Wollo University

School of Veterinary Medicine

Veterinary Epidemiology(Vetm 5151)

Target group: 5th year DVM Students

By: Belege Tadesse (DVM, MSc)

@2023/24
 Course objective
This course will equip the students to:

• Understand the role of epidemiology in veterinary medicine.

• Comprehend basic epidemiological concepts and principles

including; case definition, counts and rates, measures of
frequency, and association versus causation.

• Recognize major types of epidemiological studies and their

strengths, weaknesses and inherent biases.

• Explain the steps involved in and tools available for disease

monitoring and surveillance in a population.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 2

 Cont…

• Evaluate the performance of a diagnostic test in

determining the presence or absence of disease in a
population.

• Perform a disease outbreak investigation within a

population, identifying important associations and
risk factors and implementation of appropriate
intervention and prevention strategies.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 3

 1. Generalities: Definition, evolution and basic
concepts of epidemiology
Topics covered

• Definitions

• Why is epidemiology important? Use/objective?

• Historical development (evolution)

• How does the epidemiological approach differ from the clinical

approach?

• What are the component sub-disciplines of epidemiology?

• Types of epidemiological Investigations

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 4

 What is Epidemiology?
The term epidemiology is derived from three Greek words;

Epi = about or upon,

demos = population, and
logos = study of/knowledge
• According to Thrusfield (2005):
“Epidemiology is defined as the study of frequency and
distribution of disease in populations & of factors that determine
its occurrence”.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 5

Cont…
• The study of the distribution and determinants of health-
related states or events in specified populations and the
application of this study to the control of health problems
(CDC)

 This includes investigation & assessment of other health

related events, notably productivity.

 These investigations involve observing animal population

& making inference/presumption from the observations.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 6

 Cont...

Epidemiology focused on;

• The health and disease status of a population

• The study of how disease is distributed in populations

(denominator) and

• The factors that influence or determine this distribution

Hence, Epidemiology is a scientific discipline that involves the

study of the frequency and distribution of health and disease in
order to find risk factors in populations for prevention and
control.
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 7
 ….

• Veterinary epidemiology deals with the:

 Investigation of diseases

Productivity

Animal welfare in populations.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 8

 Why is epidemiology important?
• The need for economic justification of disease control
• Increased international trade requiring common standards of
health certification
 “Both require good quality information”
• So epidemiology is data-driven and relies on a systematic and
unbiased approach to the collection, analysis, and interpretation
of data.
• Epidemiologists often ask "what is the denominator?" -
meaning, what is the population from which the cases arose?

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 9

 Objectives of Epidemiology
• To identity the etiology of a disease & the relevant risk
factors.
• To determine the extent of disease found in the animal
population.
• Collection of information on the etiology & natural
history of disease (host ecosystem).
• Planning, monitoring & assessment of disease control
programs.
• Assessment of the economic effects of a disease, and
analysis of the costs & economic benefits of alternative
control programs.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 10

 Use of Epidemiology
• Describe the distribution of disease

• Describe the natural history of disease

• Identify factors that increase/decrease risk

• Predict trends

• Consider mechanisms of disease transmissions

• Test efficacy & evaluate interventions

• Identify health needs

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 11

 The roles of epidemiology in animal health

• Investigation of specific disease problems

• Identification and prioritization of constraints to

animal productivity

• Assessment of the effects of animal health

interventions

• Provision of data for rational risk management

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 12

 Role of epidemiology…
• What are the actual and potential health problems in the
animal populations?

• Where are they occurring?

• Which populations are at increased risk?

• Which problems have declined over time?

• Which ones are increasing or have the potential to increase?

• How do these patterns relate to the level and distribution of

animal health services available?

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 13

 Goal of Veterinary field Epidemiology

• Prevention and control of disease

• Try and understand what factors may be increasing

or reducing the risk of disease

• Promoting and protecting the health of animal and

human populations and environment

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11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 15
 Evolution of epidemiology

• The history of epidemiology has its origin in the idea,

goes back to (400BC) Hippocrates through John Graunt
(1662).

• John Graunt (1662) was the first to quantify patterns

of birth, death, and disease occurrence, noting male-
female disparities, high infant mortality, urban rural
differences, and seasonal variations.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 16

 Evolution of epidemiology…
• William Farr, John Snow and others proof that environmental
factors can influences the occurrences of diseases instead of
supernatural viewpoint of diseases.

