Structural Properties

and Performance
WO O D D E S I G N & BU I L D I N G SE R I E S

Wood is a renewable building material whose structural properties vary by

species, natural growth characteristics and manufacturing practices.
Design values for most species and grades of visually graded structural
lumber products are determined in accordance with ASTM standards—including
Wood’s unique natural properties D 1990 – Establishing Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Dimension
Lumber from In-Grade Tests of Full-Size Specimens, D 245 – Establishing
offer a number of benefits,
Structural Grades and Related Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Lumber,
including design flexibility, ease and D 2555 – Establishing Clear Wood Strength Values—which consider the
effects of strength reducing characteristics, size, load duration, safety and other
of installation and durability.
influencing factors. The applicable standards are based on results of tests
As a result, design and building conducted in cooperation with the USDA Forest Products Laboratory.
Design Values for Wood Construction, a supplement to the ANSI/AF&PA
professionals are increasingly
National Design Specification® for Wood Construction (NDS®) provides these
using wood products, not only lumber design values, which are recognized by the model building codes.

for homes, but for a wide range

THERE ARE SIX PUBLISHED LUMBER DESIGN VALUES:
of commercial, institutional and
Bending (Fb ) – When loads are applied, structural members bend,
other non-residential applications. producing tension in the fibers along the face farthest from the applied load,
and compression in the fibers along the face nearest to the applied load.
These induced stresses are designated as “extreme fiber stress in bending”
(F b ). Single member F b design values are used in design where the strength
of an individual piece, such as a beam, may be solely responsible for carrying
a specific design load. Repetitive member F b design values are used in
design when three or more load sharing members, such as joists, rafters, or
studs, are spaced no more than 24 inches apart and are joined by fl ooring,
sheathing or other load-distributing elements. Repetitive member stresses
are also used where three or more pieces are adjacent, such as decking and
built-up beams.
Shear Parallel to Grain (Fv) – Shear parallel to grain, or horizontal shear
stresses, tend to slide wood fibers over each other horizontally. High applied
shear stresses most often limit design in short, heavily-loaded, deep beams.
Increasing a beam’s cross-section decreases its applied shear stresses.
Compression Perpendicular to Grain (Fc-perp) – Where a joist, beam
or similar wood member bears on supports, the load tends to compress
the fibers. The bearing area must be sufficient in size to prevent crushing
perpendicular to the grain (e.g., a sill plate with studs bearing down on it).
Compression Parallel to Grain (Fc) – In many parts of a structure,
members transfer loads from end to end compressing the fibers. Examples
include studs, posts, columns and struts. Applied stresses from this type of
loading are generally considered consistent across the entire cross-section of
the member, and the fibers are uniformly stressed parallel to the grain along
the full length of the member.

wo o d wo r k s .o r g
WO O D D E S I G N & BU I L D I N G SE R I E S

Tension Parallel to Grain (Ft) – Tensile stresses are similar

to compression parallel to grain in that they act across the full Effect of Moisture Content
cross-section and tend to stretch the member. on Wood Strength Properties.
Modulus of Elasticity (E and Emin) – Modulus of
150 22.0
elasticity (also known as Young’s Modulus) measures the ratio

Property (x103 lbf/in2)

of the amount a wood member will deflect in proportion to an A
120 16.5
applied load. E is a measurement of stiffness and not a strength

Property (MPa)
B
property. E represents average properties, and Emin is the fifth
90
percentile property. Emin is the modulus of elasticity for beam 11.0
C
and column stability calculations. 60
Published design values assume “normal” conditions of 5.5
use—which include a dry environment and the absence of 30
D
special and/or environmental loading conditions such as wind, E
seismic and snow and represent a cumulative load duration of 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
10 years. As with all design values, where other conditions exist, Moisture content (%)
the values must be adjusted.
A, tension parallel to grain; B, bending; C, compression parallel to grain;
D, compression perpendicular to grain; and E, tension perpendicular to grain.

