the plate.

7. Would it be proper procedure to use ink to mark the TLC plates? Why or why not?
The eluting solution will probably carry the ink and could cause the ink to separate, making marks
on the TLC plates.

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#55 Aspirin Preparation and Purity Test

Reagents
salicylic acid [C7H6O3] 11 g/pair
acetic anhydride [(CH3CO)2O] 12 mL/pair
concentrated sulfuric acid [H2SO4] 1 mL/pair
95% ethyl alcohol [CH3CH2OH] 35 mL/pair
eluting solvent (66:33:1 hexane,
ethyl acetate, glacial acetic acid) 30 mL/pair

Common Materials
fresh commercial aspirin 1/2 tablet/pair
aged aspirin 1/2 tablet/pair
ice 300 mL/pair
paper, watch glass, or foil (to fit over beakers) 1 square/pair
paper clips 3/pair

Special Equipment
TLC chromatography plates 2/pair
ultraviolet light 1/lab
filter paper for Buchner funnel 3/pair
hair dryer (for this eluting solvent probably not needed)

Laboratory Equipment
mortar and pestle filter paper, large size for drying
Büchner funnel wash bottle of distilled water
2 600-mL beakers balance
125- or 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask stirring rod
150-mL beaker 4 small test tubes
250-mL beaker filter paper for Büchner funnel
hot plate thermometer

Notes
Age aspirin several days before it is needed by warming in a moist environment.
Consider asking students to bring their own hair dryers.
The Whatman Flexible-backed TLC plates with polyester backing and fluorescent indicator can
be purchased in packages of 25 from Fisher Scientific. They are 20 × 20 cm in size and can be cut to
6.7 × 20 cm for this investigation.
Another brand of TLC plates is POLYGRAM® SIL G/UV254, 40 × 80 mm silica gel on plastic
plates from Bodman Chemical, Aston, PA (phone 1-800-241-8774). They come 50 plates per box.
The cost is $0.50 per plate, but the plates can be cut in half for economy.
CAUTION: Store acetic anhydride away from alcohols.

Disposal
The eluting solution is toxic enough that it should not be placed into the water system. However,
it is volatile and can be evaporated in a hood. The prepared aspirin and the solutions used to prepare
the aspirin are not toxic. The spotting solutions can be poured down the drain with plenty of water.
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ASPIRIN PREPARATION AND PURITY TEST PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Why should you discard aspirin once its expiration date has been reached or if it has been
stored in a moist or warm environment for very long?
With age and especially in moist or warm environments, the aspirin begins to degrade and the
acid content rises.

2. If a solid impurity fell into the beaker during the initial formation of the aspirin, in which step
would it be removed?
Once the aspirin has been re-dissolved, any solid impurities can be seen and then filtered out
in step 10.

3. If two separate samples of the same compound are analyzed by chromatography, why should
the Rf values match even if the solvent fronts move different distances on the two
chromatograms?
The Rf value is a ratio. The ratio of the distance the solvent traveled to the distance the
compound traveled will remain constant if all other factors are the same.

4. Why is ethanol used to dissolve and spot the samples on the chromatogram?
The eluting fluid is made primarily of nonpolar substances. It would not be wise to put water,
a very polar molecule, on the chromatography surface. Ethanol also evaporates quickly and
allows the spot to remain small as multiple layers are added.

5. Why is it important to know if a compound is pure? How does this relate to the principle of
green chemistry, less hazardous chemical syntheses?
If a compound is not pure, it may contain a toxic chemical. If that chemical is used in a
synthesis, the toxic chemical may be in the final product.

ASPIRIN PREPARATION AND PURITY TEST SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

I. Mass of paper + salicylic acid g

_
minus mass of paper ______________________g
_____________________________________________________
Mass of salicylic acid 9.06 g

II. Mass of 100-mL beaker + aspirin _______________________g

minus mass of 100-mL beaker _______________________g
______________________________________________________
Mass of aspirin 7.3 g

experimental mass of synthetic product (aspirin)

III. % Yield = × 100%
Theoretical mass of synthetic product (aspirin)
mass of aspirin (II)
= × 100% = 62%
180.15 g aspirin/mol
mass of salicylic acid (I) ×
138.12 g sal acid / mol
Present aspirin to instructor for initial _______________
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IV. Describe the appearance of the salicylic acid spot.

The salicylic acid spot is blue/brown under the UV light.
Comment on the presence or absence of salicylic acid in the following :
1. Fresh commercial aspirin no salicylic acid
2. Aged commercial aspirin some salicylic acid
3. The aspirin prepared in this investigation some salicylic acid

Fresh Aged Today’s

Preparation
Salicylic Acid
Distance traveled Spot 2.4 cm 2.3 cm 2.5 cm
Solvent 4.8 cm 4.8 cm 4.8 cm
Rf 0.50 0.48 0.42

Aspirin
Distance traveled Spot 2.5 cm 1.6 cm 1.4 cm
Solvent 4.8 cm 4.8 cm 4.8 cm
Rf 0.42 0.33 0.21

V. QUESTIONS
1. Why do you not get 100% yield?
If water was still in the crystals, it would account for a greater than 100% yield. If the yield is
less than 100%, it will be because aspirin is water-soluble and sticks to the surfaces of
containers.

2. Is excess water still in the aspirin when you weighed it?

Yes.There is not time to be certain that all water molecules have left the product. Aspirin
will also absorb a certain amount of water because it is soluble.

3. Could another compound that was also insoluble in cold water be separated from aspirin by
re-crystallization?
Probably not; the two compounds would precipitate together.

4. Does your product aspirin smell of vinegar?

Yes.

5. Should the aspirin you produced smell of vinegar? Why or why not?
It should not smell of vinegar. If the procedure was done correctly, the acetic acid would
have been used up.

6. Why does aspirin that has a sour smell have a greater chance of causing an upset stomach?
The sour-smelling aspirin contains acetic acid, and perhaps some salicylic acid that upsets the
stomach.

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#56 Fats and Iodine Number

Reagents
glycerol 0.25 mL/pair
potassium hydrogen sulfate [KHSO4] 0.5 g/pair
hexane [C6H14] 30 mL/pair
5% iodine solution [I2 in C6H14] 0.25 mL/pair
concentrated sulfuric acid [H2SO4] 3 mL
50% sodium thiosulfate [Na2S2O3] (for disposal only)
3 M sulfuric acid [H2SO4] (for disposal only)
6 M sodium hydroxide solution [NaOH] (for disposal only)
pH test paper (for disposal only)

Common Materials
vegetable oil 4 mL/pair
solid margarine 4 mL/pair
liquid margarine 4 mL/pair
peanut or olive oil 3 mL/pair
potato chip 3 small pieces/pair
raw potato 3 small pieces/pair
white meat (chicken or turkey) 3 small pieces/pair
radish 3 small pieces/pair
Fritos® 3 small pieces/pair
butter 3 small pats

Laboratory Equipment
small test tubes watch glass
stirring rod Bunsen burner

Notes:
Many other foods will work in this investigation. The foods listed are chosen
for their simplicity, availability, and familiarity.

