‫يةوليَر‬-‫زانكؤي سةالحةدديو‬

Salahaddin University-Erbil

On Polynomial Rings
Research project

Submitted to the department of mathematic in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of BSc. in mathematics.

By:

Bahar R. Omer

Supervised by:

[Link] H. Awla

May-2019
Certification of the Supervisors

I certify that this report was prepared under my supervision at the Department of
Mathematics / College of Education / Salahaddin University-Erbil in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Bachelor of philosophy of Science in Mathematics.

Signature:
Supervisor:
Scientific grade:
Date: 1 / 5 / 2019

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this report for debate by the
examining committee.

Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Nejmaddin A. Sulaiman
Scientific grade: Professor
Chairman of the Mathematics Department
Date: 1/ 5 / 2019

I
Dedication To:

-My father and mother.

-My dear supervisor.

-My brothers and sisters

-All who want to read it

Bahar R. Omer

2019

II
Acknowledgement

I express my deep sense of gratitude and thanks to ALLAH the Almighty for providing
me with strength, health, faith, patience, willing and self confidence to accomplish this
study.

My sincere thanks and appreciation are extended to the presidency of Salahaddin

University, especially the deanery of the College of Education for their facilities to carry
out my research work.

I would like to give special thanks to my supervisor “[Link] H. Awla” for her
constant and valuable guidance and encouragement during my research work. Her
attention, support and timely suggestions were useful and the most needed in the
preparation of my Master’s thesis.

My deepest thanks go to professor “[Link] A. Sulaiman” the head of Mathematic

Department of the College of Education, especially the library staff of the College of
Education.

Finally, I would like to state my heartily tanks to my family especially my father and my
mother as they brought me up to the stage.

Also, thanks to all of those who taught me even one word that helped me in my study.

Bahar R. Omer

2019
Abstract

Let be a commutative ring with identity. In this project we study the polynomial ring
with indeterminate and we discuss the relation between the ring and the ring
and we study some of its properties. We discuss irreducibility of polynomials over
the field of rational numbers, and roots of a given polynomial.

II
 Contents
Contents page no.

Introduction………………………………………………………1

Chapter one: ……………………………………2

Chapter Two: ………………………………….13

References………………………………………………………...22

III
Introduction

The word “polynomial” is originated from 2 word “poly” and “nomial” .poly means
“many” nomin refer to “terms”. The meaning of polynomial is associated expression
that has several terms .In mathematics, apolynomial is an expression consisting of
variables (or indeterminate)and coefficients, that involves only the operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication,and non- negative integer exponents.
Polynomials appear in variety of areas of mathematics and science. For example, for
example, they are used to from polynomial equation, they are used to define polynomial
function, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to
economics and social science, also they are used in calculus and numerical analysis to
approximate other notions, in advanced mathematics.

Polynomials are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, central
concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry.

1
Chapter one

Background

In this chapter state some basic definitions and results on rings.

Definition 1.1[ ]:A ring is a set together with two binary operations and
(called addition and multiplication) satisfying the following axioms:-

1. is an abelian group.
2. is associative: for all .
3. The distributive laws hold in R: for all

Example: and are rings

Definition: let be aring, a nonzero element a of is called a zero divisor if there is a

nonzero element in such that either

Example:

Definition: An integral domain is a commutative ring with identity which does not
have divisors of zero.

Example: ( ) p is prime. has no zero divisor.

Definition: A field is a commutative ring with identity in which each nonzero element
has inverse under multiplication.

Example:

Definition: let be a ring and I a nonempty subset of R. Then is an

ideal of if
2
 1. imply
2. and imply both

Definition: an ideal in a commutative ring R is a prime ideal if implies

that either

Definition: An ideal of the ring is a maximal ideal provided

and whenever is an ideal of with , then .

In general it is not necessary that maximal ideal is prime, as example. Let

, is a maximal ideal of , but not prime, since but .

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with identity. An ideal I is called a principal

ideal of the ring R if it is generated by a single element a and denoted by (a) and defined
by .