Equilibrium Moisture Content of Solid Wood Source: USDA Forest Products Laboratory
and Structural Panels at 70°F (21°C)
Equilibrium Moisture Content (%)
Relative LOAD DURATION UNDER
Solid Wood Plywood OSB VARIOUS LOADING CONDITIONS
Humidity
Design engineers customarily set working stresses for structural
10 2.5 1.2 0.8
materials at levels below the yield point, or elastic limit, to ensure
20 4.5 2.8 1.0 safe and satisfactory performance under service loading. They
recognize that materials loaded beyond the elastic limit may lose
30 6.2 4.6 2.0
elasticity and take on characteristics of brittleness or plasticity.
40 7.7 5.8 3.6 Materials differ widely in this respect and, in some, such as
wood products, the strength properties are greatly affected by
50 9.2 7.0 5.2
the duration of loading.
60 11.0 8.4 6.3 Wood has a property that is valuable to the structural
designer in that both its elastic limit and its ultimate strength are
70 13.1 11.1 8.9
higher under short periods than under long-time loading. This
80 16.0 15.3 13.1 permits higher working stresses when considering live loads of
comparatively short duration, such as construction, heavy wind
90 20.5 19.4 17.2
or seismic loads. The “normal” duration of load for wood
Source: APA – The Engineered Wood Association, Form TT-028A, December 2006 members is considered to be equal to the cumulative permissible
design load for 10 years.
The long record of satisfactory performance with wood
Load Duration structures designed using load duration adjustment factors,
Load duration measures wood’s ability to resist stresses when and the results of load duration tests on full-size members,
those loads apply over time. The duration of load, or the time substantiate the general applicability of the standard strength-
during which a load acts continuously or intermittently on a load duration relationship.
wood member, is an important factor in determining the total
load that the member can safely carry. CREEP
Wood can carry substantially greater loads for short Creep is the time-dependent deformation of loaded members
durations than for long periods. In other words, wood is able to undergoing elastic deformation. The NDS addresses creep in
resist higher stresses when the load applies for a shorter time— Section 3.5.2, Long-Term Loading. Under long-term loading, the
a feature that enhances its performance in seismic and high expected (average) deflection will be 1.5 times the immediate
wind zones. This also becomes a factor when building designers deflection due to the long-term component of the design load
must calculate stresses such as snow or construction loads. for seasoned (dried) lumber and 2.0 times the immediate
deflection for unseasoned (green) lumber. Long-term loading
will cause a permanent set of about 0.5 times the creep
 ST R U C T U R A L P R O P E R T I E S A N D PE R F O R M A N C E

Rated (MSR) lumber nondestructively using mechanical

Load Duration Factors (Used in ASD) stress-rating equipment to measure the lumber’s stiffness
and other physical working properties before they do a
2.0
1.9 visual inspection. The grade stamp will include the phrase
1.8
1.7
1.6
“Machine Rated” along with the E and Fb ratings.
Load Duration Factor (CD)
(BASED ON 10 YEAR “NORMAL” DURATION)

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
ASD versus LRFD
0.8
0.7 When designing with wood, commercial building designers may
0.6
0.5 use either an Allowable Stress Design (ASD) format or a Load
0.4
0.3 and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) approach.
0.2
0.1
0.0
LRFD and ASD are two separate methods for selecting
1 SECOND

10 MINUTES

1 DAY
7 DAYS

2 MONTHS
1 YEAR

10 YEARS

PERMANENT
structural members and components, and differ in terms of
Duration of Maximum Load
both their applicable load combinations and resistance values.
While ASD is the most common method in use today, the
Source: National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDS) American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA) developed the
2005 NDS as a dual format specification, incorporating design
provisions for both ASD and LRFD for structural design of wood
deflection. Creep deflection varies anywhere from zero to members and their connections. Adopted by the International
twice the initial deflection. This means that the total long term Code Council in the International Building Code (IBC), the
deflection can vary from the initial deflection by as much as National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) in the NFPA 5000:
two times. Building Construction and Safety Code, and all model building
codes in the U.S., building professionals use the NDS to design
wood structures.
Other Considerations Also published by AF&PA, the ASD/LRFD Manual
Many factors influence how a system responds to loading. It is for Engineered Wood Construction brings together all
important to realize that the way building professionals select required elements for the design of wood structures in one
and use materials will influence performance as well as cost. comprehensive package. It includes design information and
examples for wind and seismic, structural lumber, glued
• Section properties – These properties relate to the
laminated timber, structural-use panels, shear walls and
geometry of section. For example, a 2x4 flat-wise is not
diaphragms, poles and piles, I-joists, structural composite
nearly as stiff or strong as a 2x4 on edge, even though
lumber, structural connections (nails, bolts, screws), metal plate
it has the same material properties. The difference is the
connected wood trusses, and pre-engineered metal connectors.
geometry or orientation of the member. This is the same
It also includes over 40 details on connections as well as a
reason a 2x6 is stiffer and stronger than a 2x4, given the
chapter on fire design, which includes fire rated wall and floor
same orientation.
assemblies for solid sawn lumber, I-joists and trusses.
• E (modulus of elasticity) of individual elements –
E relates to the stiffness of a material, which is a measure
of deformation caused by a given load. A material with a
higher E value is stiffer. For example, No. 2 grade Eastern
white pine has an E value of 1,100,000 psi and No. 2
Hem-Fir has an E value of 1,300,000 psi. Hem-Fir is a stiffer
material.
• Fb (bending design value) – As indicated above under
Properties and Performance, loads cause beams, joists and
rafters to bend. An Fb value indicates design strength for
the outmost (or extreme) wood fibers. The higher the Fb ,
the stronger the wood member in bending.
• Lumber grade – Lumber grades are assigned based
on visual inspection and/or mechanical testing. Physical
strength and stiffness characteristics are the primary
considerations for structural lumber and appearance is
secondary. Some manufacturers sort Machine Stress-
WO O D D E S I G N & BU I L D I N G SE R I E S