Disposal
The hexane and I2 used in this investigation are classified as toxic substances. Iodine is a strong
oxidizing agent. The hexane may be evaporated in a hood. The iodine has to be reduced with a
twofold excess of 50% sodium thiosulfate solution. Use 3 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the pH
2–3. Set for an hour. Neutralize the solution with 6 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sulfuric acid.
Flush down the drain with plenty of water. Place all foods in the trash.

FATS AND IODINE NUMBER PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Industry can adjust whether a material is solid or liquid by adding or deleting double bonds.
Which is done to make a material more solid?
Double bonds are removed by the process of hydrogenation to make the liquids solid.

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2. Should a person be worried about the type of fat found in solid vegetable margarine? Explain.
Yes, because the amount of fat per serving can vary greatly depending on the type of oil used
to produce the margarine. It is also advisable to monitor how much trans fat is in the
margarine used.

3. Many Mediterranean cultures dip their bread in olive oil mixed with roasted garlic and other
spices. Compare the health value of this practice to the traditional bread and butter (or
margarine) we use in the United States.
Oils are generally more unsaturated than solids and are therefore healthier. Olive oil in
particular is one of the healthier choices among the oils.

4. Would you expect the iodine number to be greater for squeeze margarine or for tub margarine.
Why?
The iodine number for tub margarine would be expected to be lower because it is more solid,
meaning that it is more saturated.

5. Are we as a nation following the green principle, designing safer chemicals, when we treat
liquid oils chemically to cause them to become solid?
No, liquid oils are healthier than solid saturated fats.

FATS AND IODINE NUMBER SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

I. FAT TEST*
1. Record your observations of each test tube.
#1
#2
#3
2. Record your observations of each food tested for fat.
potato chip
raw potato
radish
meat
Fritos®
*These are students’ personal observations.
3. # drops of I2
liquid margarine 12
butter 19
solid margarine 15
vegetable oil 25
peanut oil 24

I. QUESTIONS
1. Rank the following in terms of increasing order of dietary health (least to most healthy):
butter, solid margarine, liquid margarine, peanut oil.
butter, solid margarine, liquid margarine, peanut oil
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2. Why are so many products advertised as being fried in peanut oil or olive oil?
These are healthier than other oils or fats.

3. Where have you smelled burned fat before?

The sharp odor is prevalent at fast-food hamburger places and grilling in the backyard.

4. Would you expect a positive test for fat on a piece of celery?

No. As evidenced by the data, vegetables generally have no, or relatively little but healthy, fat.

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#57 Carbohydrates

Reagents
Benedict’s reagent * 4 mL/pair
Barfoed’s reagent * 8 mL/pair
1% glucose solution 20 mL/pair
1% fructose solution 20 mL/pair
1% sucrose solution 20 mL/pair
1% cellulose solution 20 mL/pair
1% starch solution 20 mL/pair
iodine solution 1 mL/pair
pH 7 buffer solution 10 mL/pair
50% sodium thiosulfate solution [Na2S2O3] (for disposal only)
3 M sulfuric acid [H2SO4] (for disposal only)
6 M sodium hydroxide solution [NaOH] (for disposal only)
pH paper

Common Materials
1% table sugar, solution 10 mL/pair
1% honey, solution 10 mL/pair
1% corn syrup, solution 10 mL/pair
1% powdered sugar, solution 10 mL/pair

Laboratory Equipment
large test tubes 5/pair
50-mL beaker 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair

Notes
Benedict’s Reagent Dissolve 4.3 g of finely pulverized copper sulfate in 25 mL of hot water,
cool and dilute to 40 mL with water. Dissolve separately 43 g of sodium citrate and 25 g of anhydrous
sodium carbonate in 150 mL of water. Heat to effect solution; cool, then add the copper sulfate
solution. Dilute to 250 mL. Keep in a cork-stoppered bottle.
“Clinitest” tablets used by diabetics to check sugar levels are a solid form of Barfoed’s Reagent.
Barfoed’s Reagent Dissolve 66 g of cupric acetate and 10 mL glacial acetic acid in water and
dilute to 1 liter.
Iodine solution Dissolve 25 g of iodine in a solution of 50 g of potassium iodide in 200 mL of
water.
pH 7 Buffer Add 9.1 g KH2PO4 and 18.9 g Na2HPO4 to enough water to make a liter of solution.
Commercial amylase solution is available if that option is preferable to collecting from students.

Disposal
Copper is a metal ion and so should not be allowed into the water system. Iodine is a strong
oxidizing agent. The iodine has to be reduced with a twofold excess of 50% sodium thiosulfate
solution. Use 3 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the pH 2-3. Set for an hour. Neutralize the solution
with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sulfuric acid. Flush down the drain with plenty of water. The
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copper solutions should be evaporated to a solid that should be placed in a container to be buried in a
secure landfill. All foods may be placed into the trash.

CARBOHYDRATES PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Which should provide energy more quickly to the body: table sugar or an apple that contains
fructose? Explain your reasoning.
The apple with the fructose would provide the quickest energy because fructose is a simple
sugar and table sugar is a disaccharide.

2. Which should provide energy more quickly to the body: sucrose or starch? Explain your
reasoning.
Sucrose would provide energy to the body more quickly because it is a disaccharide and is
more readily digested than the complex sugar in the starch carbohydrate.

3. What must be the active ingredient in the product Lactaid®, an aid for the digestion of dairy
products containing lactose?
Lactaid® must contain lactase.

4. Give the results you would expect to see from each of the three chemical analysis tests,
Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Iodine, on the disaccharide maltose.
Benedict’s test would be positive within a short amount of time, possibly immediately.
Barfoed’s test may eventually turn positive, and the iodine test will be negative.

5. Which of the four carbohydrate solutions in step 7 would you predict to have a negative result
to Benedict’s test?
Starch and cellulose should have a negative result to a Benedict’s test because they do not
contain mono- or disaccharides.

6. The human body makes use of almost all of a carbohydrate. How would that rate according to
the principle of green chemistry, atom economy?
That would be very green to use all atoms of a reactant in a reaction.

CARBOHYDRATES SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

PART A: TESTS FOR SIMPLE SUGARS

Benedict’s Barfoed’s Iodine Conclusion
(Color) (Color) (Time) (Color) (Type of
Carbohydrate)
Sample
Glucose ______ _____ _____ ______ Monosaccharide
Fructose ______ _____ _____ ______ Monosaccharide
Sucrose ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide
Starch ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide
Cellulose ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide
Table sugar ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide

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Corn syrup ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide

Honey ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide
Powdered sugar ______ _____ _____ ______ Diasaccharide
Sucrose in saliva ______ _____ _____ ______ Monosaccharide
Sugar in saliva ______ _____ _____ ______ Monosaccharide
Starch in saliva ______ _____ _____ ______ Monosaccharide
Cellulose in saliva ______ _____ _____ ______ Disaccharide

PART B: ENZYME ACTION ON CARBOHYDRATES

Sample: Starch Sucrose Table Sugar Cellulose

Color: ______ ______ ______ ______

PART C: QUESTIONS
1. From your data, which of the first eight substances would you expect to provide the quickest
energy to the body? Why?
Glucose and fructose would be expected to provide the quickest energy because they are
monosaccharides.

