PHYSICS XII PREPARED BY: ENGR LAIBA [Type here]

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PERVEZ

CHAPTER#11 HEAT (PAST PAPER)

YEAR 1986:
10Kg of water falls through a distance of 854 m and all the energy is
effective in heating the water. To what temperature will the water
be raised if it was initially at 20℃?
Hints: ANS: T2=22℃
PHYSICS XII PREPARED BY: ENGR LAIBA [Type here]
USMAN PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM CAMPUS 1
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CHAPTER#12 ELECTROSTATICS
SELECTIVE OBJECTIVES
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to
experience a force.
The minimum electric charge possible in isolated form is
1.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C
The force due to a charge is called electrostatic force/Coulumb’s
force
The field due to a charge is called Electric field
Relative permittivity ‘∈r’ is the ratio of permittivity of medium ‘∈’ to
the permittivity of free space ‘∈0’.
∈
⇨∈r = ,
∈𝟎

Air or vacuum has minimum relative permittivity that is equal to 1.

∈
(∵∈r = 1
∈𝟎

If the medium is air or vacuum, ⇨∈= ∈𝟎

∈𝟎
∴ 𝒆𝒒 𝟏⇨∈r = =1)
∈𝟎

Permittivity of medium ‘∈’ is the allowance of medium that let the

two charges exert force on each other
∈
(∵∈r =
∈𝟎

⇨∈= ∈𝒓 . ∈𝟎 )
𝟏
Coulumb’s force for any medium other than air reduces to times
∈𝒓
of force in free medium
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𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
(∵F= . 1 when the medium is air
𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
F ’= . 2 , when the medium is other than air
𝟒𝝅∈ 𝒓𝟐

∵∈= ∈𝒓 . ∈𝟎
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
∴ 𝒆𝒒 𝟐⇨ F ’= . ⇨F ’= . ( . ), using eq 1
𝟒𝝅 ∈𝒓 .∈𝟎 𝒓𝟐 ∈𝒓 𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
⇨F ’= .F
∈𝒓

Since relative permittivity of any medium other than air is greater

than that of air hence the force in that medium decreases by a factor
of ∈𝒓 ⇨ 𝒂𝒕 ∈𝒓 > 1, F ’ < F)
The electrostatic force between two charges is 1039 times the force
of gravitation between them
The number of electrons in 1C charge is 6.25× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝟏
(∵q=ne ⇨ 1= n (1.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ) ⇨n= ⇨n=6.25× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 )
𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗

Decreasing the separation of two positive charges by one half will

change the force of repulsion to increase 4 times
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
(∵F= . 1
𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓𝟐

at r ’ =2 r
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
⇨F ’= . )= . )
𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 (𝒓 ′)𝟐 𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 (𝟏𝒓)𝟐
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 .𝒒𝟐
⇨F ’= ( 𝟏 ) . , using eq 1
𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟒

⇨ F ’= 𝟒 𝐅 )
The quantity that determines the strength of a field around a
charged body (electric field) is electric field intensity
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The force ‘F’ experienced by an infinitesimal +ve charge (magnitude

of +ve test charge approaches to zero i.e. q0 0) when placed in an
electric field due to source charge ‘q’ determines the electric field
strength
𝑭
(⇨ E = 1
𝒒𝟎

In terms of source charge ‘q’

𝑲𝒒 𝑲𝒒𝒒𝟎
𝒆𝒒𝟏 ⇨ 𝐄 = ∵𝑭= )
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐

The magnitude of electric field doesnot depend upon:

a) The distance from c) Magnitude of charge causing
charged particle the field
b) The nature of charges d) All of them
causing the field
Electric field is a vector quantity that is directed away from +ve
charge and is directed into/towards the -ve charge.
The imaginary lines that are used to determine the direction of
electric field are called electric lines of force
Electric lines of force are the continuous curves that originate from
+ve charge and terminate at -ve charge.
The direction of electric field at any point on the electric lines of
force can be determined by drawing tangent on the curve.
Tangent on each point on the electric lines of force can have only
one direction.
(∵ tangent on electric line of force determines the direction of
electric field on that point and electric field can only have one
direction due to a +ve source charge)
Electric lines of forces cannot intersect each other.
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(∵ intersection of electric line of force generates two tangent at that