Definition: a principal ideal domain (P.I.D) is an integral domain in which every ideal
is principal.

Remark: In a P.I.D. a nonzero ideal I is prime iff it is maximal.

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring and I be an ideal of R. Define to be the

set where . Define the operation + and . on
for all define and

. Then is a commutative ring called the quotient ring.

Theorem: Let I be a proper ideal of the ring Then I is a prime ideal if and only if the
quotient ring is an integral domain.

Proof: First, take to be a prime ideal of . Since is a commutative ring with identity,
so is the quotient ring . It remains to show has no divisor of zero. For this,

3
assume that . Since is a prime ideal, hence
Hence is without zero divisor.
Conversely: Suppose is an integral domain and . Then we have
By hypothesis, contains no divisors of zero, that either
That is prime ideal.

Theorem: Let be a proper ideal of the commutative ring with identity . Then I is a
maximal ideal if and only if the quotient ring is a field.

2- Polynomial Rings

Definition: The polynomial ring in indeterminate with coefficients from is

the set of all formal sums ∑
that is

If then is the leading term, and the leading coefficient.

Addition and multiplication of polynomials defined as follows:

Let then

Let then

Then the triple forms a ring, known as the ring of polynomials over .

Now, we state relations between and

Proposition:

1-If is a commutative, then is commutative.

4
2-If is a ring with identity , then is a ring with identity and the identity
element is

3-If is an integral domain, then is an integral domain.

4-The units of are the constants polynomial where is as unit in .

From (4) it follow that, cannot be a field.

Definition: Let be a ring. If is a polynomial in

then is called degree of written

In general if and are two polynomials over , then

a) ( )
b) ( ) .

Example: 1-Let

Then

Hence ( ) ,

and ( )

2- Let in

Then ( )

Then ( )

3-Let in
5
Then

Then

Theorem: If F is a field, then every ideal in F[x] is a principal ideal domain ( is

P.I.D.)

Proof: Let be an ideal of If then Suppose that ,

and let be a nonzero element of minimal degree, If the degree of
and is a unit, so by theorem (If is a ring with unity, and is an
ideal of containing a unit, then ) , so is a principal ideal. If the degree of
, let be any element of . Then by theorem (Division Algorithm for
), for some polynomials and where

Now implies that is in by

definition of an ideal.

Since was a nonzero element of minimal degree in , we must have . Thus

Definition: A non constant polynomial is said to be irreducible in if

and only if cannot be expressed as the product of two polynomials of positive
degree. Otherwise, is reducible in

Example: the polynomial is irreducible in , but it is reducible in

, and .

Also it is reducible in and

Example: The polynomial is irreducible in , where is the field of

rational numbers.
6
Suppose

Where the coefficients . Hence

Whernce Substituting in the relation we obtain

Thus, which is impossible because √ is not a rational

number while irreducible in

Theorem: (factorization theorem) The polynomial is divisible by

if and only if a is a root of

Proof: Suppose is a factor of Then there exists a polynomial such

that Then which implies , and a is a root
of Conversely, suppose . By division algorithm there exists
in such that ,
. Since , then is a constant polynomial. But
Hence , consequently

Theorem: (Fundamental theorem of Algebra) Let be the field of complex

numbers. If is a polynomial of positive degree, then has at least one
root in .

Theorem: Let be an integral domain and be a nonzero

polynomial of degree n. Then has at most n distinct roots in .

7
Proof: We proceed by induction on the degree of When , the result
is trivial, since cannot have any roots. If

has at most one root; indeed, if a is invertible, is the only root of . Now
suppose the theorem is true for all polynomials of degree , and
. If has a root r, by (factorization theorem) gives f , where the
polynomial has degree . Any root distinct from r must be a root of
for by substitution, , and since has no zero
divisors, . From our induction hypothesis, has at most distinct
roots. As the only roots of are r and those of cannot have more than n
distinct roots in .

Remark: If is not an integral domain, the last theorem need not be true as we see in
the following example.

Example: consider the ring . Clearly is not an integral domain. Now

consider the polynomial . It is not difficult to show that every element of
is a root of Where So has four
roots.