2. Why does the water from the cooking of vegetables taste sweet?
The heat breaks the disaccharides into monosaccharides.

3. In the procedure, heat was used to break the bonds between monosaccharide units. In what
other ways could the bonds be broken?
Enzymes in the digestive system are efficient in breaking the bonds between monosaccharides.
Heat will also break down more complex sugars to simple sugars.

4. Give an explanation for the results in the enzyme action test.

The starch and table sugars are slowly broken down into monosaccharides by the salivary
amylase. Amylase does not act on cellulose.

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#58 Analysis of Fertilizer

Reagents
5% barium chloride [BaCl2] or barium nitrate [Ba(NO3)2] 2 mL/pair
sodium sulfate [Na2SO4] 0.1 g/pair
potassium chloride [KCl] 0.1 g/pair
ammonium phosphate [(NH4)3PO4] 2.0 g/pair
sodium nitrate [NaNO3] 0.1 g/pair
2 M ammonia [NH3] (as ammonium hydroxide [NH4OH]) 150 mL/pair
0.2 M iron(II) sulfate solution [FeSO4] 2 mL/pair
concentrated sulfuric acid [H2SO4] 4 mL/pair
10% sodium hydroxide [NaOH] 5 mL/pair
3 M hydrochloric acid [HCl] 25 mL/pair
6 M hydrochloric acid [HCl] 30 mL/pair
concentrated (12 M) hydrochloric acid [HCl] 5 mL/pair
6 M nitric acid [HNO3] 15 mL/pair
75% isopropyl alcohol 20 mL/pair
10% magnesium sulfate heptahydrate [MgSO4 · 7H2O] 45 mL/pair
red litmus 4 pieces/pair

Common Materials
inorganic fertilizer sample(s) 10 g/pair

Special Equipment
platinum or nichrome wire 1/pair
cobalt glass 1/pair

Laboratory Equipment
50-mL beakers 2/pair
250-mL beaker 1/pair
filter paper 3 pieces/pair
100-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
Büchner funnel 1/pair
10-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
evaporating dish 1/pair
balance 1/pair
laboratory burner 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair

Notes
In the nitrate test, placing the sulfuric acid under the solution by use of a pipette or dropper may
work better than pouring down the side. The brown ring may take 30–45 seconds to form.
The iron(II) sulfate should be prepared daily.
CAUTION: Store sulfuric acid away from calcium nitrate and silver nitrate.
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Disposal
Barium is very toxic. The barium sulfate should be placed in a waste receptacle to go to the
toxic waste site. The solutions can be flushed down the drain with plenty of water. The phosphate
precipitate can be thrown into the trash.

ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZER PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. What would be the content of a fertilizer that is labeled 20-20-10?

20% of the fertilizer is nitrogen, 20% is phosphorus, and 10% potassium.

2. Some plants such as conifers and other evergreens need a low soil pH. Which number would
you want to be the higher number on the fertilizer package for these plants?
In order to lower the pH of soil, more nitrogen is required, so the first number would be
higher.

3. Flowering plants use different nutrients from the soil than does a lawn. If a lawn food is 15-
30-15, but a food for flowering plants is 30-10-10, which nutrient is needed most for each type
of plant?
The lawn needs phosphorus, but the flowering plants need more nitrogen.

4. Some fertilizers are labeled “all-purpose.” What would you expect the relative nutrient content
to be in such a fertilizer?
If the fertilizer is intended to work for general use and be useful to any plant, it would need to
have a fairly even distribution of nutrients. Some fertilizers have a 20-20-20 rating and would
qualify for this purpose.

5. Some fertilizers have fillers as a part of the fertilizer mixture. Would a company that used
fillers be greener as defined by the principle of green chemistry, atom economy? Explain.
The filler would not be used in plant growth, so the mixture would not be considered green for
atom economy.

ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZER SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

I . MASSES
Mass of fertilizer phosphate precipitate and paper 2.84 g

Mass of paper − 1.60 g

Mass of fertilizer phosphate precipitate (MgNH4PO4·6H2O) 1.24 g

1 mol MgNH 4 PO 4 ⋅ 6H 2 O
1.24 g MgNH4PO4 · 6H2O ×
245.3 g MgNH 4 PO 4 ⋅ 6H 2O

1 mol P2 O5 141.9 g P2 O 5
× × = 0.359 g P2O5
2 mol MgNH 4 PO 4 ⋅ 6H 2 O 1 mol P2 O 5
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0.359 g P2O5
× 100% = 12.0 % P2O5
3.00 g fertilizer

II. Describe the result of each test on the known solutions.

Nitrate—There is a brown ring between the two layers.
Ammonium—Ammonia can be smelled.
Potassium—The potassium burns violet through the cobalt glass.
Sulfate—There is a precipitate.

III. FERTILIZER TEST

PRESENT ABSENT
Nitrate _________ ________
Ammonium _________ ________
Potassium _________ ________
Phosphate _________ ________
Sulfate _________ ________

IV. QUESTIONS
1. Arsenic reacts chemically like phosphorus. Why should fertilizer not contain arsenic?
Arsenic is toxic and can contaminate the soil and harm soil life and any animals that eat the
plants.

2. Liquid fertilizers often contain the same ions as a solid fertilizer, only they are dissolved in
water. Will the tests in this investigation work on liquid fertilizers?
Yes

3. Which fertilizer would be needed if the soil were poor in nitrogen, a 10-10-10 or a
20-5-5?
20-5-5

4. How did your measured percent phosphate compare with the amount indicated on the label of
the fertilizer container?
Answers will vary.

5. A popular fertilizer for vegetable gardens is listed as 18-18-21. What does this say about the
relative importance of each nutrient to vegetable plants?
Vegetable plants need large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, but they also need a larger
amount of potassium.

