Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2008

Chapter 3
PROPERTIES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES

Lect.Dr. Hiba Mudhafar Hashim

Part A/ Lec.5

2
PURE SUBSTANCE
• Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical composition
throughout.Ex:H2O, N2, CO2, He
• A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also qualifies as a pure substance as long
as the mixture is homogeneous ex:H2O
• A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the
chemical composition of all phases is the same

SOLID

Nitrogen and gaseous air are pure

substances. A mixture of ice and liquid water
3
Phases of a Pure Substance
SOLID LIQUID GAS

The arrangement of atoms in different phases:

(a) Molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid.
Because of small distance, the attractive forces of •The molecules in a solid
molecules on each other are large , are kept at their positions
(b) Groups of molecules move about each other in the by the large springlike
liquid phase, and inter-molecular forces.
(c) Molecules move about at random in the gas phase. •Intermolecular bonds
are strongest in solids
and weakest in gases
4
Phase-change Processes of Pure Substances

➢At 1 atm and 20°C,

➢Liquid phase
➢Heat added → T 
➢not about to vaporize
Compressed Liquid Saturated liquid

➢At 1 atm and 100°C,

➢Liquid phase
➢Heat added → Evaporation start T-v diagram
➢Ready to vaporize
Saturated Liquid

5
 ➢At 1 atm and 100°C
➢Heat added →the saturated liquid continues
evaporation
➢Liquid and vapor phases coexist in
equilibrium.
➢T constant
Saturated Liquid-vapor Mixture

➢At 1 atm and 100°C,

➢The temperature remains constant
until all liquid evaporated Saturated liquid
Saturated vapor
➢Vapor phase, on the borderline of
the liquid phase
➢Heat remove → condensation
Saturated Vapor

Note:The amount of energy States between 2 and 4 is referred to as

absorbed during vaporization is a saturated liquid–vapor mixture
called the latent heat of
vaporization 6
 What is Latent Heat?
• Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-
change process.
• Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy absorbed during melting. It
is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.
• Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of energy absorbed during
vaporization and it is equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.

7
 ➢At 1 atm, T > 100C
➢Heat added → T
➢Not about to condense
Superheated Vapor

Saturated liquid

Saturated
vapor

T-v diagram for the heating process of water at constant pressure. 8

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure

Saturation temperature Tsat:

The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase at a
given pressure.

Saturation pressure Psat:

Saturated liquid
The pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase at a
given temperature.
Saturated
vapor

9
 The T-v Diagram
➢The statement “water boils at 100°C” is incorrect
➢Water start boiling at 100°C at 1 atm (101.325 kPa or 0.1 MPa)
➢If the pressure inside the cylinder were raised to 10 MPa, water would start boiling
at 179.9°C.
➢the specific volume of the saturated liquid is larger than 1 atm
➢specific volume of the saturated vapor is smaller

the temperature at which water

starts boiling depends on the
pressure; therefore, if the
pressure is fixed, so is the
boiling temperature

10
• saturated liquid line
• saturated vapor line
• compressed liquid region
• superheated vapor region
• saturated liquid–vapor mixture
region (wet region)

T-v diagram of a pure substance.

At supercritical Critical point: The point at
pressures (P > Pcr), which the saturated liquid
there is no distinct and saturated vapor states
phase-change (boiling) are identical. Tcr and Pcr
process. 11
 The P-v Diagram
The general shape of the P-v is very much like the T-v diagram,
but the T constant lines on this diagram have a downward
trend

12
Extending the Diagrams For water,
to Include Ttp = 0.01°C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
the Solid Phase
At triple-point pressure and
temperature, a substance exists
in three phases in equilibrium.

P-v diagram of a substance that

contracts on freezing.

P-v diagram of a substance that expands

on freezing (such as water). 13
Sublimation: Passing from Phase Diagram
the solid phase directly into
the vapor phase.

At low pressures (below the

triple-point value), solids P-T diagram of pure substances.
evaporate without melting
first (sublimation).

14
Part B/ Lec.6

15
 Property Tables
Properties are presented in the form of tables.
• Table A–4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
• Table A–5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.
• use Table A–4 when temperature is given and Table A–5 when pressure is
given
Specific volume (v) , Internal energy (u) , enthalpy (h) , entropy (s)

The subscript f is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid,

The subscript g to denote the properties of saturated vapor
fg denotes the difference. For ex, vfg = vg - vf

Specific volume
is volume per unit (m3/kg)
mass.

Enthalpy
16
Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

Saturated Saturated
liquid vapor

84.6 T=95C

A partial list of Table A–4.

17
EXAMPLE 3–1 Pressure of Saturated Liquid in a Tank

T-v diagram
,kPa

70.2 90C

vf
P-v diagram 18
19
Compressed Liquid
The compressed liquid properties depend on temperature much more strongly than
they do on pressure.
Increasing the pressure 100 times often causes properties to change less than 1
percent
A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the given
temperature.
y → v, u, or h

The subscript f is used to denote properties of a

saturated liquid (TABLE A-7)

20
EXAMPLE
Determine the specific volume and internal energy of
liquid water at 80°C and 500 kPa

Solution: Table A-5 Tsat @ 500 kPa =151.83C.