Now, we give some irreducibility tests

Theorem: Let , and let be of degree or . Then is reducible

over if and only if it has a zero in

Now, we give some irreduciblity tests

Theorem: (Eisenstein’s test) Let be a prime. Suppose that

is for that is , with
. Then is irreducible over .
8
Example: Taking , we see by Theorem2.9 that is
irreducible over .

Theorem 2.10.[3] Let be a polynomial of

degree n with integer coefficients. If and is a root of
then and In particular if is a monic polynomial with integer coefficients
and for all integers d dividing the constants lern of has no roots in .

Example: Suppose . Then if is a root

for and , then r may be one of and may be one of
hence, the possible roots are each of then is not a root for

Theorem2.11:[internet] Let p be a prime number and with .

Let be a polynomial obtained from by reducing all coefficients
modulo . If is irreducible over and , then is
irreducible over .

Example:

Consider

Let obtained from , by reducing all coefficients modulo the

is irreducible in , so is irreducible over

.

Theorem2.12.[1] If is a field, then the following statements are equivalent:-

1- is an irreducible polynomial in
2- The principal ideal is a maximal (prime) ideal of
3- The quotient ring is a field.

9
Theorem 2.13.[2] Let be an irreducible polynomial in If divides
for , then either divides or divides

Theorem 2.14.[2] If is a field , then every non constant polynomial

can be factored in into a product of irreducible polynomials, the irreducible
polynomials being unique except for order and for unit (that is nonzero constant) factors
in .

Definition: Suppose is a commutative ring and is a "variable" or "symbol".

The polynomial ring is the collection of all polynomials

where a . Under the obvious addition and multiplication, is a
commutative ring. The degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest integer such
that , and is denoted by : If , then is said to be monic.
To be more formal, think of a polynomial as an infinite sequence
such that each and only a finite number are non-zero. Then
and
.
Note that on the right, the ring multiplication is written simply as , as is
often done for convenience.

Theorem: If is a domain, is also a domain.

Proof: Suppose and are non-zero polynomials. Then
and thus is not . Another way to prove this theorem is to look at the bottom terms
instead of the top terms. Let and be the frst non-zero terms of and . Then
is the frst non-zero term of .
Theorem:(The Division Algorithm) Suppose is a commutative ring,
has and its top coefficient is a unit in . (If is a field, the top

10
coefficient of will always be a unit.) Then for any such
that with or
Proof: This theorem states the existence and uniqueness of polynomials and
. We outline the proof of existence and leave uniqueness as an exercise. Suppose
where and is a unit in . For any with
, set and . For the general case, the idea is to divide into
until the remainder has degree less than . The proof is by induction on the degree
of . Suppose and the result holds for any polynomial of degree less than
. Suppose is a polynomial of degree . Now a monomial with
and . By induction, with and
. The result follows from the equation .
Note: If we say that divides . Note that divides if and only if is
a root of , i.e., . More generally, divides with remainder .
Theorem:Suppose is a domain, , and is a
polynomial of degree with at least one root in . Then has at most roots. Let
be the distinct roots of in the ring . Then a unique sequence of
positive integers and a unique polynomial with no root in so that
(If has degree 0, i.e., if , then we say
“all the roots of belong to ”. If , we say “all the roots of are 0”.)
Proof: Uniqueness is easy so let's prove existence. The theorem is clearly true
for . Suppose and the theorem is true for any polynomial of degree less
than . Now suppose is a polynomial of degree and is a root of . Then
a polynomial with . Since has degree less than , the result
follows by induction.
Note: If is any non-constant polynomial in , all the roots of belong to ,
i.e., is an algebraically closed field. This is called The Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra, and it is assumed without proof for this textbook.