point which is not possible)
No electric line of force can originate or terminate in the space
surrounding the charge.
The larger the electric lines of force passing through a surface the
larger will be the electric field intensity produced in that surface.
The amount of electric lines of force passing through a total surface
area of closed surface perpendicularly determines the electric
flux(∅)
The total area (scalar quantity) when divided into a large number of
smaller area gives the area element/vector area (∆𝐴)
(vector area is a vector quantity that is directed
normally/perpendicularly outwards of the surface(close charged
surface i.e. spherical charge distribution) or directed in the direction
of projection of electric field ‘Ecos𝜽’ passing through a plane (open
charged surface i.e. plane charged sheet). )
Electric lines of force passing through a smaller area(vector area
‘∆𝐴 ’) is represented as: ∆∅ = 𝑬 . ∆𝑨 = E∆𝑨cos𝜽
Electric lines of force passing through total surface area(summation
of all the vector areas yields total surface area= ∑∆𝐴 =A ) is
represented as: ∅ = ∑∆∅ = 𝑬 ∑ ∆𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨
(∵ E||∆𝑨 & cos𝜽 =cos00=1(for each vector area). Flux is a scalar
quantity that is the amount of electric lines of forces passing
through total surface area that is obtained by calculating small flux
at each vector area and then adding them)
Maximum flux (i.e. maximum lines of force pass through a closed
surface) when the plane is perpendicular to the electric lines and the
angle between electric lines of force and vector area is 𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎
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(∵all the electric lines will pass the plane normally/perpendicularly

hence maximum flux is obtained and the vector area will be parallel
to the field.)
Minimum flux (i.e. minimum lines of force pass through a closed
surface) when the plane is parallel to the electric lines and the angle
between electric lines of force and vector area is 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
(∵No electric lines will pass the plane normally/perpendicularly
hence minimum flux is obtained and the vector area will be
perpendicular to the field.)
The amount of electric lines of force passing through a unit surface
area is electric flux density
(∵∅ = ∑∆∅ = 𝑬 ∑ ∆𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨
∅
⇨𝑬= )
𝑨

If a single source charge ‘q’ produces an electric field ‘E’ around it

then the flux through an imaginary sphere (Gaussian surface)
𝒒
enclosing the charge at its center is ∅ =
∈𝟎

(∵∅ = ∑∆∅ = 𝑬 ∑ ∆𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨 1
where
total surface area of spherical Gaussian surface around charge = A =
4𝝅𝒓𝟐
& Electric field intensity due to source charge from Coulumb’s law
𝑲𝒒 𝟏 𝒒 𝟏
=E= 𝟐 = . 𝟐 ∵K=
𝒓 𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓 𝟒𝝅∈𝟎
𝟏 𝒒 𝒒
∴ 𝒆𝒒 𝟏 ⇨ ∅ = . 𝟐. (4𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) =
𝟒𝝅∈𝟎 𝒓 ∈𝟎

Since flux only depends upon q and ∈𝟎 which means it is

independent of the shape and size of Gaussian surface taken)
PHYSICS XII PREPARED BY: ENGR LAIBA [Type here]
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If multiple source charges ‘q1, q2 ,………….,qn’ produce an electric field

‘E’ around them then the total flux through an imaginary sphere
∑𝒏
𝟏𝒒
(Gaussian surface) enclosing the charges at its center is ∅ =
∈𝟎
𝒒
(If 1 source charge ‘q’ produces ∅ = , then n source charges
∈𝟎
∑𝒏
𝟏𝒒
produce ∅ = ∑∆∅ = . .This is explained by Gauss’s law. Since the
∈𝟎
flux due to 1 source charge can be calculated by using Coulumb’s
law but by using Gauss’s law flux due to multiple source charges can
be calculated hence “GAUSS’S LAW IS MORE FUNDAMENTAL THAN
COULUMB’S LAW”)
Gauss’s law is used to determine the electric field intensity at the
point on Gaussian surface that is enclosing different types of
charged distributions.
The electric field intensity inside a spherical charged
distribution/closed charged surface is equal to zero and the flux
inside a spherical charged distribution/closed charged surface is
zero
(∵ inside a spherical charged distribution/close charged surface
there is no charge and all the charges are lying on the surface of
close charged surface therefore the conducting wires are made
hollow since the conduction of charges is only on the surface of
conductor only)
It is advised to stay in the car during lightning to achieve
electrostatic shielding
(The metallic car body acts as a shield protecting us because the
conduction of charges occurs only through the outer surface of car’s
body. This phenomenon is called electrostatic shielding.)
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Electric flux through the surface of sphere containing charge at its

center depends on
a) Radius of sphere c) surface area
b) Amount of charge inside d) charge outside the sphere
the sphere
𝒒
(∵∅ = )
∈𝟎