T < Tsat → compressed liquid

Table A-4 v = vf @ 80C

u = uf @ 80C

Table A-7 v = v @ 80C and 5 MPa

u = uf @ 80C and 5 MPa

Answer: A-4 v = 0.001029 m3/kg , u = 334.97 kJ/kg

A-7 v =0.0010267 m3/kg, u = 333.82 kJ/kg

21
Superheated Vapor
➢In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at temperatures above the
critical point temperature, a substance exists as superheated vapor.
➢Properties of superheated vapor are listed at Table A-6

The format of A-6

table is different than
A-4 table
22
EXAMPLE
Determine the internal energy of water at 200 kPa and 300°C.
Solution: From table A-5, at 200 kPa, → Tsat = 120.21C
T > Tsat @ 200 kPa → Superheated vapor
Refer table A-6 , At P= 0.2 MPa and T=300C → u=2808.8 kJ/kg

EXAMPLE
Determine the temperature of water at a state of P 0.5 MPa and h
2961.0 kJ/kg.
Solution: Table A-5 , at P=0.5 MPa → hg = 2748.1 kJ/kg
h > hg @ 0.5 MPa → Superheated vapor
Refer table A-6 , at P=0.5 MPa and h=2961.0 kJ/kg →T=250C
kPa

250

151.83

500
T=250
T=151.83
hg=2748.1 23
v > vg
Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
➢During a vaporization process, a substance exists as a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapor
➢Introduce new property to analyze this mixture →Quality (x)
➢Investigate the relative amounts of liquid and vapor

0>x>1
Saturated liquid

Saturated
vapor

24
Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.

Quality is between 0 and 1 , 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.

If x =0.4 40% = saturated vapor 60% = sat. liquid

X=0.4

vf vg
25
 y v, u, or h.
yfg = yg - yf
The value of a average saturated liquid–vapor
mixture lies between saturated liquid and
saturated vapor

26
EXAMPLE
A system contain saturated liquid-vapor mixture at temperature 100C and x=0.8.
Determine the specific volume of the mixture
Solution: From table A-4, at 100C,
vf = 0.001043 m3/kg and vg=1.6720 m3/kg
Therefore v = vf + x ( vg - vf ) = 0.001043 + 0.8 (1.6720-0.001043) = 1.338 m3/kg

EXAMPLE
Determine the quality, x, specific volume and specific internal energy,u of water at
a given pressure 700 kPa and enthalpy 2600 kJ/kg

Solution: From table A-5, at 700 kPa,

hg = 2762.8 kJ/kg and hf = 697 kJ/kg
since hf < h < hg → liquid-vapor mixture

from equation h = hf + xhfg

2600 = 697 + x (2762.8 – 697)
x = 0.921

v = vf + x vfg = 0.001108 + (0.921)(0.27278-0.001108) = 0.2513 m3/kg

u = uf + x Ufg = 696.23 + (0.921)(1875.6) = 2423.6 kJ/kg

27
EXAMPLE Properties of Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
An 80-L vessel contains 4 kg of refrigerant-134a at a pressure of 160 kPa. Determine (a) the
temperature, (b) the quality, (c) the enthalpy of the refrigerant, and (d) the volume occupied by the
vapor phase.
Solution
V 0.080 m 3
v= = = 0.02 m 3 / kg
m 4 kg
From table A-12, vf = 0.0007437 m3/kg , vg = 0.12348 m3/kg
Since vf < v <vg, → saturated mixture
Therefore T = Tsat @ P= 160 kPa = -15.60C

From equation v=vf + x vfg,

x = (v – vf)/ vfg
= 0.157
Also h = hf + xhfg
= 64.2 kJ/kg

mg = x mt = 0.157 (4 kg) = 0.628 kg

Vg = mgvg = 0.628 (0.12348) = 0.0775 m3

28
Interpolation

y2 2

yt − y1 x − x1 t
= t yt
y 2 − y1 x 2 − x1
1
y1

x
x2 xt x1

 xt − x1 
yt =  ( y 2 − y1 ) + y1
 x2 − x1 
29
EXAMPLE
Determine temperature of saturated vapor water at P= 420 kPa
Solution
From table A-5, P=420 kPa is not listed but it supposed to sit between 400 and 450 kPa
TS − 143 .61 420 − 400
T C P (kPa) =
147 .90 − 143 .61 450 − 400
143.61 400
 420 − 400 
Ts 420 Ts =  (147 .90 − 143 .61) + 143 .61
 450 − 400 
147.90 450
Ts = 145.326 C
EXAMPLE
Determine specific volume and specific enthalpy of water at P=1400 kPa and T=420C
Solution
From Table A-5, Ts=195.04C. since T>Ts →Superheated vapor
Refer Table A-6 , at P=1.40 MPa

 420 − 400 
v420 =  (0.2521 − 0.2178 ) + 0.2178 = 0.2247 m / kg
3
T v h
 500 − 400 
400 0.2178 3257.5
 420 − 400 
420 V420 h420 h420 =  (3474 .1 − 3257 .5 ) + 3257 .5 = 3300 .8kJ / kg
500 0.2521 3474.1  500 − 400 
30
 Ideal Gas
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is above the critical
temperature.
Vapor usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.
P

T2>T1

T1
v

31
 The Ideal Gas Equation of State
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific
volume of a substance.

PV = mRT
Pv = RT
V
Since v=
m
R: gas constant/pemalar gas
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
N : Mole number
Ru: universal gas constant/pemalar
gas semesta
Ru = MR = 8.3143 kJ/kg.K
Different substances have
m = Molar mass  Mole number PV = NMRT = NRuT different gas constants.

P1V1 P2V2
Ma R a = Mb R b =
T1 T2
a =gas a , b=gas b 32
EXAMPLE
Determine the mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are 4m x 5m x 6 m at 100 kPa and 25°C.

Solution
Table A–1, the gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPa · m3/kg · K, and the absolute temperature is T= 25°C
+273 = 298 K. The volume of the room is
V= 14 m2 x15 m2 x 16 m2 = 120 m3

m=
pV
=
(
(100 kPa ) 120 m 3 ) = 140 .3kg
RT ( )
0.287 kPa .m 3 / kg .K (208 K )

33