11
Definition:A domain is a principal ideal domain (PID) if, given any ideal I,
such that . Note that is a PID and any field is PID.
Theorem:Suppose is a field, is a proper ideal of , and n is the smallest
positive integer such that contains a polynomial of degree . Then contains a
unique polynomial of the form and it has the
property that . Thus is a PID. Furthermore, each coset of can be
written uniquely in the form .
Proof: This is a good exercise in the use of the division algorithm. Note this is
similar to showing that a subgroup of is generated by one element (see page 15).
Theorem:Suppose is a subring of a commutative ring and . Then !
homomorphism with and for all . It is defined
by , i.e., sends to . The
imageof is the smallest subring of containing and .
This map is called an evaluation map. The theorem says that adding two
polynomials in and evaluating is the same as evaluating and then adding in .
Also multiplying two polynomials in and evaluating is the same as evaluating
and then multiplying in . In street language the theorem says you are free to send
wherever you wish and extend to a ring homomorphism on .

12
 Chapter two

Definition[ ]:Suppose is a commutative ring and is a “variable” or “symbol”.

The polynomial ring is the collection of all polynomials

where . Under the obvious addition and multiplication, is a
commutative ring. The degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest integer such
that , and is denoted by . If the top term , then is said to be
monic.

To be more formal, think of a polynomial as an infinite sequence

such that each and only a finite number are non-zero. Then
+ = and

Note that on the right, the ring multiplication is written simply as , as is often
done for convenience.

Definition: If and are

in , then if and only if for every integer

Thus two polynomials are declared to be equal if and only if their corresponding
coefficients are equal.

Definition: If and then the degree of

, written as , is .

That is, the degree of is the largest integer for which the ith coefficient of is
not 0. We do not define the degree of the zero polynomial. We say a polynomial is a
constant if its degree is 0. The degree function defined on the nonzero elements of
will provide us with the function needed in order that be a Euclidean ring.

13
Lemma:If are nonzero element of , then deg

Corollary: If are nonzero elements in F[x]then,

Proof: Since and since , this

result is immediate from the lemma.

Definition:The polynomial , where the

are integer is said to be primitive if greatest common divisor of
is 1.

Lemma: If and are primitive polynomials, then is a primitive

polynomial.

Proof: Let and . suppose

that the lemma was false; then all the coefficient would be divisible by some
integer larger than 1, hence by some prime number . since is primitive, does not
divide some coefficient ai. . Let be the first coefficient of which does not
divide. Similarly let be the first coefficient of which does not divide. In
the coefficient of , is

Now by our choice of so that

By assumption, .Thus by(1),
,which is nonsense since and .This proves the lemma.

Definition:The content of the polynomial , where the

a’s are integers, is the greatest common divisor of the integers .
14
Clearly, given any polynomial with integer coefficients it can be written as
where is the content of and where is a primitive
polynomial.

Theorem: (Gauss’lemma) If the primitive polynomial can be factored as the

product of two polynomials having integer coefficients.

Proof : suppose that where and have rational coefficients.

by clearing of denominators and taking out common factors we can then write
where and are integers and where both and have integer
coefficients and are primitive. Thus The content of the left-hand
side is , since is primitive; since both and are primitive, by lemma
3.10.1 is primitive, so that the content of the right-hand side is [Link] fore
, and where and have integer
[Link] is the assertion of the theorem.

Definition: A polynomial is said to be integer monic if all its coefficients are integers
and its highest coefficient is 1.

Thus an integer monic polynomial is merely one of the form

where the a’s integers. Clearly an integer monic polynomial is primitive.

Corollary: If an integer monic polynomial factors as the product of two non constant
polynomials having rational coefficients then it factors as the product of two integer
monic polynomials.

Theorem:(The eisenstein criterion)

Let be a polynomial with integer coefficients.

suppose thatfor some prime number .

Then is irreducible over the rationals.

15
Proof: Without loss of generality we may assume that is primitive, for taking out
the greatest common factor of its coefficients does not disturb the hypotheses, since p an.
If factors as a product of two rational polynomials, by Gauss ' Lemma it factors as
the product of two polynomials having integer coefficients. Thus if we assume that
is reducible, then

Where the b’s and integers and where and . Reading off the coefficients we
first get since must divide one of or .since , cannot
divide both and . suppose that , . Not all the coefficients can be
divisible by ; otherwise all the coefficients of would be divisible by , which is
manifestly false since . Let be the first b not divisible by , Thus
and the earlier b’s. But , and
, so that . However , ,which conflicts with
. This contradiction provers that we could not have factored and so is
indeed irreducible.

