Lesson 2 The Social Functions of Language

The Characteristics of Language

Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. discuss the functions of language;

2. discuss the power of language to express our identities, affect our credibility, control
others, and perform actions; and
3. explain how neologisms and slang contribute to the dynamic nature of language.

Stimulating Learning

Throughout history, language has played important roles in social and cultural functions.
It is through language that we express our ideas, feelings, and emotions. Most likely, you have
been in situations where, despite speaking the same language as someone, you were kind of
confused about what someone was saying. Or maybe, you have heard someone say something
which you think could have been said better. This could be a result of the social and cultural
aspects of language.

It is therefore important that we study the social functions of language to be able to

relate language with our relationship with other people and how we communicate with other
people.

Inculcating Concepts

The Social Functions of Language

Language helps us meet various needs through our ability to express ourselves. Every
time we speak, we do it with a particular purpose. We use language to ask for help, to buy our
necessities, or just to say a joke. Language helps us share our thoughts and understand others
too. It is hard to overestimate the importance of language in our lives.

Generally, there are five main functions of language, which are informational function,
aesthetic function, expressive, phatic, and directive functions. Any language is determined by a
number of factors, such as a social background, attitudes and origin of people. The social
functions of language take into account social factors like gender, social status, age, education,
geographical background, ethnicity, etc. of the language user. A person’s social background
determines his/her language.

We are going to consider different functions of language, and its connection to social
circumstances, since language is related to the type of social organization.

As we mentioned above, language is used in every part of our lives, and it is the most
important part of communication. We use language in every situation and every time we need
something. In turn, our needs determine our language, since we choose a type of language that
is most effective for our needs.

The Five Functions of Language

According to Geoffery Leech (1974), there are five main functions of language. We
mentioned all these five functions at the beginning. Now, let us take a closer look at each one of
them.

1. The informational function can be considered the most important, since it helps us
deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information. Message is a word
that describes this function best. The informational function is also related to such terms as a
truth and a value.

2. The expressive function is needed every time we want to express our feelings.
There are words that are used to express attitudes and feelings, which do not deliver any
particular information. Obvious examples of such words are swear words (offensive words
especially used to express anger), as well as various exclamations. This function of language is
used not to deliver a message, but to express feelings and impressions. Due to the expressive
function of language, we can understand the personality of a speaker, and his or her emotions.
While the informational function can be illustrated on the example of an encyclopedia article, the
expressive function is used in literature and poetry. Every time we say a phrase like “I love this
movie so much”, we do not give a listener any particular information about the subject of this
sentence, except our feelings about it.

3. The directive function of language is used to induce certain actions or reactions. The
example of such a function is a command. Another example of this function is a request. Here,
the affective and situational meanings of a phrase are more important than a general meaning,
which makes this function somewhat similar to the expressive function. The directive function is
a function of social control and interpersonal interaction. Another feature of this function is that
the reaction of a listener is even more important than a thought expressed by a speaker, since
this reaction determines whether such a phrase achieved the target or not.

Every time we ask someone to bring us something, it is a directional use of language.

We motivate somebody and influence his or her behavior in a certain way. Sometimes directive
sentences may express more than one function. For example, if we say “I’m hungry”, it means
both information about us, and a request for food. This sentence also expresses our feelings, so
this example represents three functions of language in one short sentence.

4. Another function of language is the aesthetic function. According to Leech (1974),

this function does not have any particular purpose. Here, words and sentences are considered
as linguistic artifacts. This function serves neither as a request nor as a message. The aesthetic
function helps us use words as a tool of a poetic art, and as certain signs. Here the beauty of
chosen words and phrases is more important than usefulness of this information. For the sake
of such a function, we use different adjectives, such as “gorgeous”, “elegant”, “stunning”, and so
on. According to Jacobson (1933), who studied this function of language more than anyone
else, the aesthetic function depends not only on structure, but on cultural norms as well. He also
gives an example of such influence, comparing poems of Karel Macha, and diaries, as
examples of aesthetic functions applied by different generations.