Standards and Codes PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Although building codes themselves define criteria for structural In contrast, a performance standard allows a product to meet
analysis, they also rely on consensus standards written by industry certain end-use criteria without prescribing the manufacturing
groups that have a material interest in how their products are technology required to achieve this performance. An example
used. These standards may in turn cite other consensus is the Voluntary Product Standard PS 2-04, Performance
standards or material specifications to ensure a minimum level Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels. Most OSB and
of performance for the desired material property. Codes typically composite panels, as well as many grades of plywood panels,
only recognize consensus standards. Non-consensus standards, are performance-rated.
and specifications and standards written by manufacturers for A number of organizations work to provide comprehensive
their own proprietary products, are recognized and given performance standards for the wood-frame construction industry.
credibility through organizations like the International Code In the U.S., for example, the Truss Plate Institute (TPI) maintains
Council – Evaluation Service, Factory Mutual, Underwriters a truss design standard while structural glued laminated timber
Laboratories Inc. and others. Together, these codes, standards products are manufactured in conformance with ANSI/AITC
and specifications provide the basis for design confidence. Standard A190.1-92, American National Standard for Structural
Glued Laminated Timber.
MANUFACTURING STANDARDS
Manufacturing standards detail the specific steps that a company Like all building materials, wood has unique design properties.
must take to manufacture a particular product while meeting By understanding the nature of these properties and the manner
certain standards. Examples include the Voluntary Product in which their performance is measured, designers are able to
Standard PS 1-07, Structural Plywood and the American optimize the numerous advantages wood brings to non-residential
Softwood Lumber Standard PS 20. construction.

Neither the Wood Products Council

nor its contractors make any
warranty, expressed or implied,
SOURCES AND OTHER MATERIALS or assume any legal liability
American Forest & Paper Association / American Wood Council, www.awc.org or responsibility for the use,
• ANSI/AF&PA NDS-2005 National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDS) application of and/or reference to
the information included in this
• ASD/LRFD Manual for Engineered Wood Construction
publication. Consult your local
• Details for Conventional Wood Frame Construction jurisdiction or design professional
• Lumber Substitution Based on Modulus of Elasticity to assure compliance with code,
• Structural Wood Design Using ASD and LRFD construction, and performance
• The International Building Code and Its Impact on Wood-Frame Design and Construction requirements.

APA – The Engineered Wood Association, www.apawood.org

• Moisture-Related Dimensional Stability
• Voluntary Product Standard PS 1-07, Structural Plywood
• Voluntary Product Standard PS 2, Performance Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels

Other
• ANSI/AITC A190.1, Structural Glued Laminated Timber, American National Standards Institute / American Institute of Timber Construction
• Relation of Strength of Wood to Duration of Load, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory
• Understanding Loads and Using Span Tables, Paul Fisette, Department of Building Materials and Wood Technology,
University of Massachusetts Amherst
• Voluntary Product Standard PS-20, Lumber, American Lumber Standard Committee, Inc.
• Wood Handbook; Wood as an Engineering Material, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory
• Washington State University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, http://timber.ce.wsu.edu

Materials are also available via the WoodWorks Web site, in the section on Key Issues/Structural Design, www.woodworks.org

WoodWorks is an initiative of the Wood Products Council, which includes all of the major North American wood associations.
WoodWorks Information Sheet WW-001 - Structural Properties & Performance • © 2008 WoodWorks Photo credits: Southern Forest Products Association (p. 1),
Duke Integrative Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Duda/Paine Architects (p. 3)