The electric field intensity between two equally charged

positive/negative plates is zero and the force on proton/electron
placed between two equally charged positive/negative plates is zero
(∵both the plates exert equal and opposite forces on the charged
particle placed between them thus the net force will be zero also
when force per unit test charge is zero then the electric field
intensity is also between the two equally charged plates.)
For a uniform electric field the workdone in moving a unit test
charge from one point ‘A’ to another point ‘B’ against the field is
called potential difference which is given by ∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑬 . ∆𝒓
∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩
(⇨∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 1
𝒒𝟎

Where,
∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩 =F. ∆𝒓
𝑭 . ∆𝒓
∴ 𝒆𝒒𝟏⇨∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 =
𝒒𝟎
𝑭
∵E=
𝒒𝟎

⇨ ∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑬 . ∆𝒓
For a non uniform electric field the workdone in moving a test
charge from one point to another point against the field is given by
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑬 ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓
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(Divide the total distance ‘r’ into n small intervals i.e. each small
distance is ‘∆𝒓’ to make the electric field uniform for each small
interval which becomes ‘E’ for each ‘∆𝒓’ and when electric field is
constant then the force applied on moving a test charge against the
𝑭
field is also uniform for each interval ∵ E= )
𝒒𝟎

Thus potential difference for each interval will be

𝑭 . ∆𝒓𝟏 𝑭 ∆𝒓𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑭 ∆𝒓𝟏
∆𝑽𝑨→𝟏 = = =
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎

∵ F||∆𝒓

workdone on
the charge will
move it in the
direction of
applied force
𝑭 . ∆𝒓𝒏 𝑭 ∆𝒓𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑭 ∆𝒓𝒏
∆𝑽𝒏→𝑩 = = =
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎

Total potential difference :

𝑭 . ∆𝒓𝟏 𝑭 . ∆𝒓𝒏 𝑭
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝑽 = + + = ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎
𝒏 𝑭
⇨ ∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑬 ∑𝟏 ∆𝒓 , ∵𝐄= )
𝒒𝟎

The workdone on a unit test charge in moving it from one point ‘A’
to another point ‘B’ against the electric field is taken +ve and the
potential difference due to an external workdone (from lower to
higher potential) is +ve
(∵ ∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩 =F. ∆𝒓 =F∆𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽⇨ ∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩 = F∆𝒓
∵F||∆𝒓 workdone on the charge will move it in the direction of applied force
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∵∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =
∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩
⇨ 𝐅∆𝒓 ,∵ 𝐄 =
𝑭
)
𝒒𝟎 ∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = = 𝑬∆𝒓 𝒒𝟎
𝒒𝟎

The workdone by the field in moving the unit test charge back from
point ‘B’ to point ‘A’ in the direction of electric field is taken as -ve
and the potential difference generated due to the workdone by the
field (from higher to lower potential) is -ve
(∵ ∆𝑾𝑩→𝑨 =F. ∆𝒓 =F∆𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽⇨ ∆𝑾𝑨→𝑩 = -F∆𝒓
∵F||∆𝒓 workdone by the field will move the charge opposite to the direction
of applied force
∆𝑾𝑩→𝑨 −𝐅∆𝒓 𝑭
∵∆𝑽𝑩→𝑨 = ⇨ ∆𝑽𝑩→𝑨 = 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 = = −𝑬∆𝒓 ,∵𝐄 = )
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎

Workdone required on the unit test charge to move it from the point
of infinity to the point in the electric field is electric potential of an
isolated source or point charge/absolute potential of an isolated
source or point charge
(FOR A NON UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD:
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑬 ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓
where ∆𝒓 is the smallest distance when the total distance ‘r’ is
divided into n small intervals
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑬 ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓 =Er ,∵ ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓 = 𝒓
If the charge is brought back from the point of infinity at ‘A’ to the
point within the field ‘B’ then potential difference from A to B is:
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =𝑽𝑩 − 𝟎 = 𝑬 ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓 =Er
∵at infinity the test charge is not bounded by the electric field hence
has no potential outside the field that is the infinity point or
absolute zero point where potential is zero i.e. 𝑽𝑨 = 𝟎 .Hence if the
test charge is at infinity then the only charge present is the source
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charge at ‘B' which is now isolated that is producing the electric field
.Thus the potential difference due to workdone on the unit test
charge in bringing it from infinity is the electric potential or
absolute potential that is the potential of isolated source charge
present at point ‘B’.
∆𝑽𝑨→𝑩 =𝑽𝑩 = 𝑬 ∑𝒏𝟏 ∆𝒓 =Er 1
𝑲𝒒
Where E= for electric field due to source charge
𝒓𝟐
𝑲𝒒 𝑲𝒒
∴ 𝒆𝒒 𝟏⇨𝑽𝑩 =Er= 𝟐 .r=
𝒓 𝐫