Lemma: If an integral domain, then so is .

Proof:For , where in , we define the

degree of to be m; thus deg is the index of the highest nonzero confficient of
. If is an integral domain we leave it as an exercise to prove that deg
.But then, for , , it is impossible
to have That is, is an integral domain .

Making successive use of the lemma immediately yields the

Corollary: If is an integral domain, then so is

In particular, when is a field, must be an integral domain. As such, we

can construct its field of quotients; we call this the field of rational functions in
over F and denote it by This field plays a vital role in
16
algebraic geometry. For us it shall be of utmost importance in our discussion, in
Chapter5, of Galois theory. However, we want deeper interrelations between the
structures of and of than that expressed in lemma 3.11.1 our
development now turns in that direction.

Exactly in the same way as we did for Euclidean rings, we can speak about divisibility,
units, etc., in arbitrary integral domain, , with unit element. two elements a , b in are
said to be associates if where u is a unit . An element a which is not a unit in
will be called irreducible (or a prime element) if, whenever with with
both in , Then one of or must be a unit in . An irreducible element is thus an
element which cannot be factored in a “nontrivial” way.

Definition: An integral domain , with unit element is a unique factorization domain if

a. Any nonzero element in is either a unit or can be written as product of a finite

number of irreducible elements of .
b. The decomposition in part is unique up to the order and associates of the
irreducible elements.

Theorem3.7.2 asserts that a Euclidean ring is a unique factorization domain. The

converse, however, is false; for example, the ring , where F is a field, is not
even a principal ideal ring (hence is certainly not Euclidean), but as we shall soon see it
is a unique factorization domain .

In general commutative rings we may speak about the greatest common divisors of
elements; the main difficulty is these, in general, might, not exist. However, in unique
factorization domains their existence is assured. This fact is not difficult to prove and we
leave it as an exercise; equally easy are the other parts of

17
Lemma: If is a unique factorization domain and if a,b are in , then and have a
greatest common divisor in . Moreover, if and are relatively prime
( ,whenever .

Corollary:If is an irreducible element and , then or

We now wish to transfer the appropriate version of the Gauss lemma (Theorem 3.10.1),
which we proved for polynomials with integer coefficients, to the ring , where is
a unique factorization domain.

Given the polynomial in , then the content of

is defined to be the greatest common divisor of . It is uniquewithin
units of . We shall denote the content of by

A polynomial in is said to be primitive if its content is 1 (that is, is a unit in ).

Given any polynomial ,we can write where and
where is primitive. (prove!) Except for multiplication by units of this
decomposition of , as an element of by a primitive polynomial in , is unique.
(prove;)

The proof of Lemma 3.10.1 goes over completely to our present situation; the only
change that must be made in the proof is to replace the prime number by an irreducible
element of . Thus we have

Lemma: If is a unique factorization domain, then the product of two primitive

polynomials in is again a primitive polynomial in .

Given in we can write , where

and where and are [Link]
. By Lemma 3.11.3, is primitive. Hence the
content of is , that is, it is We have proved the
18
Corollary:If is a unique factorization domain and if are in , then
(up to units).

By a simple induction, the corollary extends to the product of a finite number of

polynomials to read Let be a unique factorization
domain. Being an integral domain, by Theorem 3.6.1, it has a field of quotients . We
can consider to be a subring of . Given any polynomial , then
, where and where . (prove!) it is natural to ask
for the relation, in terms of reducibility and irreducibility, of a polynomial in
considered as a polynomial in the larger ring

Lemma: If in is both primitive and irreducible as an element of , then it

is irreducible as an element of . conversely, if the primitive element in is
irreducible as an element of , it is also irreducible as an element of .

Lemma:If is a unique factorization domain and if is a primitive polynomial in

, then it can be factored in a unique way as the product of irreducible elements in
.