5. The fifth function of language is the phatic function. The only purpose of such a
function is to maintain social relationships, and to begin, or continue the conversation. A well-
known example from British culture is a small talk about the weather. Such a kind of talk does
not provide us with any necessary information. It even does not express our feelings, but it
helps us to interact with people. Every time we meet somebody on the street, we can talk about
the weather, or work, or children, it does not matter. The real reason for such a talk is not our
interest, but simply our desire to talk. Of course, such conversations may also contain some
interesting information, but it is not necessary.

There are other classification systems for language. For example, H. Douglas Brown
highlighted not five, but seven functions of language, noting that his system is not really different
from Leech’s system. Generally, such an approach was introduced by J. R. Firth, who created a
basis for British linguists, considering language as an interpersonal and interactive tool.
According to him, language forms our behavior and helps us influence the behavior of others.

According to Jakobson’s functions of language, there are six types of them:

1. Referential function – this function refers to context. It usually describes situation,

object, or its state. E.g. “The autumn leaves have all fallen now.”
2. Poetic function – is mainly used in poetry. It usually exists as is and helps to
distinguish poetry from other genres.
3. Emotive function – is not about the context of the statement, but about the
emotions added to it. The good example is interjections and exclamations in it. E.g
“Oh, such a pity”.
4. Conative function – is a function that is directed to the receiver, and usually goes in
imperative character. Exclamation marks may be used. E.g. “Richard! Do open the
window!”
 5. Phatic function – the main aid is to “warm up” the conversation. It is usually about
the small talks that precede the main conversation. E.g. “Hi”, “How are you?”, “Good
bye”.
6. Metalinguistic function – is the use of language to describe itself.

The above-mentioned functions are only some of the many point of views on language.
Most certainly, there are many other functions that natural languages fulfill, yet depending on
approach to this issue, the number of functions and their names might vary.

Let us now proceed to the different characteristics of language which are also related to
its different functions.

The Characteristics of Language

1. Language is Expressive

Verbal communication helps us meet various needs through our ability to express
ourselves. In terms of instrumental needs, we use verbal communication to ask questions that
provide us with specific information. We also use verbal communication to describe things,
people, and ideas. Verbal communication helps us inform, persuade, and entertain others. It is
also through our verbal expressions that our personal relationships are formed. At its essence,
language is expressive. Verbal expressions help us communicate our observations, thoughts,
feelings, and needs. (McKay et. al., 1995).

a. Expressing observations

When we express observations, we report on the sensory information we are taking or

have taken in. Eyewitness testimony is a good example of communicating observations.
Witnesses are not supposed to make judgments or offer conclusions; they only communicate
factual knowledge as they experienced it. When you are trying to make sense of an experience,
expressing observations in a descriptive rather than evaluative way can lessen defensiveness,
which facilitates competent communication.

b. Expressing thoughts

While our observations are based on sensory information (what we saw, what we read,
what we heard), thoughts are connected to our beliefs (what we think is true/false), attitudes
(what we like and dislike), and values (what we think is right/wrong or good/bad).

For example, jury members are expected to express thoughts based on reported
observations to help reach a conclusion about someone’s guilt or innocence. A juror might
express the following thought: “The neighbor who saw the car leaving the night of the crime
seemed credible. And the defendant seemed to have a shady past—I think he is trying to hide
something.” Sometimes people intentionally or unintentionally express thoughts as if they were
feelings. For example, when people say, “I feel like you are too strict with your attendance
policy,” they are not really expressing a feeling; they are expressing a judgment about the other
person (a thought).

c. Expressing emotions

When we express feelings, we communicate our emotions. Expressing feelings is a

difficult part of verbal communication, because there are many social norms about how, why,
when, where, and to whom we express our emotions. Norms for emotional expression also vary
based on nationality and other cultural identities and characteristics such as age and gender. In
terms of age, young children are typically freer to express positive and negative emotions in
public. Gendered elements intersect with age as boys grow older and are socialized into a norm
of emotional restraint. Although individual men vary in the degree to which they are emotionally
expressive, there is still a prevailing social norm that encourages and even expects women to
be more emotionally expressive than men.
 Expressing feelings is often the most difficult form of verbal expression.