• Mid-1800’s, William Farr began to systematically collect and

analyze Britain’s mortality statistics.

• He extended the epidemiologic analysis of morbidity and

mortality data, looking at the effects of martial status,
occupation, and altitude

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 17

 Evolution of epidemiology…
• However, until the 19th century the distribution of
disease in specific human/animal population groups
was not measured to any great extent.

• During the time of microscope development, Snow

conducted studies of cholera outbreak in 1854 both to
discover the causes of diseases and prevent its
recurrences.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 18

 Evolution of epidemiology…

• John Snow found out that the risk of cholera in

Landon was related, among other things, to the
drinking of water supplied by a particular company
(1848-54).

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 Evolution of epidemiology…
GIS and spatial epidemiology

Description of an event:
what, when, who and where Distribution of cholera cases in the Golden
11/14/2023 Square area of London, August-September
Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 20
1854
 Evolution of epidemiology…
• In the 1900s epidemiologists extend their methods to
noninfectious diseases. Some important
achievements in epidemiology include;
– John Snow and cholera epidemic in London in
1848-1854.
– Framingham heart study started in 1950 in
Massachusetts, USA and still continuing to
identify the factors leading to the development of
the coronary heart diseases.
– Smoking and lung cancer by Doll and Hill in 1964.
– Polio Salk vaccine field trial in 1954 to study the
protective efficacy of vaccine in a million school
children.
– Methyl Mercury poisoning 1950s In Minamata
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 21
 Evolution of epidemiology…
• Epidemiologists attempt to characterize those individuals
in a population with high levels of disease and those with
low levels.

• They then ask questions that help them discover what the
high rate group is doing than the low rate group is not and
vice versa.

• This allows factors influencing the risk of disease to be

identified.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 22

 ….
• Once factors identified, measures can be applied to

reduce exposure to these risk factors:

reduce the overall burden of disease in the

population.

• This allows disease to be controlled even if the precise

pathogenic mechanism (or the etiologic agent) is not

known.
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 23
 Field of epidemiology
• Epidemiology covers the various types of field in
different types of activities.

• It is applied in every field as agricultural, economics,

statistics etc. It includes:
 Clinical epidemiology

 Geographical epidemiology

 Social epidemiology

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 24

Cont…
– Statistical epidemiology

– Descriptive epidemiology

– Analytical epidemiology

– Experimental epidemiology

– Infectious diseases epidemiology

– Participatory epidemiology etc.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 25

 Comparison between Clinical vet medicine &
Epidemiology
S.N. Area Epidemiology Clinical Medicine
1 Unit of study Population ( Defined or at risk) Cases or case
2 Objectives To identify the source, Mode of To cure the patient.
transmission, etiological factors,
3 Examination Group of animals or population Individual case
4 Concern with Sick and healthy Sick
5 Diagnosis By survey, research Individual test done.
6 Where to go? Experts goes to population/herd Patient bring to clinics
7 Area concern Mainly concern to preventive and Mainly in curative field
promotive through intervention
8 Concept Bio-statistical Bio-medical
9 Presentation of By tables, charts and diagrams By laboratory and others
result reports
10 Time Long process Short time sometimes long
time
11 Outcome Planning, implementation and health Cured or disability or death
promotion
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 26
 Clinician vs epidemiologist

A clinician….
Individual IndividualClinical Laboratory
History Treatment
patient patient examination tests
Individual
patient
An Epidemiologist…
Population Collect data & Compare Generate & Prevention &
of animals disease freq test hypothe. control
information b/n subgroups

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 27

 Components of epidemiology

• Two broad components

• A. Qualitative Epidemiology
Investigate the Natural history of disease, ecology
of diseases, distribution, mode of transmission &
maintenance of infectious diseases by field
observation.
Investigate factors that may directly or indirectly
cause disease.
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 28
 ….
• B. Quantitative Epidemiology (Descriptive & analytical)
 Measuring amount of disease (descriptive)

• outbreak reports, monitoring and surveillance

Observational studies and surveys (analytical)
• cross-sectional, case-control, cohort.
 The biological & economic evaluation of disease control.
 Risk analysis
 Modelling (theoretical epidemiology)

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 29

 3. Types of Epidemiological Investigation

• There are four approaches to epidemiological investigation

that traditionally have been called 'types' of epidemiology.