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#59 Soil Chemistry

Reagents
multirange pH test paper or test strips 3/pair
nitrate/nitrite test strips 3/pair
potassium test strips 3/pair
phosphorus/phosphate test strips 3/pair

Common Materials
sand 50 mL/pair
clay 50 mL/pair
silt 50 mL/pair
finely divided mulch or other humus 50 mL/pair
soil samples 3/pair
6-in. square pieces of cheesecloth 4/pair
rubber bands 4/pair
large paper clips 4/pair
grease pencil or paper and clear tape 1/pair

Laboratory Equipment
50-mL capped vials 3/pair
glass stirring rod 1/pair
100-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair
250-mL breakers 4/pair
100-mL beakers 3/pair
50-mL beakers 3/pair
Notes
This investigation pairs nicely with Analysis of Fertilizers. Whereas this investigation only tests
for qualitative results on soil nutrients, the fertilizer investigation performs quantitative tests. If
desired, the quantitative tests could be applied to the soil samples.
In the lab procedures, number 13 should refer to procedures 9–12 rather than 6–8. Likewise,
number 22 should refer to 20–21 rather than 21–22.
Disposal
All of the solid materials may be thrown in the trash.
SOIL CHEMISTRY PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Often, contractors for large building projects employ a geologist. Explain why you think this
might be important.
Soil needs to be stable and able to support a building.
2. When gathering a soil sample for testing, it is recommended that several smaller samples from
separate locations in the area to be tested be combined and mixed together thoroughly. Then a
portion of the resulting mixture should be used for the tests. Why might this be important?
There might be small pockets of different types of soil in the area. A mixture provides an
average of what the soil is like.
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3. The Mississippi River carries runoff water from the central half of the United States, which is
largely farmland. Predict the effect on the pH of the soil in the delta region of the river if the
runoff carries a large amount of artificial fertilizer. How would the effect be different if the
farmland was fertilized with a greater percentage of natural fertilizer?
The artificial fertilizer will lower the pH some but not as much as the natural fertilizer.
4. One of the principles of green chemistry is to design for degradation. Why is it important that
only innocuous degradation products be produced?
Otherwise the toxic chemicals would be in the soil and in plants grown in that soil.
SOIL CHEMISTRY SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

PART A: DENSITY AND MOISTURE RETENTION OF SOIL COMPONENTS

SAND SILT CLAY HUMUS

Mass of vial cap and sample g g g g

Mass of vial and cap g g g g

Mass of 50.0 mL sample g g g g

Density of 50.0 mL sample g/mL g/mL g/mL g/mL

Initial volume of water mL mL mL mL

Final volume of water mL mL mL mL

Volume of water held by sample mL mL mL mL

Description of drained water

Student results

PART B: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Squeeze Test (results and conclusion)
1. Student results
2. Student results
3. Student results
Settling Test (sketch, description, and conclusion)
1. Student results
2. Student results
3. Student results

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PART C: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Test Soil Sample # Soil Sample # Soil Sample #

Student results
pH
Student results
Nitrate/Nitrite

Phosphorus/Phosphate
Student results
Potassium

PART D: QUESTIONS
1. When taking a soil sample, it is recommended that the soil to be tested be taken from several
inches below the surface. Using what you learned from the soil profiles you observed in the
vials of settled soil, why would the depth of the soil sample be important and how might depth
affect the result of the tests?
Some soils have more humus than others, and since the humus tends to be on the surface, if
there is a large amount, no other components would be taken as part of the sample. Results of
any soil tests would then be misleading.

2. What general physical property might account for the differences in water retention for the
individual components of soil?
The relative amounts of clay and sand are the largest contributors to differences in the water
retention capabilities of a particular soil.

3. Use your observations of the water that drained from each sample of soil component to draw
conclusions about particle size.
The water that drained from the sand was much cleaner than the water from the silt or clay.
This is because the particles are larger and were more easily trapped in the cheesecloth.

4. Did the order of the soil component layers correspond to the densities of the components?
Support your answer with your experimental data.
The densest materials are on the bottom of the soil layers. [Student numbers will vary.]

5. In the “squeeze test,” if a soil sample initially held its shape, only to fall apart once it was
poked, what would this indicate about the composition of the sample?
The soil sample would contain a mixture of clay and larger particles such as sand or silt.

6. For each soil sample, use the results of the “squeeze test” to estimate the relative amount of
clay and sand/silt in the sample. For each, is your conclusion supported by the settled layers
in the corresponding vial?
(Results will vary according to the samples collected for the investigation.)

7. Did you find a correlation in your data when comparing the pH of a soil sample to the relative
amount of humus it contained? If so, what was the relationship?
Soil pH is generally lower with higher humus content as the decaying matter tends to be
acidic.

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#60 Saponification

Reagents
20% sodium hydroxide solution [NaOH] 15 mL/pair
sodium chloride [NaCl] 18 g/pair
5% calcium or magnesium nitrate solution 1 mL/pair
pH paper 1 strip/pair

Common Materials
cottonseed oil 10 mL/pair
scented oil 1–2 drops per pair

Special Equipment
filter paper 1 piece/pair

Laboratory Equipment
150-mL beaker 1/pair
100-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
10-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
stirring rod 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair
lab gloves 1 pair/student
medium test tubes with stoppers 4/pair

Notes
The reaction also works with Crisco®, and so on, but the calculation would not be as
meaningful.
If desired, the soap can be produced quicker if a stronger (35%) solution of sodium hydroxide is
used. This allows the process to be sped up to the point that the four distinct phases in the soap-
making process are clearly distinguishable. (boiling, foaming, sizzling, and forming the waxy soap).
The fire should be removed as the waxy substance begins to form, but the stirring should continue
until all the material in the bottom of the beaker is waxy. If scented oil is to be added, one to two
drops should be added after the formation of the waxy soap. Overcooking produces a hard, crumbly
soap similar in texture to laundry detergent. Undercooking forms a “liquid soap” that will not set up.

Disposal
The solids can be thrown into the trash. The solutions can be flushed down the drain with
plenty of water.

SAPONIFICATION PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Baths have not always been comfortable. Using the information about “grandma’s” soap, give
several reasons why that was so.
The soap was not “pH balanced” and stung. It also had rough abrasive substances in it. The
soap did not smell nice—in fact, quite the opposite.

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2. Why do the two reactants in Procedure 1 remain in separate layers unless stirred?
The sodium hydroxide solution is water based, and the water will not mix with the oil
component of the process.

3. Why should scent be added to the soap after it is complete but before it is pressed into a cake
or molded?
The scent could be destroyed or evaporated by the heating process.

4. Soap that is ground into flakes or tiny pellets is used as dishwasher detergent or laundry soap.
Would these types of soap be cooked a longer or shorter time than the soap you have made?
Why do you think so?
They would have been cooked longer to remove more of the water and other moisture.

5. Soap is made from fats from animals or oils from plants. Is that more green as defined by the
principle of green chemistry, use of renewable feedstocks, than using detergents made from
petroleum products.
Detergents are using up our resources that cannot be replaced; therefore, soaps from animal
or plant products are more green. However, to make enough soap from fats and oils to supply
our needs at this time is not feasible.

SAPONIFICATION SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

I. SOAP MASS: ____________

Instructor’s approval of soap: ____________

II. QUESTIONS
1. Explain why you washed the soap with salt solution rather than water.
The salt solution is used to separate the soap from the glycerol. The salt causes the soap to
coagulate, and water would not do this.

2. What was the pH of soap in water?

The pH of the soap in water was 10.

3. How do you explain this pH?

The soap is basic because of the sodium hydroxide that is used to make it.