Expressing feelings can be uncomfortable for those listening. Some people are generally
not good at or comfortable with receiving and processing other people’s feelings. Even those
with good empathetic listening skills can be positively or negatively affected by others’ emotions.
Expressions of anger can be especially difficult to manage because they represent a threat to
the face and self-esteem of others. Even though expressing feelings is more complicated than
other forms of expression, emotion sharing is an important part of how we create social bonds
and empathize with others, and it can be improved.
 In order to verbally express our emotions, it is important that we develop an emotional
vocabulary. The more specific we can be when we are verbally communicating our emotions,
the less ambiguous our emotions will be for the person decoding our message. As we expand
our emotional vocabulary, we are able to convey the intensity of the emotion we are feeling
whether it is mild, moderate, or intense. For example, happy is mild, delighted is moderate, and
ecstatic is intense; ignored is mild, rejected is moderate, and abandoned is intense. (Hargie,
2011).

In a time when so much of our communication is electronically mediated, it is likely that

we will communicate emotions through the written word in an e-mail, text, or instant message.
We may also still use pen and paper when sending someone a thank-you note, a birthday card,
or a sympathy card. Communicating emotions through the written (or typed) word can have
advantages such as time to compose your thoughts and convey the details of what you are
feeling. There are also disadvantages in that important context and nonverbal communication
can not be included. Things like facial expressions and tone of voice offer much insight into
emotions that may not be expressed verbally. There is also a lack of immediate feedback.
Sometimes people respond immediately to a text or e-mail, but think about how frustrating it is
when you text someone and they do not get back to you right away. If you are in need of
emotional support or want validation of an emotional message you just sent, waiting for a
response could end up negatively affecting your emotional state.

d. Expressing needs

When we express needs, we are communicating in an instrumental way to help us get

things done. Since we almost always know our needs more than others do, it is important for us
to be able to convey those needs to others. Expressing needs can help us get a project done at
work or help us navigate the changes of a long-term romantic partnership. Not expressing
needs can lead to feelings of abandonment, frustration, or resentment. For example, if one
romantic partner expresses the following thought “I think we are moving too quickly in our
relationship” but does not also express a need, the other person in the relationship does not
have a guide for what to do in response to the expressed thought. Stating, “I need to spend
some time with my hometown friends this weekend. Would you mind if I went home by myself?”
would likely make the expression more effective. Be cautious of letting evaluations or judgments
sneak into your expressions of need. Saying “I need you to stop suffocating me!” really
expresses a thought-feeling mixture more than a need.

Table 1. Four Types of Verbal Expressions

Type Description Example

Report of sensory experiences or
Observation “Pauline asked me to bring this file to you.”
memories
Conclusion about or judgment of “Students today have much less respect for
Thought
experiences and observations authority.”
Feeling Communicating emotions “I feel at peace when we’re together.”
Stating wants or requesting help or “I’m saving money for summer vacation. Is it OK if
Need
support we skip our regular night out this week?”

Source: Adapted from Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication
Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995).
 2. Language is Powerful

The contemporary American philosopher David Abram wrote, “Only if words are felt,
bodily presences, like echoes or waterfalls, can we understand the power of spoken language to
influence, alter, and transform the perceptual world.” (Abram, 1997). This statement
encapsulates many of the powerful features of language. Language expresses our identities,
affects our credibility, serves as a means of control, and performs actions.