 Descriptive epidemiology

 Analytical epidemiology

 Experimental epidemiology

 Theoretical epidemiology

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 30

 …
Experimental Epidemiology

• Experimental epidemiologists observe and analyse data

from groups of animals from which they can select, and
in which they can alter the factors associated with the
groups.

Theoretical Epidemiology

• Theoretical epidemiology consists of the representation of

disease using mathematical 'models' that attempt to
simulate natural patterns of disease occurrence.
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 31
 ….
Descriptive Epidemiology

• Concerned with describing the frequency and

distribution of diseases and other health related
conditions by time, place, and animal/population.
Population Place
• Species • Location of event(s)
• Breed • Geographic distribution: one
• Age location, many?
• Sex • Environment
• Use
11/14/2023
•Introduction
Climate to Veterinary Epidemiology 32
 Descriptive Epidemiology…

Time

• When did it occur?

• How quickly are new cases occurring?

• Is there a seasonality to the disease event?

• If fatalities, how long between first clinical signs and

death?

• Is it vector season?

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 33

Descriptive Epidemiology…
• Involves observing and recording diseases and
possible causal factors.

• It is usually the first part of an investigation

• Answer questions of who, where, when, what =

health issue of concern ?
It Includes;
 Surveys
 Case reports and case studies
 It is a first step to identify problems for further
11/14/2023
studies Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 34
 Analytical Epidemiology

•Comparison of groups
• Analysis of diseases in (exposed vs non exposed)
• Hypothesis testing
• Identification of causal and preventive factors
• Descriptive: ask who, where, when
Analytical: ask how?? why???

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 35

 The decision support role of
epidemiology in livestock policy making

• Step 1: the identification and prioritisation of constraints to

animal productivity and the investigation of specific
disease problems
• Step 2: the formulation of potential animal health
interventions
• Step 3: provision of information for rational disease
management

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 36

 Different priorities in animal health programmes

• Control of epidemic fatal diseases

(e.g. RP, FMD, CSF, ND,)
state

• Control of zoonoses (e.g. TB., brucellosis)

• Increase breeding efficiency and ensure that basic
feed supplies are available (energy and protein)
• Improve genetic potential of livestock
• Improve management techniques
• Control of diseases which lower productive
efficiency (e.g. mastitis, parasites)
private

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 Epidemiology and disease management

• It is no longer a valid approach to tackle a disease

simply because it exists.
• Especially where funds are scarce, it is necessary
to assess each disease in terms of its economic
effects.
• Resources can then be focused on the problem
where the net benefits will be greatest.
11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 38
 Disease and productivity
• Why worry about animal health?
Because of the link between disease and productivity
Disease Reduced Productivity
 Disease management:
• We may be interested in controlling disease only up to the
point:
 Where productivity is no longer affected or
Only so long as the wider economic benefits are
increased.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 39

 Prioritisation: Which diseases are important?
• Criteria

Which diseases are present?

• Prevalence and incidence of disease.

Economic importance?

• Production losses and other costs attributable to

disease.

Social importance?

• Analysis of stakeholders’ concerns.

• Different
11/14/2023
people willIntroduction
havetodifferent priorities.
Veterinary Epidemiology 40
The sub-disciplines classification of epidemiology
• They fall under the four classifications, based on the area of
interest.

• Clinical epidemiology: It is the application of

epidemiological principles, methods and findings in the case of
individual animals,

• Computational epidemiology: It is the application of

computer science to epidemiological studies.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 41

 …
• Genetic epidemiology: It is the study of the cause,
distribution and control of disease in related
individuals and of inherited defects in a population.

• Molecular epidemiology: The application of new

diagnostic techniques constitutes molecular
epidemiology.

11/14/2023 Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 42

 Identify interdisciplinary relationship
• Epidemiology is a synthetic science that means it is a
multidisciplinary in nature or it does not have an independent
entity but it can formulate theories and it can search facts.
Examples;
• It is related with statistics to analyze the data taken from a
group of animals
• It uses mathematics to analyze the nature model of the disease
• It uses economics to analyze the economic importance of the
disease
• It uses ecology to study the natural history of the disease. …..
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• Question???? Welcome
Epidemi
ology Health
Focus on
Production
Dl Welfare
s

Main
objective
Risk Factors
Control
and
prevention
of disease
in the
population
Distribution Frequency

Disease
11/14/2023 control
Introduction to Veterinary Epidemiology 44