4. Describe any observations about washing your hands with a small piece of the soap.
Slippery—some foaming. It stings if not rinsed well.

5. In Procedure 12, which aqueous solution allows the soap to lather more freely?
The distilled water lathers more quickly.

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6. The three most abundant soap molecules (actually ionic salts) produced from cottonseed oil
are sodium linoleate, often written as C18H31O2Na; sodium oleate, written as C18H33O2Na; and
sodium palmitate, written as C16H31O2Na. The average molar mass of these soaps is about 300
g/mol. The cottonseed oil would consist of the three soap molecules as fatty acids combined
on a three-carbon backbone. Cottonseed oil has a molar mass of about 872 g/mol. Calculate
the expected yield of soap using the cottonseed oil as the limiting reagent. The density of
cottonseed oil is 0.92 g/mL.
0.92 g mole cottonseed oil 3 mol soap 300 g soap
10 mL oil × × × × = 9.5 g soap
mL 872 g cottonseed oil mol soap mole soap

7. How does actual mass compare to the calculated yield? Does the soap still contain water?
Student response here. (It should be less as some will dissolve, some will be left in the beaker,
etc.)
Yes, the soap still contains some water,

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#61 Soap in Hard Water

Reagents
calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3)2] 0.56 g/pair
sodium carbonate [Na2CO3] 0.1 g/pair
sodium meta-phosphate [NaPO3] 0.2 g/pair
distilled water 500 mL/pair

Common Materials
Ivory Snow® or castille soap 2.5 g/pair
Tide® 1 g/2 pairs
red food coloring 0.5 mL/pair
borax 0.4 g/pair

Laboratory Equipment
stirring rod 1/pair
125-mL Erlenmeyer flask 5/pair
250-mL beaker 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair
1000-mL beaker 2/pair
eyedropper 1/pair
filter paper 3/pair

Notes
It will save lab time if the solutions are prepared ahead of time.
True soaps are becoming increasingly difficult to find. Check bath bars for a true soap. Castille
soap is available from many chemical dealers.

Disposal
Flush all solutions down the drain with plenty of water as they are not toxic.

SOAP IN HARD WATER PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. List another substance that might qualify to be classified as a surfactant besides soap and
detergent.
Many solvents act on the surface of objects to remove unwanted dirt or contaminants.
Answers could include dry cleaning agents, petroleum distillates, alcohols, and so on.

2. Have you have ever had the experience of washing your hands or hair and had the sensation
that you could not get the soap off? What would you suspect about the metallic ion content of
the water?
The water is probably very soft, having a small concentration of metal ions.

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3. Dry cleaning is a process in which no water is used. The cleaners in the process still attract
the dirt, but do not need to be attracted to polar water molecules. Describe the probable
structure of a molecule of the cleaner.
The molecules are nonpolar with no water-loving end. They are generally a hydrocarbon
molecule and are only attracted to the oil that needs to be removed from the fabric.

4. People who rely on septic tanks for their sewage disposal are ultimately putting all of the
wastewater from their homes into the environment of the immediate area. Which substances
tested in this investigation would be harmful to use? Is it your assessment that they should
rely more heavily on detergents or soaps? Why?
Phosphates would be harmful to the environment and should not be used. The fats in soaps
are more readily broken down in the environment and would be preferable to detergents.

5. The builders would be considered an auxiliary substance according to the principle of green
chemistry, safer solvents, and auxiliaries. Are the states that are banning phosphates making
detergents greener?
Yes, because the phosphates are harmful to the environment.

SOAP IN HARD WATER SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

This is sample data only.

I. SOAP AND DISTILLED WATER
# of drops to lather 72
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 3.6 mL

II. SOAP AND TAP WATER

# of drops to lather 360
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 19.0 mL

III. SOAP AND “HARD WATER”

# of drops to lather 770
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 38.5 mL

IV. SOAP AND “HARD WATER” WITH Na2CO3

# of drops to lather 304
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 15.2 mL

V. SOAP AND “HARD WATER” WITH BORAX

# of drops to lather 688
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 34.4 mL

VI. SOAP AND “HARD WATER” WITH NaPO3

# of drops to lather 743
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 37.2 mL

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VII. DETERGENT AND DISTILLED WATER

# of drops to lather 43
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 2.15 mL

VIII. DETERGENT AND TAP WATER

# of drops to lather 65
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 3.25 mL

IX. DETERGENT AND HARD WATER

# of drops to lather 105
volume = # drops × 0.05 mL/drop = 5.25 mL

X. QUESTIONS

1. Why is there a difference between distilled water and tap water in the volume of soap required
to achieve a sustained lather? Between tap water and hard water?
Distilled water has all ions removed, so less soap is required to lather. Hard water requires
even more soap due to the larger amount of metal ions.

2. Explain why the addition of a builder alters the amount of soap required to produce a lather?
The addition of builders causes less soap to be added to hard water because they tie up the
hard-water ions.

3. Which is the most effective builder encountered in this investigation?

Sodium carbonate was the most effective builder.

4. Why do clothes washed in hard water get cleaner when a builder is added?
The builder allows the soap to be more efficient. There is less soap scum formed by the metal
ions to remain in clothing.

5. How is detergent different from soap in its ability to sustain a lather?

The detergent lathers better than soap.

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#62 Personal Products

Reagents

Common Materials
lipstick 1 tube/4 pairs
cleansing cream 5 mL/pair
bar of hand soap small piece/pair
baby oil 5 mL/pair
astringent 5 mL/pair
cotton balls 3 /pair
cologne or perfume 15 mL/pair
hair spray 1 mL/pair
paper towels 1 roll/lab

Special Equipment
25-mL vials with stoppers or caps 3/pair
boiling stones (marble chips) 2/pair

Laboratory Equipment
watch glass 1/pair
small test tube 1/pair
hot plate 1/pair

Notes
Cologne will probably give better results than perfume, and it is cheaper. A cheap cologne may
separate better than an expensive cologne as the components are less well matched. If “imitation”
colognes, which are copies of original scents, are available, these are more economical and work just
as well. Aftershave will also work in place of the cologne.

Disposal
The solutions can all be flushed down the drain with plenty of water. The cotton balls and dried
hairspray can be placed into the trash.

PERSONAL PRODUCTS PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Heavy make-up called grease paint is used in theater applications, by the military, and by
athletes. It does not wash off easily, many times not even with soap. Why not?
Soap and water are the usual agents in “washing.” Grease is an oil-based substance and is
therefore nonpolar. It will not mix with water and is impervious to the soap molecule.

2. Why is it an advantage to the wearer that water does not remove grease paint?
Grease paint is worn in some part due to the likelihood that the wearer will be sweating or
will be getting wet by some other means. The grease will not rinse off.

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3. Should an astringent be used before or after removing cosmetic substances from the skin?
Why?
An astringent closes the pores to restrict dirt and other substances from entering. It is best
used after cleansing so that existing impurities on the surface of the skin are not trapped in the
pores.