a. Language expresses our identity

The power of language to express our identities varies depending on the origin of the
label (self-chosen or other imposed) and the context. People are usually comfortable with the
language they use to describe their own identities but may have issues with the labels others
place on them. There are many examples of people who have taken a label that was imposed
on them, one that usually has negative connotations, and intentionally used it in ways that
counter previous meanings. Some country music singers and comedians have reclaimed the
label redneck, using it as an identity marker they are proud of rather than a pejorative or
derogatory term. Other examples of people reclaiming identity labels is the “black is beautiful”
movement of the 1960s that repositioned black as a positive identity marker for African
Americans and the “queer” movement of the 1980s and ’90s that reclaimed queer as a positive
identity marker for some gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Even though some
people embrace reclaimed words, they still carry their negative connotations and are not openly
accepted by everyone.

b. Language affects our credibility

People make assumptions about other people’s credibility based on how they speak and
what they say. You do not have to be a perfect grammarian to be perceived as credible. You
have to use language clearly and be accountable for what you say in order to be seen as
trustworthy. Using informal language and breaking social norms would not enhance your
credibility during a professional job interview, but it might with your friends at a tailgate party.
Politicians know that the way they speak affects their credibility, but they also know that using
words that are too scientific or academic can lead people to perceive them as eggheads or
intellectuals, which would hurt their credibility. Politicians and many others in leadership
positions need to be able to use language to put people at ease, relate to others, and still
appear confident and competent.

c. Language is a means of control

Control is a word that has negative connotations, but our use of it here can be positive,
neutral, or negative. Verbal communication can be used to reward and punish. We can offer
verbal communication in the form of positive reinforcement to praise someone. We can withhold
verbal communication or use it in a critical, aggressive, or hurtful way as a form of negative
reinforcement.

Directives are utterances that try to get another person to do something. They can
range from a rather polite ask or request to a more forceful command or insist. Context informs
when and how we express directives and how people respond to them.
 Rather than verbal communication being directed at one person as a means of control,
the way we talk creates overall climates of communication that may control many. Verbal
communication characterized by empathy, understanding, respect, and honesty creates open
climates that lead to more collaboration and more information exchange. Verbal communication
that is controlling, deceitful, and vague creates a closed climate in which people are less willing
to communicate and less trusting (Brown, 2006)

d. Language is performative

Some language is actually more like an action than a packet of information. Saying, “I
promise,” “I guarantee,” or “I pledge,” does more than convey meaning; it communicates intent.
Such utterances are called commissives, as they mean a speaker is committed to a certain
course of action. Of course, promises can be broken, and there can be consequences, but other
verbal communication is granted official power that can guarantee action. The two simple words
“I do” can mean that a person has agreed to an oath before taking a witness stand or assuming
the presidency. It can also mean that two people are now bound in a relationship recognized by
the government and/or a religious community. These two words, if said in the right context and
in front of the right person, such as a judge or a reverend, bring with them obligations that
cannot be undone without additional steps and potential negative repercussions. In that sense,
language is much more than “mere words.”

3. Language is Fun

Word games have long been popular. Before Words with Friends there was Apples to
Apples, Boggle, Scrabble, and crossword puzzles. Writers, poets, and comedians have built
careers on their ability to have fun with language and in turn share that fun with others. The fun
and frivolity of language becomes clear as teachers get half-hearted laughs from students when
they make puns.

The productivity and limitlessness of language lead some people to spend an inordinate
amount of time discovering things about words. Two examples palindromes and contranyms.
Palindromes are words that read the same from left to right and from right to left. Racecar is a
commonly cited example. Contranyms are words that have multiple meanings, two of which are
opposites. For example, sanction can mean “to allow” and “to prevent,” and dust can mean “to
remove particles” when used in reference to furniture or “to add particles” when used in
reference to a cake. These are just two examples of humorous and contradictory features of the
English language.

