2.

4 Implications 45

SECTION 2.3 EXERCISES

2.15. Complete the truth table in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 The truth table for Exercise 2.15.

2.16. For the sets A = {1, 2, · · · , 10} and B = {2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 25}, consider the statements
P: A ⊆ B. Q: |A − B| = 6.
Determine which of the following statements are true.
(a) P ∨ Q (b) P ∨ (∼ Q) (c) P ∧ Q
(d) (∼ P) ∧ Q (e) (∼ P) ∨ (∼ Q).
2.17. Let P: 15 is odd. and Q : 21 is prime. State each of the following in words and determine whether it is true
or false.
(a) P ∨ Q (b) P ∧ Q (c) (∼ P) ∨ Q (d) P ∧ (∼ Q).
2.18. Let S = {1, 2, . . . , 6} and let
P(A): A ∩ {2, 4, 6} = ∅. and Q(A): A = ∅.
be open sentences over the domain P (S).
(a) Determine all A ∈ P (S) for which P(A) ∧ Q(A) is true.
(b) Determine all A ∈ P (S) for which P(A) ∨ (∼ Q(A)) is true.
(c) Determine all A ∈ P (S) for which (∼ P(A)) ∧ (∼ Q(A)) is true.

2.4 IMPLICATIONS

A statement formed from two given statements in which we will be most interested is
the implication (also called the conditional). For statements P and Q, the implication
(or conditional) is the statement
If P, then Q.
and is denoted by P ⇒ Q. In addition to the wording “If P, then Q.”, we also express
P ⇒ Q in words as
P implies Q.
The truth table for P ⇒ Q is given in Figure 2.7.
Notice that P ⇒ Q is false only when P is true and Q is false (P ⇒ Q is true
otherwise).
46 Chapter 2 Logic

P Q P⇒Q
...
...
T ...
...
...
T T
...
...
...
T ...
...
F F
...
...
F ...
...
...
T T
...
...
F ...
...
..
F T

Figure 2.7 The truth table for implication

Example 2.5 For P1 : The integer 3 is odd. and P2 : The integer 57 is prime., the implication

P1 ⇒ P2 : If 3 is an odd integer, then 57 is prime.

is a false statement. The implication

P2 ⇒ P1 : If 57 is prime, then 3 is odd.

is true, however. 

While the truth tables for the negation ∼ P, the disjunction P ∨ Q and the conjunc-
tion P ∧ Q are probably what one would expect, this may not be so for the implication
P ⇒ Q. There is ample justification, however, for the truth values in the truth table of
P ⇒ Q. We illustrate this with an example.

Example 2.6 A student is taking a math class (let’s say this one) and is currently receiving a B+. He
visits his instructor a few days before the final examination and asks her, “Is there any
chance that I can get an A in this course?” His instructor looks through her grade book
and says, “If you earn an A on the final exam, then you will receive an A for your final
grade.” We now check the truth or falseness of this implication based on the various
combinations of truth values of the statements

P: You earn an A on the final exam.

and

Q : You receive an A for your final grade.

which make up the implication.

Analysis Suppose first that P and Q are both true. That is, the student receives an A on his final
exam and later learns that he got an A for his final grade in the course. Did his instructor
tell the truth? I think we would all agree that she did. So if P and Q are both true, then
so too is P ⇒ Q, which agrees with the first row of the truth table of Figure 2.7.
Second, suppose that P is true and Q is false. So the student got an A on his final exam
but did not receive an A as a final grade (say he received a B). Certainly, his instructor
did not do as she promised (as she will soon be reminded by her student). What she said
was false, which agrees with the second row of the table in Figure 2.7.
 Section 2.4 Exercises 47

Third, suppose that P is false and Q is true. In this case, the student did not get an A
on his final exam (say he earned a B), but when he received his final grades, he learned
(and was pleasantly surprised) that his final grade was an A. How could this happen?
Perhaps his instructor was lenient. Perhaps the final exam was unusually difficult and
a grade of B on it indicated an exceptionally good performance. Perhaps the instructor
made a mistake. In any case, the instructor did not lie; so she told the truth. Indeed, she
never promised anything if the student did not get an A on his final exam. This agrees
with the third row of the table in Figure 2.7.
Finally, suppose that P and Q are both false. That is, suppose the student did not
get an A on his final exam and he also did not get an A for a final grade. The instructor
did not lie here either. She only promised the student an A if he got an A on the final
exam. Once again, she did not promise anything if the student did not get an A on the
final exam. So the instructor told the truth and this agrees with the fourth and final row
of the table. 

In summary then, the only situation for which P ⇒ Q is false is when P is true and
Q is false (so ∼ Q is true). That is, the truth tables for
∼ (P ⇒ Q) and P ∧ (∼ Q)
are the same. We’ll revisit this observation again soon.
We have already mentioned that the implication P ⇒ Q can be expressed as both
“If P, then Q” and “P implies Q.” In fact, there are several ways of expressing P ⇒ Q
in words, namely:
If P, then Q.
Q if P.
P implies Q.
P only if Q.
P is sufficient for Q.
Q is necessary for P.
It is probably not surprising that the first three of these say the same thing but perhaps
not at all obvious that the last three say the same thing as the first three. Consider the
statement “P only if Q.” This says that P is true only under the condition that Q is true;
in other words, it cannot be the case that P is true and Q is false. Thus, it says that if P is
true, then necessarily Q must be true. We can also see from this that the statement “Q is
necessary for P” has the same meaning as “P only if Q.” The statement “P is sufficient
for Q” states that the truth of P is sufficient for the truth of Q. In other words, the truth
of P implies the truth of Q; that is, “P implies Q.”

SECTION 2.4 EXERCISES

2.19. Consider the statements P: 17 is even. and Q: 19 is prime. Write each of the following statements in words
and indicate whether it is true or false.
(a) ∼ P (b) P ∨ Q (c) P ∧ Q (d) P ⇒ Q.
2.20. For statements P and Q, construct a truth table for (P ⇒ Q) ⇒ (∼ P).