4. It is often said that hair spray is highly flammable. Would you expect this to be true when it is
dry or only when it is still wet? Explain.
It is the solvent in the hairspray that is flammable. Once the spray is dry, it no longer
contains the flammable substance. The dry hair spray may be a flammable material but not as
flammable as the solvent.

5. Why is it more important to follow the principle of green chemistry, designing safer
chemicals, when producing personal products than when producing a piece of furniture?
Personal care products make more contact with a person’s body than does furniture.

PERSONAL PRODUCTS SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

I. QUESTIONS
PART A: LIPSTICK REMOVAL
1. Are the stripes made by the lipstick on your arm the same color as the lipstick itself?
The lipsticks may or may not appear to be the same color depending on each
student.

2. Are all of the stripes made by the same lipstick the same color on everyone’s arm?
The lipstick stripes should not be the same color on different students’ arms due to
differences in body chemistry and temperature.

3. Do some stripes look moister on some people?

Some may look moister, again depending on each student and the amount of oil
contained in each brand.

4. Which “cleanser” dissolved the lipstick best?

Soap and water and cold cream clean the best.

5. Were any of the cleansers unable to clean the lipstick off your arm?
The plain water and astringent did not clean well.

6. Did any cleanser leave a residue?

The baby oil left a residue.

7. Are the pores in the astringent area smaller?

Yes

8. Which cleanser would you use to remove lipstick?

Student response here

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PART B: HAIR SPRAY

9. Is the hair spray flexible?
Yes

10. Is the hair spray sticky?

The hairspray was not sticky when completely dry.

11. Is the hair spray stretchable?

Yes

PART C: NOTES OF COLOGNE

12. Do the three notes smell alike?
The notes do not smell the same and are definitely distinguishable from each
other.

13. Does one of the notes emit an unpleasant smell?

The middle note or bottom note, depending on the cologne used, should be
musky and perhaps unpleasant.

14. Describe each note: (The following answers depend on the cologne used.)
Top—a sharp odor
Middle—a sweet odor
Bottom—a musty odor

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#63 Hair Chemistry

Reagents

Common Materials
ammonia cleanser 90 mL/pair
vinegar 250 mL/pair
chlorine bleach 110 mL/pair
food color (blue is best) 1 mL/pair
shampoo 1 drop/pair
clear tape 4 strips/pair
long, straight strands of hair (12 light and 12 dark) 2 doz/pair

Special Equipment
extra stirring rods might speed up the investigation.

Laboratory Equipment
100-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
stirring rod 1/pair
400-mL beakers 3/pair
watch glass 1/pair

Notes
Students should collect hair from their hair brushes. Combining the hair from the entire class
should allow each pair to have 12 light and 12 dark strands. A visit to a hair stylist might be a good
source of hair for the experiment.
The times required for curling and bleaching the hair will vary due to hair texture and any
residues of shampoo, hairspray, and conditioner left on the hair. Freshly washed hair, especially if
washed in baking soda, will receive the treatment best. (Baking soda is an excellent stripper and aids
in removing any film from the hair.)

Disposal
All of the solutions can be flushed down the drain with plenty of water. The bleach should not
be poured in the drain at the same time as the other solutions. Bleach and other cleansers can react to
produce poisonous chlorine gas.

HAIR CHEMISTRY PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Why is hair without any residue preferred for the investigation?

Conditioners, gels, sprays, and other substances on the surface of the hair can prevent it from
responding to treatment.
2. The natural curl in hair is a function of the cross-sectional shape of hair. More round fibers
are straight, and the more oblong the fibers are, the tighter the curl. What would you expect to
find if you viewed a microscopic section of a hair from a horse’s tail? Hair from a poodle?
Hair from the long, straight tail is thick, coarse, and heavy. It is probably quite round in
cross section. However, the kinky hair of a poodle is probably oblong in cross section.
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3. In what layer of the hair do you suppose the trait listed in Question 2 is expressed? The
medulla, cortex, or cuticle? Support your answer.
The great number of tiny fibers in the cortex can have a variety of arrangements. It is
probably these fibers that give the shape to the cross section of a hair.
4. People who spend a lot of time in swimming pools tend to have problems with the texture,
strength, and color of their hair. To what would you attribute this?
Pools are full of chemicals and are treated with them continually. If the pool is basic, the
water will cause the cuticle to swell and open, allowing chemicals to enter the cortex,
changing color and other properties of the hair. Acidic pH levels tend to harden the cuticle,
making hair brittle.

5. Some hair types will not take a perm well. What might be the reason? (Hint: It can be a
genetic thing.)
The cuticle probably lies very flat and close so that chemicals cannot enter the cortex.

6. A young lady accidentally caused hair treatment to get into her eye. She could have lost her
eyesight. The principles of green chemistry: designing safer chemicals and inherently safer
chemistry for accident prevention, relate to this accident in what way?
Many of the chemicals used in hair treatment are not safe for skin contact and so are not
“green”.

HAIR CHEMISTRY SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

QUESTIONS
PART A: PERMANENT CURL
1. Examine the hair that was given the “permanent” and compare it to the control strands. Does the
treated sample show more body and a greater tendency to curl on its own? Comment on the
appearance, texture, and strength of the treated hair compared to the control sample.
The hair that was treated does have more body and will curl on its own or if stretched straight
and then released, it will curl back up. It appeared to be shinier than previously, and it was
smoother. The hair was not as strong as before it was treated.

PART B: REMOVING COLOR FROM HAIR

2. Examine the hair that was bleached. Is the color lighter by 10%, 25%, 50%? (estimate)
It was lighter by about 10%–25%.

3. How did the texture and strength of the bleached hair change?
The hair seemed thinner and rougher. The hair was not as strong as it was before it was placed
in the bleach solution.

PART C: COLORING HAIR

4. Describe the ability of the normal strand of hair to hold the color when rinsed in water and then
when washed with shampoo.
Most of the color was rinsed out when the hair was rinsed with water.

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5. Describe the ability of the hair that was treated with the base to hold the color when rinsed with
water and then when shampooed. Explain what caused any differences you observe in the ability
of the hair from the two coloring processes to hold the color.
The color was retained more than in the strand that was not treated with bleach. The hair treated
with bleach retained more color when dyed because its coating had been broken down by the
bleach, and therefore the coloring was able to dye it more easily.

6. Is the texture or strength of the treated and colored hair altered?

The texture and strength are both adversely affected by the bleaching.