4. Language is Dynamic

As we already learned, language is essentially limitless. We may create a one-of-a-kind

sentence combining words in new ways and never know it. Aside from the endless structural
possibilities, words change meaning, and new words are created daily. Now, let us learn more
about the dynamic nature of language by focusing on neologisms and slang.

a. Neologisms
 Neologisms are newly coined or used words. Newly coined words are those that were
just brought into linguistic existence. Newly used words make their way into languages in
several ways, including borrowing and changing structure. In any case, borrowing is the
primary means through which languages expand. English is a good case in point, as most of its
vocabulary is borrowed and does not reflect the language’s Germanic origins. English has been
called the “vacuum cleaner of languages (Crystal, 2005). “Weekend” is a popular English word
based on the number of languages that have borrowed it. English has also borrowed many
words, like chic from French, karaoke from Japanese, and caravan from Arabic.

Structural changes also lead to new words. Compound words are neologisms that are
created by joining two already known words. Keyboard, newspaper, and giftcard are all
compound words that were formed when new things were created or conceived. We also create
new words by adding something, subtracting something, or blending them together. For
example, we can add affixes, meaning a prefix or a suffix, to a word. Affixing usually alters the
original meaning but does not completely change it. Ex-husband and kitchenette are relatively
recent examples of such changes (Crystal, 2005). New words are also formed when clipping a
word like examination, which creates a new word, exam, that retains the same meaning. And
last, we can form new words by blending old ones together. Words like breakfast and lunch
blend letters and meaning to form a new word—brunch.

Existing words also change in their use and meaning. The digital age has given rise to
some interesting changes in word usage. Before Facebook, the word friend had many
meanings, but it was mostly used as a noun referring to a companion. The sentence, “I’ll friend
you”, would not have made sense to many people just a few years ago because friend was not
used as a verb. Google went from being a proper noun referring to the company to a more
general verb that refers to searching for something on the Internet (perhaps not even using the
Google search engine). Meanings can expand or contract without changing from a noun to a
verb. Gay, an adjective for feeling happy, expanded to include gay as an adjective describing a
person’s sexual orientation. Perhaps because of the confusion that this caused, the meaning of
gay has contracted again, as the earlier meaning is now considered archaic, meaning it is no
longer in common usage.

b. Slang

Slang is a great example of the dynamic nature of language. Slang refers to new or
adapted words that are specific to a group, context, and/or time period; regarded as less formal;
and representative of people’s creative play with language. Research has shown that only about
10 percent of the slang terms that emerge over a fifteen-year period survive. Many more take
their place though, as new slang words are created using inversion, reduction, or old-fashioned
creativity (Allan & Burrdige, 2006). Inversion is a form of word play that produces slang words
like sick, wicked, and bad that refer to the opposite of their typical meaning. Reduction creates
slang words such as pic, sec, and later from picture, second, and see you later. New slang
words often represent what is edgy, current, or simply relevant to the daily lives of a group of
people.

5. Language is Relational

We use verbal communication to initiate, maintain, and terminate our interpersonal

relationships. The first few exchanges with a potential romantic partner or friend help us size the
other person up and figure out if we want to pursue a relationship or not. We then use verbal
communication to remind others how we feel about them and to check in with them—engaging
in relationship maintenance through language use. When negative feelings arrive and persist, or
for many other reasons, we often use verbal communication to end a relationship.

a. Language can bring us together

Interpersonally, verbal communication is key to bringing people together and maintaining

relationships. Whether intentionally or unintentionally, our use of words like I, you, we, our, and
us affect our relationships. “We language” includes the words we, our, and us and can be used
to promote a feeling of inclusiveness. “I language” can be useful when expressing thoughts,
needs, and feelings because it leads us to “own” our expressions and avoid the tendency to
mistakenly attribute the cause of our thoughts, needs, and feelings to others. Communicating
emotions using “I language” may also facilitate emotion sharing by not making our
conversational partner feel at fault or defensive. For example, instead of saying, “You are
making me crazy!” you could say, “I’m starting to feel really anxious because we can not make a
decision about this.” Conversely, “you language” can lead people to become defensive and feel
attacked, which could be divisive and result in feelings of interpersonal separation.