Proof: when we consider , where are

irreducible polynomials in . , where and ;
moreover, ), where and where is primitive in .
Thus each ), where and where is
primitive. Since is irreducible in , must also be irreducible in ,
hence by lemma3.11.4 it is irreducible in .

Now

19
Whence . Using the primitivity of and
. We can read off the content of the left-hand side as and that
of the right-hand side as . Thus , hence
. We have factored , in , as a product of irreducible elements.

Can we factor it in another way? If , where the are

irreducible in R[x], by the primitivity of p(x), each must be primitive, hence
irreducible in F[x] by lemma 3.11.4. But by lemma 3.9.5 we know unique factorization
in F[x]; the net result of this is that the and the are equal (up to associates) in
some order, hence p(x) has a unique factorization as a product of irreducible in R[x].

We now have all the necessary information to prove the principal theorem of this
section.

Theorem: If is a unique factorization domain, then so is .

Proof: let f(x) be an arbitrary element in . We can write in a unique way as

where is in and where , in , is primitive. By
lemma 3.11.5 we can decompose in a unique way as the product of irreducible
elements of . what about ? Suppose that in ; then
( ) ( ) . Therefore,
each must be degree 0, that is, it must be an element of . In other words, the only
factorizations of as an element of are those it had as an element of . In
particular, an irreducible element in is still irreducible in . since is a unique
factorization domain, has a unique factorization as a product of irreducible elements
of , hence of .

Putting together the unique factorization of in the form where is

primitive and where with the unique factorizability of c and of we have
proved the theorem.
20
Given as aunique factorization domain, then is also aunique factorization
domain. Thus is also aunique factorization domain. Continuing
in this pattern we obtain

Corollary1: If is a unique factorization domain then so is . A special case

of corollary 1 but of independent interest and importance is

Corollary 2: If is a field then is a unique factorization domain.

21
References

[1]-David [Link](1967). Introduction to Modern Abstract Algebra, Addion-wesley

publishing company.

[2]- John B. Fraleigh (1982) . A First Course in Abstract Algebra. Addion-wesley

publishing company.

[3]-Dummit .D.S. and Foot .R.M(2004), Abstract Algebra . John wiley & sons.

[4]-Malik D.S. and Modeson John M. and Sen M. K. (1997). Fundamentals Abstract
Algebra, McGraw-Hill.

‫ ليبياز‬-‫ البيضاء‬-‫ جامعة عمر المختار‬, ‫) الجبر المجرد‬2002(‫بروين على حمادي‬.‫ د‬-[5]

22
‫وادادةنةين ‪ R‬جوغسيَكى ئالَوطؤرة‪ .‬لةو كارةدا ئيَمة جوغسى رادةدارى ]‪ R[x‬دةخويَنني لةطةلَ طؤراوى ناديارى ‪ x‬و ثةيوةندى‬

‫نيَوان جوغسى ‪ R‬و جوغسى ]‪ R[x‬و هةنديَ تايبةمتةنديةكان‪ .‬هةروةها طفتوطؤى ئةوة دةكةين كة تواناى شيكردنةوةى نةبيَ‬

‫و رةطى رادةدار‪.‬‬ ‫لة زؤر رادةدار لة كيَلَطةى‬

‫‪23‬‬
 ‫زانكۆی سهالحهدين‪-‬ههولێر‬

‫‪Salahaddin University-Erbil‬‬

‫دةربارةي ئةلقةي رِادةدارةكاى‬

‫ثرؤذةى دةرضوونة‬

‫ثيَصكةش بة بةشى (بريكارى) كراوة‪ ،‬وةك بةشيَك لة ثيَداويستيةكانى بةدةستًيَهانى‬

‫برِوانامةى بةكالؤريؤس لة زانستى (بريكارى)‬

‫ئامادةكراوة لةاليةى‪:‬‬

‫بةيار رمحاى عمر‬

‫بةسةرثةرشتى‪:‬‬

‫م‪ .‬سًام محد عوال‬

‫ئايار‪9102-‬‬