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#64 Testing Sunscreens

Reagents
0.1 M hydrochloric acid [HCl] < 0.1 mL/pair
0.1 M silver nitrate [AgNO3] < 0.1 mL/pair
potassium ferrioxalate [K3Fe(C2O4)3 · 3H2O] 0.5 g/pair
0.3 M potassium ferricyanide [K3Fe(CN)6] 2 mL/pair
distilled water
6 M nitric acid [HNO3] (for disposal only)
1 M sodium hydroxide [NaOH] (for disposal only)
copper strip (for disposal only)

Common Materials
plain white paper 1 sheet/pair
sunscreens, 3 different SPF factors 1 mL each/pair
sunglasses 1/pair
key 1/pair
paper towels 1 roll/pair

Special Equipment
UV light 1/lab
Petri dishes 1/pair
filter paper 1/pair
grease pencil 1/pair
pH test paper 3 strips /pair

Laboratory Equipment
eyedroppers 2/pair
small test tube 1/pair
stopper to fit test tube 1/pair

Notes
Potassium ferrioxalate is sometimes sold as potassium ferric oxalate.

Disposal
Care must be taken to keep metal ions out of the water system; thus, metal ions should go to the
toxic waste site. In this case, the silver and iron compounds are not water soluble and so would not be
dissolved if a landfill developed a leak. The silver chloride solid should be placed in a container to be
buried in a secure toxic waste landfill. An alternate method for silver disposal is to reclaim it as
metal. Dissolve the silver salt in 6 M nitric acid (HNO3). Neutralize with 1 M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) to pH 7. Place a clean copper strip in the solution. Set for 20 minutes (or overnight). The
silver metal will wipe off of the copper easily. Wipe the silver into a filter cone (see Investigation
#5). Filter the silver metal. Allow to dry. Place the used white paper into the trash. All other
compounds may be flushed down the drain with plenty of water.

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TESTING SUNSCREENS PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. In some areas of the globe, some months go by with little or no daylight. What common
deficiency in humans might you expect to find in those areas?
Since sunlight is required for the production of Vitamin D, it could be assumed that people
with little or no sunlight for extended periods would have a deficiency of Vitamin D.

2. Why would it be advantageous to have your eyes protected from UV light rather than simply
shielding them from the brightness of the light?
The UV rays are damaging to tissues, especially the delicate tissues of the eyes.

3. Can you think of other uses for the compound that reacts with UV light to turn blue?
The color-changing properties would make it suitable as an indicator for UV radiation.

4. Would an SPF rating mean the same thing on the equator as it would in New York City?
Explain your reasoning.
The SPF rating is an average for the various locations and times of the year on Earth. At the
equator, the rays of the sun are nearly perpendicular, meaning that the density of the
radiation is greater than at either higher or lower latitudes. The sunscreen would not give the
same level of protection to a person at the equator.

5. One of the principles of green chemistry is to design safer chemicals. Might this be a concern
in the sunscreen industry?
Yes, because sunscreens touch the body.

TESTING SUNSCREENS SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

PART A: SILVER ION REACTION

1. Did all of the white solid turn black? Why or why not.
No, not all of the solid turned black. The key protected part of it from the UV light.

2. Photographic films are made with AgBr in a gel. What chemical reaction occurs when light
hits the film?
Ag+ + 1e- → Ag+

PART B: SUNSCREEN TESTING (The following is sample data only.)

Brand name SPF value
Banana Boat 30+
Vaseline Intensive Care 25
Coppertone 15

1. Which sunscreen provided the best protection from the UV rays? 30+

2. Which sunscreen provided the worst protection from UV rays? 15

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3. Explain the visual appearance of the white paper when it was exposed to UV light.
The color was blue because the iron(II) reacted with the ferricyanide ion.

4. How could further reaction of the chemicals on the white paper be stopped?
That is, how can you “fix” the results?
Permanent “fixing” could be accomplished by converting the silver salt to a salt that is not
light sensitive.

5. Did the sunglasses block part of the UV rays?

Yes, the sunglasses protected the dish from some of the UV light.

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#65 Lead Detection

Reagents
6 M nitric acid [HNO3] 1 mL/pair
1M or 6M acetic acid [CH3COOH] 10–20 mL/pair
1% sodium sulfite [Na2SO3] 25 mL/pair
0.1 M potassium iodide [KI] 1 mL/pair
lead (II) acetate solution [Pb(C2H3O2)2] 0.05 g/L 10 mL/pair
pH 7 buffer solution 10 mL/pair
1% starch solution 20 mL/pair
iodine solution 15 mL/pair
1% glucose solution 10 mL/pair
sodium sulfide [Na2S] (for disposal only)
1 M ferric chloride [FeCl3]
iron(III) chloride (for disposal only)
sodium carbonate [Na2CO3] (for disposal only)
pH paper 1 roll/pair

Common Materials
egg 1 for every 4 pairs
samples to test 1 small piece/pair

Special Equipment
1000-mL volumetric flask 1/lab
fume hood 1/lab
centrifuge 1/lab
filter paper 2/pair

Laboratory Equipment
50-mL beaker 1/pair
large test tubes
hot-water bath
balance
10-mL graduated cylinder
eyedropper
hot plate

Notes
pH 7 buffer solution Add 9.1 g KH2PO4 + 18.9 g Na2HPO4 per liter solution.
Iodine solution - Dissolve 25 g of iodine in a solution of 50 g of potassium iodide in 200 mL of
water.
Caution: Store acids away from sodium sulfide and store nitric acid away from acetic acid.
Lead paint chips should be readily available from any location where an older house (pre-1960)
is being torn down or is vacated and peeling. Marine paints are often lead-based paints.
This investigation can be used in conjunction with investigation #66.

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Disposal
Lead, of course, is toxic and must be kept out of the water system. Collect all used solutions
containing lead. Dissolve the lead iodide in 6 M nitric acid. Add a threefold excess of sodium sulfide
(Na2S). Let the solution set for an hour. Adjust the pH of the solution to neutral (pH 7 or more). Use
pH paper to check pH. Filter the precipitate. Discard the precipitate and filter paper in a container to
be buried in a secure toxic waste landfill. The filtrate contains sulfide. Remove the sulfide by adding
1M iron(III) chloride (ferric chloride) in a threefold excess. Neutralize the solution with sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3). Filter the precipitate. Put the precipitate and filter paper in a container to be
buried in a toxic waste landfill. The filtrate can be flushed with plenty of water. The other solutions
can be poured down the drain with lots of water.

LEAD DETECTION PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Lead is commonly used in “shot” to load shotgun shells for such sports as quail hunting.
Evaluate this practice in light of environmental concerns. Suggest an inexpensive alternative.
Lead in the environment persists for a very long time because it is near the bottom of the
activity series and does not react easily with other substances. Aluminum or steel shot would
be inexpensive to produce and would not be toxic in the environment.

2. Why would soils along highways still contain a high level of lead even though it has not been
added to gasoline since 1986?
The lead in gasoline is expelled through the exhaust of the automobile. This lead does not
break down or combine with other substances in the environment and so it remains.

3. Recent news stories have revealed a high level of lead in some trinkets and inexpensive
jewelry imported from other parts of the world. These items are often found in toy-dispensing
machines in grocery and variety stores. Is there a potential risk to children from these items?
Small trinkets are often swallowed or chewed on by young children. They can also be lost
outdoors where pets and other animals ingest them. Lead is toxic to living systems.