Aside from the specific words that we use, the frequency of communication impacts
relationships. Of course, the content of what is said is important, but research shows that
romantic partners who communicate frequently with each other and with mutual friends and
family members experience less stress and uncertainty in their relationship and are more likely
to stay together (McCornack, 2007). When frequent communication combines with supportive
messages, which are messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational
way, people are sure to come together.

Moving from the interpersonal to the sociocultural level, we can see that speaking the
same language can bring people together. When a person is surrounded by people who do not
speak his or her native language, it can be very comforting to run into another person who
speaks the same language. Even if the two people are strangers, the ease of linguistic
compatibility is comforting and can quickly facilitate a social bond. Of course, there are
individual differences within a language community, but the power of shared language to unite
people has led to universal language movements that advocate for one global language.

b. Language can separate us

Whether it is criticism, teasing, or language differences, verbal communication can also

lead to feelings of separation. Language differences alone do not present insurmountable
barriers. We can learn other languages with time and effort, there are other people who can
translate and serve as bridges across languages, and we can also communicate quite a lot
nonverbally in the absence of linguistic compatibility.

People who speak the same language can intentionally use language to separate. The
words “us” and “them” can be a powerful start to separation. Think of how language played a
role in segregation in the United States as the notion of “separate but equal” was upheld by the
Supreme Court and how apartheid affected South Africa as limits, based on finances and
education, were placed on the black majority’s rights to vote. Symbols, both words and images,
were a very important part of Hitler’s rise to power in the 1930s and ’40s in Europe. Various
combinations of colored stars, triangles, letters, and other symbols were sewn onto the clothing
or uniforms of people persecuted by the Nazis in order to classify them. People were labeled
and reduced to certain characteristics rather than seen as complete humans, which facilitated
the Nazis’ oppression, violence, and killing.

At the interpersonal level, unsupportive messages can make others respond defensively,
which can lead to feelings of separation and actual separation or dissolution of a relationship. It
is impossible to be supportive in our communication all the time, but consistently unsupportive
messages can hurt others’ self-esteem, escalate conflict, and lead to defensiveness. People
who regularly use unsupportive messages may create a toxic win/lose climate in a relationship.
Six verbal tactics that can lead to feelings of defensiveness and separation are global labels,
sarcasm, dragging up the past, negative comparisons, judgmental “you” messages, and threats
(McKay, et.al., 1995).

Common Types of Unsupportive Messages

1. Global labels. “You’re a liar.” Labeling someone irresponsible, untrustworthy, selfish, or

lazy calls his or her whole identity as a person into question. Such sweeping judgments
and generalizations are sure to only escalate a negative situation.
2. Sarcasm. “No, you didn’t miss anything in class on Wednesday. We just sat here and
looked at each other.” Even though sarcasm is often disguised as humor, it usually
represents passive-aggressive behavior through which a person indirectly
communicates negative feelings.
3. Dragging up the past. “I should have known not to trust you when you never paid me
back that Php100 I let you borrow.” Bringing up negative past experiences is a tactic
used by people when they do not want to discuss a current situation. Sometimes people
have built up negative feelings that are suddenly let out by a seemingly small thing in the
moment.
4. Negative comparisons. “Jade graduated from college without any credit card debt. I
guess you are just not as responsible as her.” Holding a person up to the supposed
standards or characteristics of another person can lead to feelings of inferiority and
resentment. Parents and teachers may unfairly compare children to their siblings.
5. Judgmental “you” messages. “You are never going to be able to hold down a job.”
Accusatory messages are usually generalized overstatements about another person that
go beyond labeling but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way.
6. Threats. “If you do not stop texting back and forth with your ex, both of you are going to
regret it.” Threatening someone with violence or some other negative consequence
usually signals the end of productive communication. Aside from the potential legal
consequences, threats usually overcompensate for a person’s insecurity.

Applying Knowledge

1. What are the five functions of language according to Leech (1974)? Discuss each
function briefly and give example/s (2 pts. each)
2. List down 10 neologisms and 5 slangs that you have already encountered. Explain how
neologisms and slangs contribute to the dynamic nature of language (20 pts.).