The source charge can be present at any point thus the generalized
form of electric potential of isolated source charge is
𝑲𝒒
⇨V= 2
𝐫

This is the potential when the work is done on the charge against
the field(lower to higher potential). The source charge that is
producing electric field will perform workdone by the field that is in
the direction of field to move the charge back from point ‘B’ to point
‘A’ and the potential difference generated due to the workdone by
the field (from higher to lower potential) is -ve
⇨∆𝑽𝑩→𝑨 = 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 = 𝟎 − 𝑽𝑩 =-V
𝑲𝒒
∴ 𝒆𝒒 𝟐 ⇨ -V= ⇨ V=− 𝑲𝒒 )
𝐫
𝐫

The formula for electric field intensity is:

𝐾𝑞 ∆𝑽
a) c) −
𝑟2 ∆𝒓
∅
b) d) All
𝑨
∆𝑽
(∵ ∆𝑽𝑩→𝑨 = 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 = −𝑬∆𝒓⇨E=− ,
∆𝒓
conventionally taken when work is done by the field
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∅
&∵ ∅ = ∑∆∅ = 𝑬 ∑ ∆𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨 ⇨E=
𝑨
𝑲𝒒
E= due to source charge)
𝒓𝟐

The quantity ‘E’ defines:

a) electric field intensity c) potential gradient
b) electric flux density d) All
The unit of electric field intensity is:
𝑁
a) c) Both
C
𝑉
b) d) None
m

Electron volt is the unit of energy

∆𝑾
(∵∆𝑽 = ⇨∆𝑾 = 𝒒∆𝑽
𝒒

Electron volt is the amount of energy/workdone required to move

an electron when 1V of potential difference is being applied.
⇨∆𝑾 = 𝒒∆𝑽=1e.1V=1eV
∵q=ne=1e=1.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C
⇨ ∆𝑾=1eV =1.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J )

The capacitance of capacitor increases ∈𝒓 times when a dielectric

medium with relative permitivity of ‘∈𝑟 ’ is placed between the
plates.
∈𝟎 𝐀
(∵C= ,when air is filled
𝒅
∈𝒓 ∈𝟎 𝐀
& C’= =C’=∈𝒓 .C , when dielectric medium is present)
𝒅

Relative permittivity is also called dielectric constant .

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(∵C’=∈𝒓 .C
𝑪′ ∈
⇨∈𝒓 = = )
𝑪 ∈𝟎

How does the dielectric medium increase the capacitance?

a) By decreasing potential difference c) by increasing permitivity
b) By decreasing electric field d) All
(when dielectric is placed between the plates of permittivity
‘∈′ which is greater than the permitivitty of free space’ ∈′𝟎
∵𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∈𝒓 > 𝟏, it decreases the electrostatic force between the
𝟏
charged plates ∵F’= .F . The lesser force produces an electric field
∈𝒓
𝑭
with less strength ∵E= , lesser the electric field lesser will be the
𝒒𝟎
potential difference between the plates ∵V=∆𝑽 = 𝑬. ∆𝒓 .The lesser
voltage causes the plates to accumulate more charge from the
battery on the same voltage as the amount of charge stored when air
is filled between the plates this inreases the storage capacity of
𝒒
charges which is the other name of capacitance ∵C= ,thus the
𝑽
capacitance inreases).
If the ‘n’ capacitors of the same capacitance of ‘C’ are connected in
series,then the equivalent capacitance can be determined by using
𝑪
CEQ= .
𝒏

(The equivalent capacitance is lesser than the least valued capacitor

connected in series)
If the ‘n’ capacitors of the same capacitance of ‘C’ are connected in
parallel,then the equivalent capacitance can be determined by using
CEQ= nC .
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(The equivalent capacitance is greater than the greatest valued

capacitor connected in parallel)

CHAPTER#13 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

REMAINING OBJECTIVES
Ohm’s law is obeyed in
a) Electron tube c) metallic conductor
b) Semiconductor d) all
(∵ in electron tube the conductance of the electrons varies when
the voltage is applied hence the resistance varies with the
increase in voltage and in semiconductor resistance of
semiconductor decreases due to the increase in conduction as
energy gap is reduced and the free electrons flows more when
more voltage is provided hence in both the cases resistance is
variable and these two are non ohmic)
Tungsten is used for making filament of incandescent(vacuum)/
fluorescent(discharge or low pressure gas) lamps
(∵Tungsten has high melting point of 3410℃ and becomes
incandescent i.e. emits visible light due to heating at a high
temperature of 3000℃. Thus it glows without melting. Tungsten
gets oxidized in the presence of oxygen hence are covered in an
evacuated glass covering hence it glows without oxidizing.)