4. What is the relationship between pencil lead and lead metal?

Pencil lead is not made of lead metal, but rather of graphite.

5. Does the fact that water that travels through a lead pipe taste slightly sweet make lead more
dangerous?
Yes, because people may use the tasty water to drink or cook with.

6. How does the toxicity of lead impact the principles of green chemistry: less hazardous
chemical syntheses, designing safer chemicals, and inherently safer chemistry for accident
prevention?
Because lead has so many useful properties, it is tempting to use it someplace that may be
dangerous.

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LEAD DETECTION SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

PART A: DETECTING LEAD * Student responses depending on sample.

1. Sample: __________________________________________
positive lead test Yes ________ No ________

2. Lead Concentration
207 g Pb
0.05 g Pb(CH3CO2)2 × = 0.0318 g Pb
325 g Pb(CH 3 CO 2 ) 2
0.0318 g Pb 1 mL solution
× × 106 ppm = 31,8 ppm Pb
1000 mL 1 g solution

PART B:. EFFECT OF LEAD ON A PROTEIN

1. Describe the effect of lead on albumin.
The egg white becomes milky, so the protein is being denatured.

2. One emergency treatment for ingesting lead is to swallow egg white or milk.
Why?
Lead will denature the protein in the egg white and be absorbed by it instead of the stomach
cells.

3. Why is an emetic (vomit inducer) the next step of the treatment?

The denatured material with the lead must be removed from the body; otherwise, it will make
the person sick as the material is digested and the lead is released into the system.

PART C: EFFECT OF LEAD ON AN ENZYME

1. Describe the color change that occurred in each of the three test tubes.
Test tube #1 changes, but test tube #2 does not.

2. Did the amylase in saliva break down the starch in test tube #2? Explain
No. The protein in saliva has been denatured by the lead.

PART D: QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the digestion (prolonged heating) in Procedures 3 and 4?
This is a heating step similar to what is done when lead is ingested into the body.

2. The lead content of our drinking water is a concern in many areas of the United States. List
possible sources of lead contamination of our water supplies.
Answers will vary but may include statements concerning groundwater contamination, runoff,
irresponsible dumping of toxic substances in sewers and drains, poor cleanup of old dumps
and waste sites, and so on.

3. What was the purpose of Procedure 14 in the enzyme experiment?

The purpose of test Procedure 14 is a control sample showing that no color change occurs
when the iodine is in the presence of glucose. This proves that the lead has altered the action
of the enzyme.

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#66 Parts per Million

Reagents
copper (II) chloride [CuCl2] 0.014 g/pair
1 M silver nitrate [AgNO3] 12 mL/pair
6 M nitric acid [HNO3] (for disposal)
1 M sodium hydroxide [NaOH] (for disposal)
copper strip (for disposal)
pH test paper (for disposal)

Special Equipment
1000-mL volumetric flask 1/pair
10-mL pipette with bulb 1/pair
filter paper (for disposal only)

Laboratory Equipment
balance 1/pair
10-mL graduated cylinder 1/pair
50-mL beaker 1/pair
dropper 1/pair
1000-mL beakers 3/pair
distilled water 250 mL/pair

Notes
This investigation can be used in conjunction with Investigation 65.

Disposal
Filter the solutions and discard the solids and filter paper in the silver waste container. The
copper solutions should be evaporated, and the solid buried in a secure landfill. Iin this investigation,
however, the concentrations are so small as to not be a threat to the environment.
An alternate method for silver disposal is to reclaim it as metal. Dissolve the silver salt in 6 M
nitric acid (HNO3). Neutralize with 1 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to pH 7. Place a clean copper
strip in the solution. Set for 20 minutes (or overnight). The silver metal can be wiped from the
copper easily. Wipe the silver into a filter cone (see Investigation 5). Filter the silver metal. Allow it
to dry.

PARTS PER MILLION PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Lead was an additive to gasoline for over half a century and is now found in the environment
in relatively high concentrations, especially along roadways. Why is that a concern?
Lead persists for a long time without being changed into other substances or becoming
nontoxic. It can be ingested by animals and become part of the food chain, or it can get into
waterways through groundwater and runoff.

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2. Explain why it is unreasonable to expect that there will be absolutely no toxins in anything we
take from the environment?
Absolutely pure substances simply do not exist.

3. Discuss the importance of determining the toxicity levels of various substances for all animals
in the food chain, including humans.
Since there will always be impurities in the environment, to maintain the health of the
biosphere it is important that we understand the levels that pose problems to living systems.

4. Why is it important that scientists be able to detect minute concentrations of substances in our
air and water?
We need to be able to test for the presence of toxic substances in order to monitor the health
of the ecosystem.

5. In light of the principle of green chemistry, use of renewable feedstocks, why does the extra
footnote beside Procedure 9 say it is better to recycle than to discard?
If we recycle, we are not using up resources as quickly as we would by reusing materials.

PARTS PER MILLION SAMPLE REPORT SHEET

*The following is sample data only.

I. Mass of CuCl2 + beaker g
_
minus mass of the beaker g
mass of CuCl2 0.014 g

Solution 1
0.014 g CuCl 2 mL mol
Molarity × -3 × = 1.04 x 10-4 M Solution 1
1000 mL solution 10 L 135 g

Assume that the solution is 1.00 g/mL

0.014 g CuCl 2 mL
ppm × × 106 ppm = 14 ppm Solution 1
1000 mL solution 1.00 g

Color of solution faint blue

# of drops for precipitation 2

Solution 2
1.4 × 10 -4 M solution #1 × 10 mL
Molarity = 1.4 × 10-6 M Solution 2
1000 mL solution

14 ppm × 10 mL
ppm = 0.14 ppm Solution 2
1000 mL solution

Color of solution colorless

# of drops for precipitation 20
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Solution 3
1.4 × 10 -6 M solution #2 × 10 mL
Molarity = 1.04 × 10-8 M Solution 3
1000 mL solution

14 ppm × 10 mL
ppm = 1.4 × 10-3 ppm Solution 3
1000 mL solution

ppb 1.4 × 10-3ppm ×1000 = 1.4 ppb Solution 3

Color of solution colorless

# of drops for precipitation 50+

II. QUESTIONS
1. Where the chloride ion was detected, what can be said about copper (II) ion in solution?
There is not enough copper to bond to the chloride ion, so all the copper is out.

2. Could the chloride in solution number 3 be detected by this method?

No

3. Were there copper(II) ions in solution 3?

Yes, but only very little.

4. Can the presence of copper be detected by the color of the solution in #1?
Yes, it is faint blue.
In solution 2?
No
In solution 3?
No
Explain.
If the concentration is very low, color is not detectable to the human eye.

5. If the copper(II) ions had a toxicity level similar to that of lead, would solution 3 be safe?
Explain your reasoning.
Yes. The concentration is below the level that is understood to be toxic.

6. Why was it important to use distilled water to rinse the lab ware in this investigation?
Tap water contains metal ions that would cause the lab results to be incorrect.

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